Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Technical Report Writing and Research Methods for

Engineers (CENG 5241) – Handout

Addis Ababa
October 2016
 Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Research Technical Report Writing and Methods for Engineers (CEng
5241)
Course Outline
Lecture: 2 hrs Home Study: 3 hrs Academic year: 2016/17
Course Description
The course deals with topics, such as understanding the term research, research
purpose, research design and methods, literature review, data collection
instruments, sampling techniques, techniques of data analysis and interpretation,
project proposal development. Due emphasis will also be given to writing
engineering technical report. The issues emphasized here include understanding
the historical development of technical report, identifying the purposes,
functions, features, categories, components/elements, and principles of
composing technical report.
Course objective
The main objectives of this course are to develop the research and writing skills
of engineering students in:
 investigating research problems with a view to arrive at objective findings,
interpretation of data and conclusions; and
 writing extensive research and technical reports.
Course Contents
Unit 1: Basics of research
1.1 Conceptualizing research
1.2 Types of Research
1.3 Research in engineering
1.4 Research problems
1.5 Literature review in research
1.6 Sampling technique
1.7 Techniques of data collection
1.8 Data analysis and interpretation
1.9 Research/Project proposal
Unit 2: Technical Report Writing
2.1 Concepts of technical report writing
2.2 Purposes and functions of technical report
2.3 Categories of technical report
2.4 Components of technical report
2.5 Language of technical report writing
2.6 Format and style of technical report (layout, referencing, etc.)
Evaluation
 Team proposal development: 15%
 Proposal presentation: 15%
 Writing up a research project: 25%
 Class activity:5%
 Final exam: 40%
Basic References
Alley, M. (1999). The Craft of Editing: A Guide for Managers, Scientists and
Engineers. (1st Edition), Springer.
Bowden, J. (2008). Writing a Report: How to Prepare, Write and Present Really
Effective Reports. UK: How To Books Ltd
Dawson, C. (2007). A Practical Guide to Research Methods (3rd edition). UK:
How To Books Ltd
Marczyk, G., DeMatteo, D. & Festinger, D. (2005) Essentials of Research Design
and Methodology. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Peat, J. (2002). Scientific Writing: Easy when you know how. London: BMJ
Books.
Riordan, D.G. (2005). Technical Report Writing Today. Stout: University of
Wisconsin
Smith-Worthington, D.S. & Jefferson, S.(2005). Technical Writing for Success
(3rd Edition).
Waddell, C. (1990). Basic Prose Style and Mechanics. New York: Rensselaer
Press.

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 UNIT ONE: BASICS OF RESARCH

Objectives

After completing this unit, you will be able to:

 define the concept of research;
 explain the purpose of research;
 identify types of research;
 distinguish between research in engineering and in other disciplines;
 formulate research problems;
 develop literature reviews;
 identify various sampling techniques in research;
 explain techniques of data collection;
 discuss data analysis and interpretation methods; and
 develop a research/project proposal.

Methodology

Brainstorming and discussion

Explain points by providing context specific practical examples
Hold interactive lecture/presentation
Capture points raised from the students and facilitate group discussion
 1.1 Conceptualizing Research

1.1.1 Some Simple Definitions

 A careful systematic study and investigation in some field of knowledge,

undertaken to establish facts or principles.
 A structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve
problems and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable.
 A systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.
 A systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise
facts, events, behaviors, or theories, or to make practical applications with
the help of such facts, laws or theories.
 The term "research" is also used to describe the collection of information
about a particular subject, and is usually associated with the output of
science and the scientific method.
1.1.2 Research as a Way of Thinking
It is a habit:
• of questioning what you do;
• of systematically examining observed information to find answers; and
• of using methods tested for validity and reliability.
1.1.3 Research as a process
Research is one of the ways to find answers to your questions. However, the process
has to satisfy the following:
• should be within a framework of a set of principles of one of the approaches of
research;
• must use procedures, methods and techniques which have been tested for
their validity and reliability; and
• must be designed to be unbiased and objective.
The research process:
• Formulating a research problem (Deciding)
• Conceptualizing the research design

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 • Constructing an instrument for data collection (Planning)
• Selecting a sample
• Writing a research proposal
• Collecting data
• Processing Data (Doing)
• Writing a research report
1.1.4 Characteristics of Research

a) Research is directed toward the solution of a problem or research involves the

quest for answers to unsolved problems.

b) Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories

that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.

c) Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.

d) Research demands accurate observation and description.

e) Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or

using existing data for a new purpose.

f) Although research activity at times is somewhat random and unsystematic, more

often it is characterized by application of carefully designed rigorous procedures.

g) Research requires expertise analysis

h) Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to

validate the procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusion
reached.

i) Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.

j) Research sometimes requires courage.

1.2 Types of Research

As has been mentioned, the goal of research is problem solving. The nature of the
problem that the research attempts to solve could be theoretical or practical – building
a theory or solving immediate practical problems. These two types of problems that the
research tries to solve leads to two broad classifications of research: basic research and

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applied research. That is, research is commonly divided into two; basic and applied.
However, these are not the only ways of looking at types of research. Others divide
research as quantitative and qualitative. The first one is based on purpose whereas the
second is based on source or nature of data. While the way of dividing types differ,
their fundamental meaning and understanding is the same for each. In addition, it
should be clear that there is overlap of function as it is discussed below.

1.2.1 Types of Research on its purpose

Basic research

Basic research (also called fundamental or pure research) is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formation of a theory. It is ―Gathering knowledge for
knowledge‘s sake.‖ It has as its primary objective the advancement of knowledge and
the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables. The terms ―basic‖ or
―fundamental‖ indicate that, through theory generation, basic research provides the
foundation for further, sometimes applied research.

Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are

examples of pure research. Similarly, research studies concerning human behavior
carrying on with a view to make generalizations about human behavior without an
intention of solving some problem is also its example.

Applied Research

Applied research is conducted to address issues in which there are practical problems
and potential solutions. It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an individual or business organization.

Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; its primary aim is not to
gain knowledge for its own sake. It is a research conducted to identify social, economic
or political trends that may affect a particular. However, it is almost always done on
the basis of basic research. Much applied research is conducted in setting such as large

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business firms, marketing research companies and government agencies such as
educational institutions. As a result, it is not published but rather is used within the
company or its clients. The major example of applied research is programme
evaluation.

1.2.2 Types of research on its nature of data: Quantitative and

Qualitative

Qualitative research

Qualitative research is conducted in the study of the society and other natural
phenomena. For instance, when we are interested to investigate the reasons for
human behavior (i. e., why people think or do certain things,) we often talk about
Motivational Research, an important type of qualitative research. It is widely used type
of research and interdisciplinary. It has the following characteristics.

• Emergent research design – No aspect of the research design is tightly

prefigured and a study is kept open and fluid so that it can respond in a flexible
way.
• The nature of qualitative data – A wide range of data including recorded
interviews, various types of texts, field notes, journal and images‘.
• The characteristics of the research setting – natural setting, without any attempt
to manipulate
• Small sample size – very labor intensive.
• Interpretive analysis – the research product is the result of the researcher‘s
subjective interpretation of data.
Quantitative research

It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.

Main characteristics of quantitative research

 Using numbers – It is concerned around numbers;

 A prior categorization – the work requires specifying categories and
values needs to be done prior to the actual study;

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  Variables rather than cases – centered around the study of variables
that capture these common features and which are quantified by
counting, scaling, or assigning values to categorical data;
 Statistics and language of statistics
 Standardized procedure to assess objective reality;
 Quest for generalizability and general laws
Generalization about qualitative and quantitative research:
The compromise the researchers recommend to address these variations and exploit
the advantages of both methods is the mixed method. This method utilizes both
options. Nonetheless, it should be remembered that the selection of research method
is determined by the nature of the research problem. That is, it is possible to select
one method depending on the nature of the research question. In addition, the point
that group mentions as a weak point is considered as a strong by the other. For
instance, addressing a small number is strong side of a qualitative research for it
enables to investigate deep in the matter and come up with the identification of the
root cause though the quantitative researchers mention it as a weak point.

1.2.3 Types on Duration of research: Longitudinal and Cross

sectional

Longitudinal refers to a single case over a period of time. Case study research is a
longitudinal research. It is a research in depth than breadth. However, a cross-
sectional refers to the kind of study in which data are collected at a time across
different sections or targets of the study.

