MICROWAVE  RADIO  

DESIGN  GUIDE
ECE  ELEC  4  –  WIRELESS  
COMMUNICATIONS  ENGINEERING

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Overview
•  In  the  design  of  a  microwave  communication  system,  infrastructure  
investment  is  significant,  therefore,  the  margin  for  error  is  small.
•  Planning  is  an  iterative  process  that  varies  with  the  type  of  installation.
•  Planning  issues  in  urban  areas  are  completely  different  compared  to  the  
planning  in  rural  sites.
•  Transmission  engineering  requires  collection  of  data  and  involves  a  
precise  study  of  the  terrain  along  the  proposed  microwave  path.
•  Interpretation  of  these  information  provides  the  basis  for  the  final  
microwave  design.
•  The  purpose  of  engineering  a  microwave  path  is  to
•   meet  the  system  requirements
•  determine  the  amount  of  fading  that  the  signal  will  be  subject  to
•  come  up  with  an  interference  study
•  calculate  the  total  amount  of  losses  and  distortions

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

General  Format  and  Content
•  Hard  Bound,  Black  Cover   •  Front  Page
with  Silver  Print •  Table  of  Contents
•  Margins:  1.25”  on  the  left   •  Abstract
and  1”  on  other  sides •  Chapter  1
•  Font:  Segoe  UI •  Chapter  2
•  Chapter  3
•  Chapter  4
•  References
•  Appendices

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Front  Page
•  Front  page:  
•  font  size:  12,  centered
•  single  space
•  spacing  before  and  after:  0
•  don’t  add  space  between  
paragraphs  of  the  same  style

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Table  of  Contents
•  Front  page:  
•  font  size:  12
•  single  space
•  spacing  before  and  after:  0
•  don’t  add  space  between  
paragraphs  of  the  same  style
•  indentation:  0.5”

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Format  For  Figures  and  Tables
Figure  1.1  –  First  Figure  of  Chapter  1
first  figure
chapter  1

wriVen  below  the  figure

Table  3.12  –  Table  12  in  Chapter  3

wriVen  above  the  table.

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Abstract
•  Gives  a  general  overview  of  the  entire  design
•  must  be  able  to  state  the  following:  problem,  objectives  and  
methodology
•  must  not  exceed  1  page

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Chapter  1:  Design  Considerations
•  1.1    Introduction
•  1.2    Preliminary  Planning
•  1.3    System  Requirements
•  1.4    Objectives

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

1.1    Introduction
•  Write  a,  introductory  statement  about  the  microwave  design.

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

1.2    Preliminary  Planning
•  The  preliminary  planning  should  be  specified  in  terms  of:
•  Type  of  services  required
•  Bandwidth  requirements
•  End-­‐‑to-­‐‑end  circuit  connections
•  Required  quality  objective
•  The  type  of  services  include
•  Voice  circuits
•  Data  services
•  Trunk  connections  between  switching  offices  (E1  or  T1  lines)
•  Video  circuits  (34  Mbps  E3  lines)
•  ATM
•  Ethernet  services

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Preliminary  Planning
•  Determine  the  points  that  will  be  linked.
•  A  single  hop  is  generally  25  to  30  miles  long  for  a  relatively  flat  
terrain.  
•  For  longer  distances,  multiple  hops  can  be  done.
•  If  the  terrain  is  unfavorable,  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  more  than  
one  link.
•  identify  the  most  convenient  route  for  the  link,  which  can  be  done  
through  a  topographical  map  study.
•  Regardless  of  the  system  capacity,  it  is  necessary  for  each  path  to  
have  adequate  clearances  under  all  conditions
•  To  determine  clearances,  the  actual  topography  of  the  path  as  well  
as  the  height  of  any  obstacles  should  be  known
•  If  there  is  no  LOS,  the  path  will  probably  not  work.
•  A  radio  hop  should  not  be  more  than  50  km  long.
ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy
1.3    System  Requirements
•  type  of  service:  telephone  trunk  exchange
•  number  of  hops:  2
•  min  and  max  distance  per  hop:  30km,  50  km
•  mode:  duplex
•  traffic:  STM1
•  configuration:  non-­‐‑protected  (1  +  0)
•  reliability:  99.999  %
•  the  design  work  for  k  =  2/3  and  k  =  4/3

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

1.4    Objectives
•  General  Objective
•  state  your  general  objective  based  on  the  given  system  requirements  

•  Specific  Objectives
•  provide  in  detail  the  specific  goals  needed  to  achieve  the  general  
objective