To summarize, in looking at the distinction among the methods, it should be clear that
these pairs of methods are not dichotomous. They can be used simultaneously.

Research Methods

Surveys are studies in which several kinds of data related to the subject under study
are gathered and the common elements are identified. Therefore, surveys essentially

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are studies of broad size rather than studies in depth. The broad aspect of the surveys
have the advantage of ―rough sifting‖ in a field of research from this, issue may come
out that need careful investigation. When the survey is employed as a means of
screening, or when the aim is to get an exact description of current status, then one
can say the survey has been utilized properly. To sum up, survey is not concerned
about characteristics of individuals as individuals. In addition, data are gathered at a
particular point in time with intention of describing.

Best and Kahn (2006:121) say, ―The survey method gathers data from a relatively
large number of cases at a particular time. It is not concerned with characteristics of
individuals as individuals. It is concerned with the statistics that result when data are
abstracted from a number of individual cases. It is essentially cross-sectional‖.

Evaluation

The second category is evaluation. This is also called evaluative research. Evaluation
is concerned with the application of its findings and implies some judgment of
effectiveness, social utility, or desirability of a product, process or program in terms of
carefully defined and agreed upon objectives or values. It may involve
recommendations for action. It is not concerned with generalizations that may be
extended to other setting. It is not concerned with generalizations that may be
extended to other setting.

Evaluation has different forms. The common forms of evaluation are:

 Formative and Summative;

 Informal and formal;
 Cost benefit analysis;
 Outcome analysis;
 Impact assessment;

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Case Study

Case Studies, unlike the survey, is mainly research in depth rather than breadth.
Whereas the aim of survey is to scratch the surface, the case study searchers beneath
the surface, sometimes discovering the causes of factors exposed by surveys. It looks
at a single instance, and aims to identify the unique features of interaction within that
instance. Cases are often limited to studies of individual or small groups. However, it
should be remembered that a case study research is a longitudinal study since it is
carried out over a period of time though the number of the subjects is very few.

Generally, most educational research methods are descriptive; that is, they set out to
describe and interpret what actually exists as it exists without involving any attempt to
alter it.

Experimental research

This type of research is known in literature by a variety of names. Synonyms are, for
instance: the cause and consequence method, before and after design, control group
design and the laboratory method. This research type has control as fundamental
characteristic. The selection of control groups, based on proportional selection, forms
its basis. It is basically the method that can be applied in a research laboratory. The
basic structure of this type of research is elementary: two situations (cause and
consequence) are assessed in order to make a comparison. Following this, attempts
should be made to treat the one situation (cause) from the outside (external variable)
to affect change, and then to re-evaluate the two situations. The perceivable changes
that occurred can then be presumed as caused by external variables.

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Types of experimental design

There are three major types of experimental designs:

i. Pre-experimental design: a one group design and designs that compare

pre-existing groups.

Example A: A training program is implemented and participants are given a posttest at

the conclusion of the training (one shot case study).

Example B.A classroom teacher gives her students a pretest then implements certain
teaching method followed by a posttest. (One group pretest-posttest design)

ii. True experimental designs: Experiments that have treatments, outcome

measures and experimental conditions and use random selection and
assignment to treatment conditions. This is the strongest set of designs in
terms of internal and external validity.

Example: 50 first year students are randomly selected to participate in a tutorial study.

Half are randomly assigned for tutor for their first semester and half are not. All

students are given a pretest at the beginning of the term and a post test at the end of

the term.

iii. Quasi-experimental designs: experiments that have treatments, outcomes

measures, and experimental conditions but that do not use random selection

and assignments to treatment conditions. The groups are naturally assembled

or existing (e.g. Classrooms)

Example: Consider a study of the effect of different training methods on learning.

Subjects are placed in to four groups (A, B, C, D) for different training methods.

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 1.3 Research in engineering

The world success has been based on the creativity, ingenuity, and courage of
innovators, and innovation. The astounding technological achievements of the twentieth
century would not have been possible without engineering, specifically engineering
research, which leads to the conversion of scientific discoveries into functional,
marketable, profitable products and services.

According to the National Academies Press (2005), the greatest engineering

achievements of the twentieth century led to innovations that transformed everyday
life. Beginning with electricity, engineers have brought us a wide range of technologies,
from the mundane to the spectacular. Refrigeration opened new markets for food and
medicine. Air conditioning enabled population explosions in many places. The invention
of the transistor, followed by integrated circuits, ushered in the age of ubiquitous
computerization, impacting everything from education to entertainment. The control of
electromagnetic radiation has given us not only radio and television, but also radar, x-
rays, fiber optics, cell phones, and microwave ovens. The airplane and automobile have
made the world smaller, and highways have transformed the landscape. Even
commonplace technologies, such as farm equipment, household appliances, water
distribution, and medicine, required sophisticated engineering research and application.

So many complex engineering achievements have become part of everyday life that
engineering and
engineering research are often taken for granted. Without engineering research, the
world would be less accessible, poorer, and far less interesting. Engineers take new and
existing knowledge and make it useful, typically generating new knowledge in the
process. Above all, innovations in the field of engineering have been continued in this
millennium (in the twenty-first century). Future breakthroughs dependent on
engineering research will have equally powerful impacts.

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 1.4 Formulation of research problem

It is not easy to decide on and define a research problem, and you will not be expected
to do so immediately. The important thing is to know what you are looking for, and to
explore your subject for suitable possibilities.

The problem can be generated either by an initiating idea, or by a perceived problem

area. We are surrounded by problems connected with society, the built environment,
education, etc., many of which can readily be perceived. Take for example social
problems such as poverty, crime, unsuitable housing and uncomfortable workplaces,
technical problems such as design deficiencies, organizational problems such as
business failures and bureaucratic bungles, and many subjects where there may be a
lack of knowledge which prevents improvements being made, for example, the
influence of parents on a child‘s progress at school, the relationship between designers
and clients. Obviously, it is not difficult to find problem areas. The difficulty lies in
choosing an area which contains possible specific research problems suitable for the
subject of a research project or degree.

This is to mean that research problems can arise from:

 Experience and interest,

 Other research, and
 Sources outside your major area of study.
In all the cases, a problem must spring from the researcher‘s mind like a plant
springing from its own seed.

In formulating your research problem:

• find an interest in a broad subject area (problem area);

• narrow the interest to a plausible topic;
• question the topic from several points of view; and
• define a rationale for your project.

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In choosing the topic:

i. Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be

difficult task to show any new light in such a case.
ii. Although solving controversies is likely to be an outcome of a research,
controversial subject should not become the choice of an average
researcher
iii. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
iv. The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that
the related researches are within one‘s reach. Reading articles, discussing
with others is important so as to locate materials.
v. The importance of the subject, the qualification and training of a
researcher, the cost involved, and the time factor are few other criteria
that must also be considered in selecting a problem.
vi. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study
especially when the field is new. This may not be necessary when the
problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that has
already been done.
vii. Pose the research problem in a general term and define it clearly (Take
time).
viii. Then develop Statement of the problem
ix. Understanding the nature of the problem – Its nature and origin clearly

1.5 Literature Review in Research

A literature review is a description of the literature relevant to a particular field or topic.

It gives an overview of what has been said, who the key writers are, what are the
prevailing theories and hypotheses, what questions are being asked, and what methods
and methodologies are appropriate and useful. As such, it is not in itself primary
research, but rather it reports on other findings.

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A literature review uses as its database reports of primary or original scholarship, and
does not report new primary scholarship itself. The primary reports used in the
literature may be verbal, but in the vast majority of cases reports are written
documents. The types of scholarship may be empirical, theoretical, critical/analytic, or
methodological in nature. Second a literature review seeks to describe, summarize,
evaluate, clarify and/or integrate the content of primary reports.

A literature review must do the following things:

 be organised around and related directly to the research question you are
developing;
 synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known;
 identify areas of controversy in the literature; and
 formulate questions that need further research.
Ask yourself the following type of questions in developing literature works:

 What is the specific research question that my literature review helps to define?
 What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of theory?
Methodology? Policy? Quantitative research? Qualitative research?
 What is the scope of my literature review? What types of publications am I
using? What discipline am I working in?
 How good was my information seeking? Has my search been wide enough to
ensure I've found all the relevant material? Has it been narrow enough to
exclude irrelevant material? Is the number of sources I've used appropriate for
the length of my paper?
 Have I critically analyzed the literature I use? Do I follow through a set of
concepts and questions, comparing items to each other in the ways they deal
with them? Instead of just listing and summarizing items, do I assess them,
discussing strengths and weaknesses?
 Have I cited and discussed studies contrary to my perspective?
 Will the reader find my literature review relevant, appropriate, and useful?

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 1.6 Sampling Technique

Sampling is the process of selecting a number of study units from a defined study
population. Often research focuses on a large population that, for practical reasons, it is
only possible to include some of its members in the investigation. You then have to
draw a sample from the total population. In such cases you must consider the following
questions:

 What is the study population you are interested in from which we want to draw a
sample?
 How many subjects do you need in your sample?
 How will these subjects be selected?
The study population has to be clearly defined. Otherwise you cannot do the sampling.
Apart from persons, a study population may consist of villages, institutions, plants,
animals, records, etc. Each study population consists of study units. The way you define
your study population and your study unit depends on the problem you want to
investigate and on the objectives of the study.

If sampling is found appropriate for a research, the researcher, then:

1) identifies the target population as precisely as possible, and in a way that
makes sense in terms of the purpose of study;
2) puts together a list of the target population from which the sample will be
selected;
3) selects the sample, and decide on a sampling technique, and;
4) makes an inference about the population.
All these four steps are interwoven and cannot be considered isolated from one
another.
There are two main types of sampling: probability sampling and non-probability
sampling as discuss underneath.

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 1.6.1 Probability sampling

Simple random sampling

Each person in the universe has an equal probability of being chosen for the sample
and every collection of persons of the same size has an equal probability of becoming
the actual sample. The guiding principle behind this technique is that each element
must have an equal and non-zero chance of being selected. This can be achieved by
applying a table of random numbers or a computer generated random numbers to a
numbered sampling frame. Another approach involves drawing numbers from a
container. The product of this technique is a sample determined entirely by chance. It
should be noted, however, that chance is ―lumpy‖, meaning that random selection does
not always produce a sample that is representative of the population. Imagine, for
example, a sampling frame comprising 10,000 people. Furthermore, consider that
altitude is a critical variable, and that the composition of the sampling frame is as
follows: 1,500 are from high altitude; 7,500 are from medium altitude white, and 1,000
are from low altitude. You are going to select a sample of 500 people from this
sampling frame using a simple random sampling technique. Unfortunately, the simple
random selection process may or may not yield a sample that has equivalent altitudinal
proportions as the sampling frame. Due to chance, disproportionate numbers of each
altitudinal category may be selected.

Systematic sampling

The systematic random sampling technique begins with selecting one element at
random in the sampling frame as the starting point; however, from this point onward,
the rest of the sample is selected systematically by applying a predetermined interval.
For example, in this sampling technique, after the initial element is selected at random,
every ―kth‖ element will be selected (kth refers to the size of the interval—the ratio of
the population to sample size) and becomes eligible for inclusion in the study. The ―kth
‖ element is selected through the end of the sampling frame and then from the
beginning until a complete cycle is made back to the starting point (that is, the place

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where the initial random selection was made). If there is a cyclic repetition in the
sampling frame, systematic sampling is not recommended (The more complex the
method, the greater opportunity for error).

Stratified sampling

Stratified random sampling begins with the identification of some variable, which may
be related indirectly to the research question and could act as a confounder (such as
geography, age, income, ethnicity, or gender). This variable is then used to divide the
sampling frame into mutually exclusive strata or subgroups. Once the sampling frame is
arranged by strata, the sample is selected from each stratum using simple random
sampling or systematic sampling techniques. It is important that the sample selected
within each stratum reflects proportionately the population proportions; thus, you can
employ pro propionate stratified sampling.

Cluster sampling

It may be difficult or impossible to take a simple random sample of the units of the
study population at random, because a complete sampling frame does not exist.
Logistical difficulties may also discourage random sampling techniques (e.g.,
interviewing people who are scattered over a large area may be too time-consuming).
However, when a list of groupings of study units is available (e.g., villages or schools)
or can be easily compiled, a number of these groupings can be randomly selected. Then
all study units in the selected clusters will be included in the study.

Multistage sampling

Multistage cluster sampling is used when an appropriate sampling frame does not exist
or cannot be obtained. Multistage cluster sampling uses a collection of pre-existing units
or clusters to ―stand in‖ for a sampling frame. The first stage in the process is selecting
a sample of clusters at random from the list of all known clusters. The second stage
consists of selecting a random sample from each cluster. Because of this multistage
process, the likelihood of sampling bias increases. This creates a lack of sampling

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precision known as a design effect. It is recommended to consider the design effect
during sample size determination.

1.6.2 Examples of non-probability sampling

Usually cannot claim that a sample is representative. Much less complicated, less
expensive and
can be done at the spur of the moment. Can take advantage of whoever is available.

Convenience Sampling

The investigator chooses the closest live persons as respondents. "Captive audience"
sampling. (E.g., using a class of intro to psych students).

Quota Sampling

Equivalent to a stratified sample with the added requirement that each stratum is
generally represented in the sample in the same proportion as in the entire population.
(Example: 60% males and 40% females - select a sample of the two.

Dimensional Sampling

A multidimensional form of quota sampling. One has to specify all dimensions

(variables) or interest on the population and then to make sure that every combination
of these dimensions are represented by at least one case. This method is designed for
studies in which only a small sample is desired so that each case drawn can be studied
in more detail than is possible in a large-scale study.

Purposive Sampling

The researcher uses his or her own judgment about which respondents to choose, and
picks those who best meets the purposes of the study. Qualitative research methods
are typically used when focusing on a limited number of informants, whom you select
strategically so that their in-depth information will give optimal insight into an issue
about which little is known.

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Snowball Sampling

Has achieved increased use in recent years; particularly by researchers conducting

observational research and in community studies. Conducted in stages. In the 1st stage
a few persons having the requisite characteristics are identified and interviewed. These
persons are used as informants to identify others who qualify for inclusion in the
sample. The second stage involves interviewing these persons who in turn lead to still
more persons who can be interviewed in the 3rd stage, etc. The term "snowball" stems
from the analogy of a snowball, which begins small but becomes bigger and bigger and
rolls downhill. Also called "chain referral sampling." Particularly useful in deviant studies
and subcultures (drug addicts, etc.).

Note that sample size depends on the size of the population to be sampled and lack of
adequate representation can be referred to as sampling error.

1.7 Techniques of Data Collection

Although organized in a systematic stage-by-stage approach, in practice it is to be

noted that the nature of the research process is intrinsically iterative. You may need to
move forwards and backwards between these stages as the circumstances determine.
The availability of data, for example, located only during the data gathering exercise,
may influence a modification of the specified aims. In certain circumstances it may
become apparent that the data required to answer a research question is not available.
This can result in a rethink of the initial stages and a modification of the research
design. Thus, researchers need to think carefully about the likely accessibility of data
during the design phase. They must also be prepared to be flexible and adaptable
during the research.

There are a number of different techniques of data collection and one should be
selected which is most likely to meet the objective of the research and gather the
correct type of information. Each technique is designed to get certain types of information
and not others.

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 1.7.1 Observation

Observation refers to the process of observing and recording events or situations. The
technique is particularly useful for discovering how individuals or groups of people or
animals (and in some instances inanimate objects) behave, act or react.

There are two main types of observation - participant and nonparticipant. Participant
observation is usually limited to studies of human subjects. The researcher becomes
part of the group studied and participates in their daily life and activities: observing
their everyday situations and their behavior in these situations. Conversation is used in
order to discover the subjects' own interpretations of events. In non-participant
observation the researchers simply observe the activities without taking part
themselves. Whilst this has the advantage of preventing the researcher from unduly
influencing or becoming involved in activities they may not wish to take part in (for
example dangerous or criminal actions), they are less likely to understand fully the
meanings behind behavior in the group studied. Beside the study of human subjects,
non-participant observation can also be used to study animal behavior. The observation
and recording of natural phenomenon can also be considered observation study.

1.7.2 Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a type of survey where respondents write answers to questions

posed by the researcher on a question form. A number of respondents are asked
identical questions, in order to gain information that can be analyzed, patterns found
and comparisons made.

Questionnaires are extremely flexible and can be used to gather information on almost
any topic involving large or small numbers of people. The commonest type of
questionnaire involves closed choice or fixed questions where the respondent is
required to answer by choosing an option from a number of given answers, usually by
ticking a box or circling an answer. These types of questionnaires only gather
straightforward, uncomplicated information, and only simple questions can be asked.