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Chapter  2:  Design  Methodology
•  2.1    Site  Selection
•  provide  a  diagram  that  
•  2.2    Equipment  Selection
outlines  the  procedures  in  
•  2.3    Frequency  Planning
designing  a  microwave  
•  2.4    Path  Profile
based  on  the  system  
•  Map  Works  –  obtain  elevation  
requirements every  100  m
•  provide  detailed  discussion   •  Earth  bulge  –  calculate  the  EB  
every  100  meters
for  about  the  specific  
•  Terrain  allowance  -­‐‑  allowance
objectives  listed  in  chapter  1
•  2.5    Fresnel  zones
•  present  the  formulas  for   •  2.6    Antenna  and  Tower  Height
procedures  that  require   •  2.7  Reflection  points
calculation •  2.8    Link  budget

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

2.1    Site  Selection
•  discuss  the  considerations  in  selecting  the  sites
•  contains  the  information  about  the  site
•  provide  details  about  the  tower  (coordinates,  tower  height,  
etc)
•  provide  an  image  showing  the  two  links  that  interconnect  
the  three  sites
•  indicate  the  path  length  for  each  hop
•  discuss  the  terrain  between  sites  and  the  climate  in  the  
region
•  provide  image  of  each  site  in  a  map
•  provide  image  of  the  actual  site  and  towers

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Route  Map
•  A  route  map  shows  the  recommended  route  
and  possible  repeater  sites.
•  include  also  the  path  length  and  network  
capacity
•  higher  capacities  require  more  complex  
modulation  schemes,  which  limit  the  hop  
length

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Sample  Image:

•  Site A - Cavite City Public

•  Site B - Skyranch Nasugbu
Tagaytay
•  Repeater - Palangue Central
Elementary School

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Sample  Image

Site  A  (Urdaneta  City)  to  

Site  B  (Tarlac  City)  
via  Moncada,  Tarlac  

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

2.2  Equipment  Selection
•  transceiver •  connectors
•  nominal  output  power
•  radomes
•  sensitivity
•  noise  figure •  circulators
•  signal  to  noise  ratio •  multiplexer
•  operating  frequency
•  type  of  modulation
•  antennas
•  diameter
•  gain
•  operating  frequency
•  waveguides
•  aVenuation

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

2.3    Frequency  Planning
•  The  most  important  goal  of  frequency  planning  is  to  allocate  
available  channels  to  the  different  links  in  the  network  without  
exceeding  the  quality  and  availability  objectives  of  the  individual  
links  because  of  radio  interference.
•  Choosing  the  appropriate  RF  band  for  the  design  ensures  that  the  
link  still  meets  the  required  network  even  if  any  interference  is  
present
•  Frequency  bands  are  categorized  according  to  the  service  
provided  and  system  bandwidth  requirements
•  Selection  of  RF  bands  depends  on  the  path  length
•  present  the  recommendation  used  as  the  basis  for  frequency  
planning
•  present  formulas  used  to  calculate  the  go  and  return  frequencies

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Frequency  Planning,  con’t.
•  The  group  of  frequencies  typically  used  for  medium  to  high  
capacity  long  haul  band  links  are:
•  4  GHz
•  6  GHz
•  7/8  GHz
•  11  GHz
•  These  links  require  full  LOS  and  are  affected  mainly  by  
multipath  fading  
•  the  ideal  hop  length  is  approximately  30  miles  (50  km)
•  Short  hops  should  not  be  put  in  these  bands

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy
Frequency  Planning
!! + !! fc = center frequency of the band (GHz)
!! = ! !!!!!!!!" = !! − !! ! fa = first frequency of the band (GHz)
2
fb = last frequency of the band (GHz)
!" 1 BW is the bandwidth (GHz)
!! = !! + !ℎ!""#$% !× ! − ! ! n is the nth channel in sequence
! 2
fn is the operating frequency for the links AR
!" 1 and RB (GHz)
!′! = !! + !!! ! − ! ! f’n is the operating frequency for the links
!ℎ!""#$% 2 BR and RA (GHz)

Frequency  Link  Band Maximum  Distance  Allowed

7  GHz   >30  km

13/15/18  GHz 15  km  –  30  km
23/26  GHz 5  km  –  15  km
ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017)
38  GHz Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy
Up  to  5  km
2.4    Path  Profile  
•  A  path  profile  is  a  graphical  representation  of  the  path  
travelled  by  the  microwave  signal  between  the  two  ends  of  a  
link.  
•  Path  profile  is  essentially  a  plot  of  the  elevation  of  the  earth  
as  function  of  the  distance  along  the  path  between  the  
transmiVer  and  receiver
•  The  path  profile  determines  the  location  and  antenna  height  
at  each  end  of  the  link  and  it  ensures  that  the  link  is  free  
obstructions  such  as  hills  and  tall  buildings.  
•  The  LOS  should  have  adequate  clearance  from  nearby  
obstructions  in  terms  of  Fresnel  zones
•  Use  the  suggested  clearance  rules.  