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The open-ended questionnaire differs in that it allows the respondent to formulate and
record their answers in their own words. These are more qualitative and can produce
detailed answers to complex problems.

1.7.3 Interviews

Interviews are limited to cases where the subjects of study are humans. Interviews are
a type of survey where questions are delivered in a face-to-face encounter by an
interviewer. The interview is like a conversation and has the purpose of obtaining
information relevant to a particular research topic. It is initiated by the researcher and
is focused on specific content.

As with questionnaires interviews can be approached from either a quantitative or

qualitative angle and there are many variations on the general method. Purely
quantitative interviews are rather like a closed ended questionnaire that the interviewer
fills in for the respondent. These are highly structured, formal interviews which are
determined in advance and have fixed responses.

At the other end of the scale, the unstructured, purely qualitative interview is rather like
an informal conversation. Here questions are asked in the natural course of interaction
and arise from the particular context.

A large number of interviews will fall somewhere in between these two extremes and
are known as semi-structured interviews. These have specific questions already
predetermined that are asked to the respondent in a particular order, or topics and
issues to be covered in the course of the interview.

There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of method.
Structured interviews maximize reliability and are easier to classify and quantify. By
contrast unstructured interviews can give a greater insight and more in-depth
understanding of the topic researched, but need more expertise to control and more
time for analysis.

20
 1.7.4 Focus Groups

The focus group is a type of interview that involves carefully selected individuals who
usually do not know each other. They generally consist of 7-10 members alongside the
researcher. These individuals are selected as they hold particular characteristics which
the researcher believes are necessary to the topic of focus. A group discussion is held in
a permissive environment in order to extract opinions and share ideas and perceptions
through group interaction. It is not necessary to reach a consensus.

Focus groups are extremely useful in providing qualitative data which gives an insight
into attitudes and perceptions difficult to obtain using other procedures. The researcher
acts as a moderator and listener posing predetermined open ended questions which the
respondents answer in any way they choose.

1.7.5 Document Analysis

This refers to the process of using any kind of document, films, television programs and
photographs as well as written sources, such as books, papers and letters, for analysis
in relation to a particular research question. It can be used as the singular method of
research or as a supplementary form of inquiry. Document analysis, also referred to as
content analysis, differs from the majority of research methods in two major ways.

 It is an indirect form of research; it is something that has been produced, so the

investigator is not generating original data.
 It is an 'unobtrusive', or 'non-reactive' method. This refers to the fact that the
document will not be affected in any way by your research; it cannot react as a
human can.
In general, documents have been written from the perspective of those from official
sources but a different perspective can be gained from using personal accounts and oral
testaments such as letters, diaries, and autobiographies. Reliability and validity are
central concerns in document analysis. Documents generally exist for some purpose and

21
the knowledge of this purpose is important in understanding and interpreting the results
of the analysis.

1.7.6 The experimental method

This method involves setting up an experiment in order to test a particular theory or

hypothesis. In its simplest terms experimentation is concerned with seeing what
changes occur if something new is tried out and with the effects of these changes on
something else. It is a method particularly associated with the physical and life sciences
although the approach is also used in social sciences such as psychology, health care
and education.

In order for an experiment to take place, using the most basic research strategy the
researcher should deliberately alter at least one particular element or factor of the
study, known as variables, in order to assess the effects of this change on behavior.
The effect of this alteration is assessed. Measurement is required before, during and
after the experiment. The experiment has to be replicable and produce more or less the
same results if it is to have any significance.

There are two different types of experiment, the laboratory experiment and the field
experiment.

a) In laboratory experiments the researcher will conduct a small-scale study where

subjects can be manipulated, observed and tested in a highly controlled
environment. In these types of studies, the data obtained is often subjected to
statistical analysis (the sister module on ―Quantitative and computational
methods‖ will cover the statistical tools and methods). Such research creates an
artificial situation where events normally linked are separated.
b) A field experiment is an experiment that takes place outside the laboratory. This
leads to a decrease in researcher control, which may hide the effects of changes
made, but the results gained can be still be generalized to the real world.

22
Experimental Research is often used where:

 There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect),

 There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the
same effect), and
 The magnitude of the correlation is great.
If the researcher suspects that the effect stems from a different variable than the
independent variable, further investigation is needed to gauge the validity of the
results. An experiment is often conducted because the scientist wants to know if the
independent variable is having any effect upon the dependent variable. Variables are
more often of quantitative nature than qualitative nature, although it happens.

1.8 Data Analysis and Interpretation

Research is often broken down into two different approaches; and the data analysis we
employ based on the type of data we have (quantitative and qualitative):

a) Quantitative research: research involving numerical or statistical data.

Emphasis is on the quantifiable observations of the research i.e. numbers
involved. This type of research is mainly objective.

b) Qualitative research: an approach to gather non-numerical data and related

ways of analysis where emphasis is on the qualitative results. Words and
observations are used to express the reality where 'getting close to the data' and
an 'in-depth' approach are key concerns. This type of research is mainly
subjective.

1.9 Research/Project Proposal

The purpose of a proposal is to explain the need for the project, and to plan the
project. Often this can help to identify any potential problems you may have in carrying
out the work, and you can then develop contingency plans.

23
In any proposal, you always have to consider your particular project in order to decide
for yourself what is the best way to organize your information into logical sections and
then to devise appropriate headings for these sections in your proposal. Typical
sections in a proposal and their contents are outlined below.

Title - provides a concise, accurate and informative title which immediately orientates
your reader to the focus of your project.

Introduction – explains why you are doing the project. It provides a brief overview of
the background to the project and establishes a particular area, or problem, that needs
to be investigated further. It provides a clear statement of the topic of the proposed
work.

Aims - clearly states the aims of the study (to measure, to devise, to design, to
establish, to identify, etc). If there is a general aim, try to establish a number of specific
aims as well. Aims can also be incorporated in the Introduction.

Methodology - outlines how the project will be undertaken (by conducting a series of
experiments; by developing a model; by conducting a survey of engineering practice;
by reading and critically reviewing a number of research papers; by doing fieldwork;
etc).

Project Plan – describes what you will do. It is a plan of the tasks which will enable
you to achieve the stated aims of your project. To devise a plan, you need to break the
project down into a series of steps or stages, and you then outline the tasks within each
stage (for example, In stage 1, I will devise a survey which…..; carry out the
preliminary experiments; design the …….. In Stage 2, I will interview three engineers;
carry out further experiments; build the ….). If possible, you could also identify
concrete outcomes for each stage of the project (e.g., Outcomes of stage 1).

- Why undertake the project? Students should be able to explain the relevance of the
work and how it relates to research/practice needs in the discipline.

24
- What will be the scope of the project? Students should be able to develop a concise
statement of the specific aims/objectives of the work.
- How will the project be undertaken? Students should be able to describe the main
tasks to be undertaken and identify the resources required to complete the project.
- When will the work be undertaken? Students should be able to develop a work plan
for the project which identifies the timing for each primary task.

The project plan should also include a timetable in which you plan the timing for the
main tasks. This timetable can help to keep you on track throughout the project. The
plan may also include a list of the resources required to do the project.

Potential contributions of the proposed project - summarizes, perhaps in point

form, the main areas where your project will make a contribution. Examples of potential
contributions are: The study will provide an estimation of ……; recommendations for
…..; an understanding of ….; an improved design for…; further knowledge of …...

25
Flowchart: Steps in the development of a research proposal

NB: Development of a research process is a cyclical process. The double-headed arrows indicate that the
process is never linear. (Adapted from the International Development Research Center: Designing and
Conducting Health Systems Research Projects, VOLUME 1).

26
The following is an example mini project proposal for engineering Students.

AGRICULTURAL BUILDING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN Ethiopia: A

historical perspective from Addis Ababa

September 2014

Prepared by: Almaz Berta

Student No.: 161582
Project Supervisor: Dr Getu Temesgen

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Objective
2.0 Background
3.0 Methodology
4.0 Schedule
5.0 Milestones
6.0 References

1.0 Objective

This proposed project will present to civil engineering students, and other interested
persons, agricultural building design and construction in Canada through an
examination of structures in the Ottawa Valley. A number of older agricultural buildings
will be studied. They will be compared and contrasted to current building practices and
to the Canadian Farm Building Code of 1990. The technology of the World Wide Web
will be used as the presentation medium for this project though the use of Hypertext
Markup Language. This will allow for a more interactive and graphic demonstration of
the content. The final product will be able to be used to introduce students to some of
the structural and design problems that are particular to agricultural structures, but
could also be used to demonstrate general application of building codes.