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

How  To  Make  A  Path  Profile    
•  Maps  are  required,  usually,  1:50,000  with  20  M  Contour  
Interval
•  Sites  are  PloVed  on  Map  
•  The  contour  line  elevations  are  recorded  along  a  straight  line  
drawn  between  two  points  on  the  map.
•  Intersection  with  Water  Bodies  is  also  noted
•  In  urban  areas,  it  is  usually  essential  to  carry  out  a  radio  
survey  to  physically  check  the  LOS.
•  Note  that  the  link  should  work  for  both  values  of  k.  

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

How  to  Make  a  Path  Profile

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Earth  Bulge
•  The  Earth  bulge  and  the  curvature  of  the  radio  beam  must  be  
taken  into  account.
•  Discuss  the  earth  bulge  and  its  significance  in  the  design  of  a  
microwave  link
•  State  the  reason  of  using  k  =  4/3  and  k  =  2/3  in  the  design
•  Present  the  formula  for  computing  earth  bulge
•  Superimpose  the  earth  bulge  with  the  terrain  elevation
•  provide  allowance  for  each  kind  of  terrain  and  cite  the  
source  of  the  recommended  allowance.
•  total  elevation  =  earth  bulge  +  elevation  +  allowance

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

2.5    Fresnel  Zones
•  Fresnel  zone  is  defined  as  the  zone  shaped  as  ellipsoid  with  
its  focal  point  at  the  antennas  on  both  ends  of  the  path
•  If  there  is  no  obstacle  within  first  Fresnel  zone,  the  obstacle  
aVenuation  can  be  ignored  and  the  path  is  cleared
•  required  to  ensure  zero  diffraction  loss
•  discussion  the  concept  of  Fresnel  zone
•  show  the  formulas  required
•  provide  images

Clearance  rules
•  Fresnel  zone  should  be  100%  F1  for  k  =  4/3  and  60%  F1  for  k  =  2/3

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

2.6    Antenna  Height
•  The  antenna  height  can  be  calculated  graphically  based  on  
the  path  profile  considering  the  Fresnel  zone
•  Using  ratio  and  proportion,  the  antenna  height  can  be  
estimated  such  that  the  line  of  sight  and  the  Fresnel  zone  is  
cleared.
•  Make  sue  that  the  antenna  height  does  not  exceed  the  height  
of  the  tower.
•  Choose  the  highest  value  for  the  antenna  height  of  repeater  
to  meet  the  clearance  rules  for  both  AR/RA  and  RB/BR  links.

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

2.7    Reflection  Point
•  discuss  the  concepts
•  present  formulas  and  explain  how  to  do  calculations
•  explain  how  to  obtain  the  reflection  point  that  would  cause  
interference
•  The  point  of  reflection  can  be  determined  by  the  formula:
!! !! !! !!
!! = ! −! = − !
!! 2 !! 2

H1  =  elevation  of  lower  antenna  from  the  reflection  surface  (ft)

D1  =  distance  from  lower  antenna  (mi)
H2  is  the  elevation  of  higher  antenna  from  the  reflection  surface  (ft)
D2  is  the  distance  from  higher  antenna  (mi)  

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

2.8    Link  Budget
•  discuss  the  step  by  step  
procedure  on  how  to  calculate  
the  link  budget
•  specify  the  parameters  needed
•  present  the  formula  required  for  
each  parameter
•  tabulate  the  parameters  as  a  
summary
•  reverse  calculation  is  done  to  
verify  whether  the  required  
objective  was  satisfied
•  discuss  the  procedures  on  how  to  
perform  the  reverse  calculation  
and  the  required  formulas

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Steps  in  Performing  the  Link  Budget
Initial  Calculations

RSL  from  
required   required  
system   Rth  &  
antenna   antenna  
losses required  
gain diameter
FM

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Steps  in  Performing  the  Link  Budget
Reverse  Calculations

actual  
antenna  
actual   actual  
fade  
actual  
gain RSL margin
reliability

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Reliability  and  the  Required  Fade  Margin
Fade  Margin  (dB) Reliability  (%)

18 99
28 99.9
38 99.99
48 99.999
58 99.9999
The  actual  reliability  of  the  link  can  be  obtained  using  the  formula
!"
! ! ! = 1 − !!"# ×100!
!!"# = !" 2.5 10!! !!! 10 !" !