27
2.0 Background

Canadian Farm Building Code of 1990: Published by the National Research Council of
Canada, through its Associate Committee on the National Building Code, it comprises a
model set of minimum requirements for farm buildings in matters affecting human
health, fire safety and structural sufficiency.

The World Wide Web: The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of information shared
over the global network of computers. The WWW project was first proposed in 1989 by
the European Particle Physics Laboratory (CERN) in Switzerland. The first WWW
prototype was developed by CERN in 1990. It was initially envisioned as a means of
sharing papers and data between physicists all over the world through the Internet.
One of its main goals was to become a seamless network in which information from any
source could be accessed in a simple and consistent way. Because of its user-friendly
nature and its ability to encompass all the different sorts of information on the Internet,
many organizations other then research laboratories have begun providing information
over the WWW, including universities, municipal, provincial and federal governments,
elementary and high schools, museums, corporations and small businesses.

3.0 Methodology

Actual agricultural buildings in the Ottawa Valley will be examined and analyzed. The
results will be compared to agricultural buildings currently designed following the
Canadian Farm Building Code. All data, photographs, sketches, graphics and results will
be input and coded to be presented on the World Wide Web in the form of an
instructional module for students. The tasks required to complete this project are:

to perform preliminary research and preparation;

to search for and gain access to 5 agricultural structures in the Ottawa

Valley;

28
 to examine these structures: take photographs and measurements, note
special features;

to research historical background of 5 structures;

to create sketches of structures;

to analyze these structures using the guidelines of the National Building

Code of Canada and its commentary;

to access information about current design of agricultural buildings in

Canada from the Canadian Plan Service, Agricultural Canada;

to scan all photographs, sketches and graphics;

to write and code a learning module for the World Wide Web;

to write a progress report;

to write a final report; and

to prepare an oral presentation.

4.0 Schedule

Please see Figure 1 for a charted timeline of the tasks required to complete this project.

FIGURE 1. Timeline of tasks required to complete the proposed project.

TASK Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.

Perform preliminary research and

***** | | | | | | |
preparation

Search for and gaining access to

***** *** | | | | | |
5 agricultural buildings

Examine buildings - photos,

** ***** ***** | | | | |
measurements, etc.

Research historical background of ** ***** ***** | | | | |

29
buildings

Create sketches | ** ***** ***** | | | |

Analyse structures | | ** ***** ***** | | |

Access information re: current

| ***** ***** | | | | |
designs

Scan photos, sketches, etc. | | | ***** ***** ***** | |

Write and code learning module

| | | | ***** ***** ***** |
for WWW

Write progress report | | ***** ** | | | |

Prepare oral presentation | | | | | ** ***** |

Write final report | | | | | ** ***** **

30
5.0 Milestones

Major Tasks Projected Completion Date

All gathering of initial data November 30, 2014

Progress report December 4, 2014

Analysis of data January 31, 2015

Creation of learning module for WWW March 15, 2015

Final Report April 8, 2015

6.0 References

Canadian Farm Building Code 1990; Associate Committee on the National Building
Code, National Research Council, Canada, 1990.

Aronson, Larry; HTML Manual of Style; Ziff-Davis Press, California, 1994.

Turlington, Shannon R.; Walking the World Wide Web; Ventana Press, North Carolina,
1995.

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 UNIT TWO: TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

2.1 Concepts and Historical Development of Technical

Report Writing
2.1.1 Conceptualizing Technical Report

Technical writing is not literature; it‘s neither prose which recounts the fictional tales of
characters nor poetry which expresses deeply felt, universal emotions through similes
and metaphors. It is neither an expressive essay narrating an occurrence nor an
expository essay analyzing a topic. Technical writing does not focus on poetic images,
describe personal experiences, or report who won the basketball game.

Instead, technical writing is:

◦ an orderly and objective communication of factual information that serves

a business purpose;
◦ a kind of writing you will engage in throughout your academic and
professional career;
◦ a broad term that encompasses a wide variety of documents in science,
engineering, and the skilled trades;
◦ technical writing is a direct, informative, clear, and concise language
written specifically for an identified audience; and
◦ technical documents include reports such as research about technical
concepts as well as graphical depictions of designs and data.

A technical report is the primary written work products of engineers and scientists. It is
a kind of writing you will engage in throughout your academic and professional career.
It is a broad term that encompasses a wide variety of documents in science,
engineering, and the skilled trades. Technical writing is a direct, informative, clear and
concise language written specifically for an identified audience.

As such, technical reports present facts and conclusions about designs, experiments
and other projects. Typically, technical documents include reports such as research

32
about technical concepts as well as graphical depictions of designs and data. For
example, if you need to report why a design or piece of equipment failed, you'd write a
forensic report. Or, you might have to write about a design you created. Then, you'd
produce a design report or, you may need to combine these two.

As a student, engineer or scientist you will be required to write technical reports as part
of your degree as well as throughout your career. Examples of such reports include
laboratory reports to instructors, annual environmental reports to regulators, annual
reports to shareholders, design reports, project proposals, tender documents, journal
articles and so on.

2.1.2 Historical Development of the TRW

Technical reports first appeared in the early part of the 20th century; the U.S.
Geological Survey published a series of Professional papers beginning in 1902, and the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) issued its first report in 1915. But
the designation primarily gained importance during World War II and emerged in the
postwar and current eras as a major tool for reporting progress in science and
technology, as well as in education, business, and social sciences research. The names
given to these publications series vary and include such generic categories as "technical
reports," "working papers," "preprints," "research memoranda," "internal notes,"
"occasional papers," "discussion papers," and "gray (or grey) literature" In the physical
and natural sciences, technical report seems to be the preferred designation. For
reports dealing with business, education, and the social sciences, the terms "working
paper," "occasional paper," and "memorandum" seem to be the designations of choice.
A third category is the various preprint and reprint series of conference papers that
appear from time to time. Preprints generally are issued by universities and research
institutes before the final conference proceedings volumes are published by commercial
publishers. Reprints are typically released to heighten awareness to the type of

33
research being conducted in a particular field or at a single institution. The term
technical report is used in TRS to include all of these designations.

Since many of these publications were intended to provide just a temporary snapshot of
current research in a particular field or topic, they contain the following distinctive
characteristics:

 The content is not published via typical commercial channels (instead the
reports are issued or sponsored by government agencies, associations &
societies, Councils, Foundations, laboratories, universities, etc.).
 The format provides rapid communication of new research results.
 The reports are disseminated to a targeted audience.
 The reports include detailed methodology and data in order to facilitate
review of research results by others.
 Publications are typically not peer reviewed, but generally are the result of
another selection process (grant, contract, or institutional affiliation).
 Corporate authorship is typically emphasized

Government issued or sponsored reports contain an additional characteristic - they may

be subject to distribution restrictions linked to their classification status. Although
references may be found in the literature to these reports, their security status or
limited distribution may make them unavailable. Technical reports subjects where U.S.
government sponsored research particularly prominent and widely available include:

 Aeronautics and space exploration (NASA)

 Defense & Military Science

 Earth sciences

 Energy research
 Engineering

 Environmental sciences
 Health & Life sciences

 Transportation

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 2.2 Purposes and functions of technical report
2.2.1 Purposes of Technical Writing

A technical report‘s purpose for an engineer is to communicate information gained

through a process of technical or experimental work. It is to completely and clearly
describe technical work: what you did, why you did it, what you have found out or
results obtained and implications of those results. A well‐written report allows the
reader to quickly understand what has been accomplished.

The technical report serves as a means of communicating the work to others and
possibly providing useful information about that work at some later date. They are
designed to quickly alert researchers to recent findings in scientific and technical
research. More specifically, the reports are issued for various purposes: to communicate
results or describe progress of a research project; as background information on an
emerging or critical research topic; to provide a list of instructions or procedures for
current practices; to determine the feasibility of a technology and recommend if the
research should be continued (and how to evaluate progress that is made); and finally,
to detail technical specifications (materials, functions, features, operation, market
potential, etc.