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Chapter  3:  Design  Calculations
•  Presents  the  calculations  required  to  come  up  with  the  
design.
•  Procedures  and  formulas  were  presented  in  Chapter  2,  but  
the  calculations  are  presented  in  Chapter  3

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

3.1    Frequency  Planning
•  Show  the  calculation  of  the  frequencies  to  be  used  for  each  
link
•  tabulate  the  result  as  a  summary

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

3.2    Path  Profile  Data    
•  The  path  profile  should  contain  the  following:
•  earth  bulge  –  show  sample  calculation
•  elevation  of  the  terrain  –  the  values  obtained  in  the  map  are  added  to  
the  computed  EB
•  type  of  terrain
•  allowance  from  the  recommendation  presented  in  Chapter  2
•  total  elevation  =  EB  +  elevation  +  allowance  (show  sample  computation)
•  Tabulate  the  data  for  each  link  
•  The  Fresnel  zone  should  be  drawn  surrounding  the  direct  
path  such  that  the  two  antennas  are  at  the  foci  of  the  ellipse

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Fresnel  Zone

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Path  Profile  Table

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

3.3    Antenna  and  Tower  Height
•  Show  the  calculations  done  to  determine  the  antenna  height
•  Summarize  the  data  in  a  table  and  highlight  the  chosen  final  values  to  be  
used  in  succeeding  calculations
If  estimation  is  used:

The  increment  of  the  tower  height  in  the  path  profile  should  be  small  enough  
(10  m)  so  that  the  estimated  height  will  be  accurate.
ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy
Tables  for  the  Antenna  Height

The  chosen  antenna  height

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

3.4    Path  Profiles

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Site  A  -­‐‑  Repeater  Link  at  k  =  4/3  

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Site  A  -­‐‑  Repeater  Link  at  k  =  2/3  

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Site  B  -­‐‑  Repeater  Link  at  k  =  4/3  

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Site  B  -­‐‑  Repeater  Link  at  k  =  2/3  

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

3.5    Reflection  Path
•  Show  sample  calculation  of  
the  reflection  path  and  
summarize  the  result  in  a  
table.
•  Highlight  the  one  which  
might  cause  destructive  
interference
•  Just  like  in  path  profiling,  
Four  table  summary  should  
be  shown  in  the  reflection  
path:
•  Antenna  A  to  Repeater  1
•   Repeater  1  to  Antenna  A
•  Repeater  2  to  Antenna  B
•   Antenna  B  to  Repeater  2

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Reflection  Point  on  A-­‐‑R/R-­‐‑A  Link  

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Reflection  Point  on  B-­‐‑R/R-­‐‑B  Link  

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

3.6    Link  Budget
•  This  section  presents  all  the  calculations  included  in  the  link  
budget.
•  The  procedures  are  outlined  in  Chapter  2,  only  the  
calculations  shall  be  presented  in  this  section

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Link  Budget  Parameters

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

System  Losses
•  Total  transmission  losses  can  be  determined  from  the  values  
of  the  free  space  loss  (FSL),  waveguide  loss  (WGL),  
connector  loss  (CoL),  Radome  Loss  (RL)  and  Circulator  Loss  
(CiL)

SYSTEM  LOSSES

waveguide circulator radome connector free-­‐‑space absorption

loss loss loss loss loss loss

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

FSL  and  WGL
Free-­‐‑Space  Loss

Waveguide  Loss

total  waveguide  length  =  antenna  height  +  10  m

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy
Total  System  Loss  per  Link

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

RSL  From  Rth  and  Required  FM
•  From  the  required  reliability  objective,  the  corresponding  
fade  margin  is  determined.
•  Knowing  the  sensitivity  of  the  receiver,  the  receive  signal  
level  can  be  calculated.

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Required  Antenna  Gain  and  Diameter
•  show  the  calculation  of  the  required  antenna  gain  for  the  
four  antennas
•  calculate  the  required  diameter  from  the  gain
•  summarize  the  result

NOTE:  
All  of  the  calculated  gains  for  each  link  should  be  within  the  range  of  gain  of  the  chosen  antenna
In choosing the antenna to be used, the diameter should be larger compared to the value obtained
ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy
Reverse  Calculations
•  Since  the  diameter  of  the  antenna  is  already  known,  the  
actual  gain  can  now  be  computed.
•  The  actual  RSL  is  also  calculated
•  The  value  of  the  actual  fade  margin  is  determined
•  Finally,  the  reliability  is  calculated  

Actual  antenna  gain

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Reverse  Calculations
actual  RSL

actual  fade  margin

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Reverse  Calculations
•  Finally,  the  actual  reliability  is  computed  using  a  formula.

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Chapter  4
•  This  chapter  contains  the  summary,  conclusions  and  
recommendations
•  In  the  summary,  present  a  diagram  showing  the  3  sites,  with  
their  corresponding  coordinates,  elevation  above  the  ground,  
antenna  height,  path  lengths  and  operating  frequencies
•  Furthermore,  summarize  the  link  details  for  each  of  the  four  
links  using  the  format  shown  in  the  next  succeeding  page.

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy

Summary

include  the  actual  tower  

location,  antenna  azimuth  
and  altitude  above  see  level  
for  each  point.

UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017)

Summary

ECE  ELEC4 UST-­‐‑ECE  Department  (2017) Engr.  Jefril  M.  Amboy