2.2.2 Function/ Significance of Technical Writing

There are several benefits and needs associated with technical writing, and following
are some basic points on the benefits of good writing.
a) The Boss Wants a Report. No time to write is never a valid excuse. A
motivated person will find time for anything. People want written documentation
on work of interest to them. They read these documents and often save them for
future reference.
b) Completes a Job. As most jobs in a technical field require a significant
amount of technical writing, from informal memos to formal proposals for
presentation to customers, writing enhances job security by increasing your
value to your employer. People with demonstrated writing skills are preferred in

35
 hiring, and they are perceived by many managers to be more valuable than non
writers in times of staff reduction.
c) Career Advantages. Effective technical writing skills are necessary for
career success in most fields. Managers usually consider effective technical
writing an expectation of most technical jobs. Considering that most technical
jobs require accurate communication through written material, having good
technical writing skills can improve your career status.
d) Unreported Work Can Be Lost Forever. If technical work is not
documented in writing in a timely manner, the work is often lost and may be
repeated by others. Writing technical reports and documents is the most
effective means for concluding a project and transferring new information or
knowledge
e) Oral Statements Can and Will Be Altered. Oral reports on technical
work will be altered each time a person shares the results. Written reports do not
change when transferred to others.
f) Necessary in Global Businesses. International business transactions require
written communications, and in most cases, English can be used as an
acceptable language. 7. Standardization. Standardization of designs, business
practices, materials, and so forth requires reasonable writing skills on the part of
the author. Standardization is the wave of the future in business and industry.
2.2.3 Features or Attributes of Technical Writing
The following are some key characteristics that distinguish technical writing from other
types of writing.
•Technical writing pertains to a technical subject. It communicates issues in engineering
and the sciences.
•The aim of technical writing is to inform rather than to entertain
• Technical writing has form and style requirements that are different from those of
other types of writing. Reports need to include definite elements.
• Technical writing does not employ humor or slang.

36
• Technical writing is objective oriented. The content must be accurate and complete
with no exaggerations. To deliver the intended message, the text must be objective and
persuasive without being argumentative.
•The style of writing is generally simple and concise
• Technical writing does not blame people.
• Technical writing requires facts or data. The work should be accompanied with data
and meaningful discussions.
• Technical writing never hides facts.
• Technical writing deals with non administrative issues.
• Technical writing is never used as advertising copy.
• Technical writing is impersonal—it does not use personal pronouns or name people
who performed parts of the work.
• Judgmental or emotive language such as ―I felt that …‖, ―the results were great …‖
etc or should be avoided. There is no room for ―I think.‖, ―I believe‖. Technical reports
should take an objective and scientific standpoint.

In general, technical writing has a degree of formality, and it generally focuses on a

specific subject with the purpose of making something happen or sharing useful
information or knowledge.

2.2.4 Target Audience

You should always determine what information you need to convey and who your
audience is before you start writing. Real or imagined audiences include fellow
students, engineering colleagues, or customers seeking engineering services or
products.

As a student, you might assume that your technical report's immediate audience is your
instructor or professor evaluating your understanding of theoretical concepts; however,
this may not always be the case. Your instructor may ask you to produce a report for
your peers or for other engineers. However, you shouldn't always assume that your

37
audience has a strong engineering background or is familiar with the engineering
terminology you use.

In the engineering workplace, readers of technical reports include other engineers or

supervisors or corporate officers with a background similar to yours who could assess
your progress on specific projects evaluating professional recommendations and
proposals. These audiences are more likely to understand the terminology you use.
However, you should always evaluate who your readers will be before assuming they
will understand your jargon. It is your responsibility as the report writer to explain the
specifics of the subject of your experiment, process, or project in an understandable
way.

2.3 Categories of Formal Report

Engineers and scientists write formal reports for many reasons, including the
documentation of experiments and designs. As an engineer or scientist working on the
design of an airplane seat, you might write several formal reports. One formal report
might propose a new design for the seat. A second formal report might update the
progress on the construction of a test seat. Yet another formal report might document
tests performed on the design. Still another formal report would assess whether the
new design should replace the existing design. In this last report, you would combine
elements from all the previous reports. Note that this last report might appear as a
research article, which is a special kind of formal report for a research audience. The
major categories of formal report include: design reports, laboratory reports, feasibility
reports, progress reports and research reports.

2.3.1 Design Report

Design reports are written to introduce and document engineering and scientific
designs. In general, these reports have two audiences. One audience includes other
engineers and scientists interested in how the design works and how effective the
design is. Another audience includes management interested in the application and

38
effectiveness of the design. A design report comprised Summary, Introduction,
Discussion, Conclusions, and Appendices.

Although this organization serves a wide variety of design reports, your instructor may
very well modify this organization to serve your particular audience and purpose.

Summary

The summary, sometimes labeled the abstract or executive summary, is a concise

synopsis of the design itself, the motivation for having the design, and the design's
effectiveness. The author should assume that the reader has some knowledge of the
subject, but has not read the report. For that reason, the summary should provide
enough background that it stands on its own. Note that if the summary is called an
abstract, you are usually expected to target a technical audience in the summary.
Likewise, if an executive summary is requested, you should target a management
audience in the summary.

Introduction

The "Introduction" of a design report identifies the design problem, the objectives of
the design, the assumptions for the design, the design alternatives, and the selection of
the design being reported. Also included for transition is a mapping of the entire report.
Note that in longer reports, the selection of design is often a separate section

Discussion

The discussion presents the design itself, the theory behind the design, the problems
encountered (or anticipated) in producing the design, how those problems were (or
could be) overcome, and the results of any tests on the design. Note that this part
usually consists of two, three, or four main headings. In regards to the actual names of
these headings, pay close attention to what your instructor requests. Also consider what
would be a logical division for your particular design

39
Conclusions

The "Conclusions" section summarizes the design and testing work completed and
assesses how well the design meets the objectives presented in the "Introduction."
Note that if the design does not meet the objectives, you should analyze why the
design did not succeed and what could be modified to make the design a success.
Besides summarizing the work and analyzing whether the objectives were met, the
"Conclusions" section also gives a future perspective for how the design will be used in
the future.

Appendices

In a design report, appendices often are included. One type of appendix that appears in
design reports presents information that is too detailed to be placed into the report's
text. For example, if you had a long table giving voltage-current measurements for an
RLC circuit, you might place this tabular information in an appendix and include a graph
of the data in the report's text. Another type of appendix that often appears in design
reports presents tangential information that does not directly concern the design's
objectives.

If the appendix is "formal," it should contain a beginning, middle, and ending. For
example, if the appendix contains tables of test data, the appendix should not only
contain the tabular data, but also formally introduce those tables, discuss why they
have been included, and explain the unusual aspects that might confuse the reader.
Because of time constraints, your instructor might allow you to include "informal"
appendices with calculations and supplemental information. For such "informal"
situations, having a clear beginning, middle, and ending is not necessary. However, you
should still title the appendix, place a heading on each table, place a caption beneath
each figure, and insert comments necessary for reader understanding.

40
 2.3.2 Laboratory Reports

Laboratory reports are written for several reasons. One reason is to communicate the
laboratory work to management. In such situations, management often bases company
decisions on the results of the report. Another reason to write laboratory reports is to
archive the work so that the work will not have to be done in the future. It includes:
Abstract, Introduction, Procedures, Results and Discussion, Conclusions, and
Appendices.

You should not assume, though, that this organization will serve all your laboratory
reports. In other words, one organization does not "fit" all experiments. Rather, you
should pay attention to the organization requested by your instructor who has chosen
an organization that best serves your experiments.

Abstract

The abstract presents a synopsis of the experiment. The following guidelines for
preparing an abstract arise from the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
(AIAA). Note that although your instructor may define the term "abstract" differently,
these guidelines still give you a sense of the stylistic issues, such as whether to include
numerical data, that distinguish abstracts:

The abstract should be written concisely in normal rather than highly abbreviated
English. The author should assume that the reader has some knowledge of the subject
but has not read the paper. Thus, the abstract should be intelligible and complete in
itself; particularly it should not cite figures, tables, or sections of the paper. The
opening sentence or two should, in general, indicate the subjects dealt with in the
paper and should state the objectives of the investigation. It is also desirable to
describe the treatment by one or more such terms as brief, exhaustive, theoretical,
experimental, and so forth.

41
The body of the abstract should indicate newly observed facts and the conclusions of
the experiment or argument discussed in the paper. It should contain new numerical
data presented in the paper if space permits; otherwise, attention should be drawn to
the nature of such data. In the case of experimental results, the abstract should
indicate the methods used in obtaining them; for new methods the basic principle,
range of operation, and degree of accuracy should be given. The abstract should be
typed as one paragraph. Its optimum length will vary somewhat with the nature and
extent of the paper, but it should not exceed 200 words.

Introduction

The "Introduction" of a laboratory report identifies the experiment to be undertaken,

the objectives of the experiment, the importance of the experiment, and overall
background for understanding the experiment. The objectives of the experiment are
important to state because these objectives are usually analyzed in the conclusion to
determine whether the experiment succeeded. The background often includes
theoretical predictions for what the results should be.

Procedures

The "Procedures," often called the "Methods," discusses how the experiment occurred.
Documenting the procedures of your laboratory experiment is important not only so
that others can repeat your results but also so that you can replicate the work later, if
the need arises. Historically, laboratory procedures have been written as first-person
narratives as opposed to second-person sets of instructions. Because your audience
expects you to write the procedures as a narrative, you should do so.

Achieving a proper depth in laboratory procedures is challenging. In general, you should

give the audience enough information that they could replicate your results. For that
reason, you should include those details that affect the outcome. Consider as an
example the procedure for using a manometer and strain indicator to find the static

42
calibration of a pressure transducer. Because calibrations are considered standard, you
can assume that your audience will have access to many details such as possible
arrangements of the valves and tubes. What you would want to include, then, would be
those details that might cause your results to differ from those of your audience. Such
details would include the model number of the pressure transducer and the pressure
range for which you calibrated the transducer. Should you have any anomalies, such as
unusual ambient temperature, during your measurements, you would want to include
those.

When the procedure is not standard, the audience would expect more detail including
theoretical justification for the steps. Given below is such a procedure--this one for an
experiment devised to determine whether the frictional torque associated with a multi-
turn film potentiometer is strictly the Coulomb friction between the slider and the film
[Counts, 1999].

The test performed on the potentiometer was accomplished by winding a string around
the potentiometer shaft, attaching a mass to the string, and letting the mass fall. The
change in resistance of the potentiometer with time indicated the acceleration of the
mass. In this experiment it was assumed that the constant Coulomb friction torque was
the only friction affecting the potentiometer. If this assumption were true, the friction
force from the torque would be Ff = T/r (where T is the torque and r is the radius of
the potentiometer's shaft). Likewise, the gravity force would be Fg = mg (where m is
the mass tied to the string and g is the gravitational acceleration). A force balance then
gives T = mr (g-a), where a is the acceleration of the mass. If the assumption holds
that the only friction affecting the potentiometer was constant Coulomb friction, then
each mass would undergo a constant acceleration.

The potentiometer measured voltage versus time for the masses as they dropped, but
the measurement of interest to us was position versus time. For that reason, a
'calibration' was performed before we measured any data. In the calibration, the
potentiometer's initial voltage was measured. Then the string was pulled a set distance

43
(2 inches), and the voltage was recorded. This process of pulling the string a set
distance and recording the voltage continued another two times (see Appendix A for
the results). To determine the relationship between voltage and position, the
differences in the voltages were averaged and divided by the length. The resulting
relationship was 0.9661 volts/inch.

Five different masses were used to test the assumption of constant acceleration. For
each mass, the string was rolled up on the shaft, the oscilloscope was triggered, and
the shaft was released. As each mass dropped, the oscilloscope collected the
potentiometer's voltage versus the time. After obtaining plots for each mass, we used
the voltage-position relationship, mentioned above, to convert the data from the form
voltage versus time to the form position versus time squared. The residuals of the data
determined whether the assumption of constant acceleration was valid.

Results and Discussion

The heart of a laboratory report is the presentation of the results and the discussion of
those results. In some formats, "Results" and "Discussion" appear as separate sections.
However, P.B. Medawar [1979] makes a strong case that the two should appear
together, particularly when you have many results to present (otherwise, the audience
is faced with a "dump" of information that is impossible to synthesize). Much here
depends upon your experiment and the purpose of your laboratory report. Therefore,
pay attention to what your laboratory instructor requests. Also, use your judgment. For
instance, combine these sections when the discussion of your first result is needed to
understand your second result, but separate these sections when it is useful to discuss
the results as a whole after all results are reported.

In discussing the results, you should not only analyze the results, but also discuss the
implications of those results. Moreover, pay attention to the errors that existed in the
experiment, both where they originated and what their significance is for interpreting

44
the the reliability of conclusions. One important way to present numerical results is to
show them in graphs.

Conclusions

In longer laboratory reports, a "Conclusion" section often appears. Whereas the

"Results and Discussion" section has discussed the results individually, the "Conclusion"
section discusses the results in the context of the entire experiment. Usually, the
objectives mentioned in the "Introduction" are examined to determined whether the
experiment succeeded. If the objectives were not met, you should analyze why the
results were not as predicted. Note that in shorter reports or in reports where
"Discussion" is a separate section from "Results," you often do not have a "Conclusion"
section

Appendices

In a laboratory report, appendices often are included. One type of appendix that
appears in laboratory reports presents information that is too detailed to be placed into
the report's text. For example, if you had a long table giving voltage-current
measurements for an RLC circuit, you might place this tabular information in an
appendix and include a graph of the data in the report's text. Another type of appendix
that often appears in laboratory reports presents tangential information that does not
directly concern the experiment's objectives.

If the appendix is "formal," it should contain a beginning, middle, and ending. For
example, if the appendix contains tables of test data, the appendix should not only
contain the tabular data, but also formally introduce those tables, discuss why they
have been included, and explain the unusual aspects that might confuse the reader.
Because of time constraints, your instructor might allow you to include "informal"
appendices with calculations and supplemental information. For such "informal"
situations, having a clear beginning, middle, and ending is not necessary. However, you

45
should still title the appendix, place a heading on each table, place a caption beneath
each figure, and insert comments necessary for reader understanding.

2.3.3 Feasibility reports

These discuss the practicality, and possibly the suitability and compatibility of a given
project, both in physical and economic terms. They also discuss the desirability of the
proposed project from the viewpoint of those who would be affected by it. Report
writers must come to a conclusion, and must recommend that some action is taken or is
not taken and/or that some choice is adopted or is rejected.
What points should I bear in mind?
You must be unbiased and your approach must be logical. Be sure that you know the
precise purpose of the proposed project and also its scope
What would be a suitable format?
This is a suitable format for a feasibility report:
1. Abstract
2. Summary
3. Contents list (including a separate list of illustrations)
4. Glossary
5. Introduction (purpose and scope)
6. Discussion (the main body providing the evidence – use appendixes if
necessary)
7. Conclusions (flowing naturally from the discussion)
8. Recommendations (flowing naturally from the conclusions)
9. References (if necessary)
10. Appendixes (see section 6).
Sometimes sections 1 and 2 are combined.

2.3.4 Progress reports

These are periodic reports which, as their name suggests, describe how some activity or
process is progressing. They are often built up from workers‘ daily logs, supervisors‘
reports, and so on.
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What points should I bear in mind?
Progress reports will be required in one of three circumstances:
 on a regular basis
 at certain times during an activity or process, or
 as and when required.
They record progress over a specific period of time, and they make comparisons from
period to period by identifying changes and their underlying causes and effects. They
are essential for effective decision making so they must be clear, accurate and
unambiguous
What would be a suitable format? Most organizations have standard printed
progress report forms, although headings vary considerably. Here is one simple format:
1. Introduction
o the period of work covered
o the work planned
o the authority for the work
o the progress to date
2. Main Body
o the work completed
o how the work has been completed
o the work planned for the future
o an overall appraisal of the progress to date.

2.3.5 Research reports

The purpose of a research report is to extend our understanding of the world by
reducing uncertainty and increasing our understanding of it.
What points should I bear in mind?
Results alone are never enough. As you will see from the typical format described
below, you must be able to assess and then evaluate the reliability of the results. You
must say precisely how the work was carried out, what methods were used to collect

47
the data, and how it was analyzed. Conclusions and recommendations must be drafted
with great care.
What would be a suitable format?
This is a typical format for a research report:
1. Contents page
2. Introduction
o Set the scene; give a clear statement of the objectives and scope of the
research
o What was known about the subject at the beginning of the research?
o Put the project into its proper context.
o Give the reason(s) for the research.
o Discuss the events which led up to it.
o Assess the importance of other, related work.
3. Work carried out
o Describe the overall shape and design of the research.
o Describe the methods used (for example, sampling methods).
o Describe the actual work carried out, probably in chronological order.
o Explain how the results were analyzed (for example, input to a computer).
4. The Results
o In an academic report, give full results (with an interpretation in a
separate section).
o In a non-academic report, you can omit some results (or at least put them
in an appendix) and emphasize significant results.
o Concentrate on each objective of the research in turn.
o Structure your results around these objectives.
o Discuss the results; form links; build up an overall picture.
o Distinguish ‗facts‘ from interpretations, inferences, predictions or
deductions.

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5. Conclusions
o Make sure they flow naturally from the results.
o Each one must be supported by your findings and/or other research.
o If no clear picture has emerged, then say so.
o Do not see relationships that do not exist.
6. Recommendations
o These should flow naturally from your conclusions, with no surprises.
7. Appendixes
o Include items which would disturb the flow of the report (for example,
survey forms and questionnaires).

2.4 Components of technical report

There are common technical writing formats and styles used by scientists and
engineers. Format here refers to the ordering of the report‘s components and the
physical layout of a document. The format is thus the placement of the basic elements
in the technical papers or reports. As a result, technical writing is a more structured one
than that used for other forms of writing. Technical writing is done with a singular style
and format that describes:
 Why you are doing the work (introduction)
 What you did (procedure)
 What happened (results)
 What it means (discussion)
 What was learned (conclusions)
 What is to be done with the results or with the new information or
knowledge (recommendations?)

Style on the other hand is the way that you write. The appropriate style for technical
writing is objective. Technical documents present data, facts, calculations, test results,
and theories, and these must be presented in an objective, fact-based accurate manner

49
that is not opinionated-a style that ensures technical information and processes that
can be relayed from you to readers. Conclusions are inferred from test results;
recommendations are the logical outcome of the conclusions.

A well-crafted formal report is formatted such that the report's information is readily
accessible to all the audiences. For that reason, formal reports are split into different
sections. One way to group these sections is in terms of the front matter, main text,
and back matter. The front matter, which presents preliminary information for the
report, serves to orient all intended audiences to what the report contains. The text
portion of the formal report is the report's "story" and contains the introduction,
discussion, and conclusion of the report. The text delivers a methodical explanation of
the report's work to the report's primary audience. The report's back matter portion,
which contains the appendices, glossary, and references, serves to provide secondary
information to all readers as well as primary information to secondary readers.

Front Cover: The front cover of a formal report is important. The front cover is what
people see first. When the report sits flat on a desk, the front cover is in view.
Therefore, the front cover should contain the report's title and the author's name.
Because reports are often revised and republished, the front cover should also contain
the date of publication. The front cover has no page number. Space the title, name,
and date to achieve a nice balance on the page. If possible, type the title in a larger
font size than the name and date. Use initial capitals for the title.

Title Page: The title page for a formal report often contains the same information as is
on the cover. In some formats, there is a summary included. Most often, because of
space restrictions, that summary is descriptive (more like a table of contents in
paragraph form). Sometimes, though, this initial summary is informative and geared
toward the technical audience of the report. In such situations, that summary is often
named an "Abstract." Note that the title page is numbered "i" (the actual presence of a
page number on the first page is optional).

50
Contents Page: The table of contents includes the names of all the headings and
subheadings for the main text. In addition, the table of contents includes names of all
headings (but not subheadings) in the front matter and back matter. For instance, the
contents page includes listings for the appendices (including appendix titles), the
glossary, and the references.

List of Figures and Tables

These two separate lists assist readers in locating your photos, drawings, tables, graphs
and charts. Like the Table of Contents, you need to present both of these in an
organized, appealing format. Figures include diagrams, graphs, sketches, photographs
and maps. Tables represent data in columns. All figures and tables should be numbered
and labeled. This caption is placed above a table and below a figure. Each should have
a very simple, descriptive caption explaining the figure or table. Any symbols or
abbreviations used in the figure or table must be explained in the text. The figure must
also be referred to in the text, identified by its number (e.g. Figure 4 shows pore
pressure ...). Avoid using ―the figure above‖ or ―the figure below‖, as text locations may
change when editing your report. All figures and tables must be referenced if copied or
adapted from another source.

Executive/abstract/Summary

Perhaps no term in engineering writing is as confusing as the term "summary." In

general there are two types of summaries: descriptive summaries and informative
summaries. A descriptive summary describes what kind of information is in the report; it
is a table of contents in paragraph form. An informative summary is a synopsis of the
text portion of the report; it is analogous to a baseball box score. Unfortunately, few
people use these terms to name the summaries in reports. The names you're likely to
run into are "abstract," "executive summary," and plain old "summary."

An "abstract" usually, but not always, refers to a summary written to a technical

audience, and depending on its length can be either descriptive, informative, or a

51
combination of both. As you might imagine, short abstracts are typically descriptive and
longer abstracts are typically informative. Abstracts generally do not include
illustrations. Sometimes the word "abstract" is preceded by the word "descriptive,"
which is usually a clue that you should write a descriptive summary written to a
technical audience. Other times the word "abstract" is preceded by the word
"technical," which is usually a clue that an informative summary written to a technical
audience is called for.

An "executive summary ―is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an

informative summary written to a management audience. Because it is informative, it
includes the most important results and conclusions of the document. Because it is
written to a management audience, it includes enough background for the manager to
understand those results and conclusions. Stylistically, it is tailored so that a manager
can read it quickly and garner what happened in the report. Whether it contains
illustrations or not depends on the format.

The catch-all term "summary" can be most anything--a descriptive summary, an

informative summary, a summary with illustrations, a summary without. A Summary/an
abstract is generally a stand-alone report which include:

o The overall purpose of the experiment or principal objectives

o The problem studied

o Experimental methods and materials used.

o Main results and Main conclusions

Main Text /Report Body

The text/body portion of your formal technical report presents an introduction, theory
and experimental procedures, discussions and conclusion of your report. Throughout
the body, you should include text (both your own and research from other sources),
graphics, and lists. Whenever you cite information or use graphics from another source,

52
you must credit these sources within your text. Begin all major headings
("Introduction," for example) on a new page. Use Arabic numerals for numbering pages
of the text and begin the first page of your text as page 1.

Introduction:

The introduction of a report prepares readers for understanding the discussion of the
report. It provides a context for the work discussed in the report. It should motivate
why you have done the work, and demonstrate your awareness of related literature.
More specifically, it does the following:

o Defines the work/experiment performed.

o Defines the scientific purpose or objective for the experiment.

o Includes a description of the problem and reasons for the work being
done.

o Gives sufficient background information to the report.

Must answer the questions: Why was this study performed? What is the specific
purpose
Theory
This section is mostly embedded in the introduction, especially if it is simple and the
paper is reporting a specific sub-task like a lab experiment. Theory explains the
technical background of the work. It usually includes the mathematical equations,
models, and formulae, as well as the
What was discovered? scientific relations in its final forms, which governs the work,
referenced to its original sources. If any derivations are required or needed to backup
the work, they are detailed in the appendix and only the beginning and final relations
are mentioned in this part, with reference to the appropriate section in the appendix.
Any equations or models should be formatted and numbered according to the standards
followed in technical writing.

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Experimental Procedure:
This section describes and explains the steps and process of the experiment in
chronological order. You should:
o Give detailed information in a paragraph structure that allows the reader
to duplicate/repeat the experiment exactly.

o Give the information in a step-by-step format.

o Write mainly in the passive voice.

Results and Discussion

The discussion or middle is the story of your work. You do not necessarily present
results in the order that you understood them, but in the order that is easiest for your
readers to understand them. In your discussion, you not only present results, but you
also evaluate those results. Note that you do not generally use the word "Discussion" as
the title for the major headings in this part of the report. Rather, you choose titles that
reflect the content of the sections.

The results to the technical report should be analyzed, interpreted and stated clearly.
The use of figures and tables usually incorporated should have labels referenced in the
text and fully explained and interpreted. Any errors should be discussed and explained
with regards to how they occurred and how they affected the conclusion. An error
analysis is usually an essential part of the discussion and provides a comparison to
expected results. Data presented as results should be well organized. Numerical data
should be included in graphs or tables to provide the best possible information about
the real situation. This section should answer the questions:
o What do the results clearly indicate?
o What is the significance of the results?
o Are the results fully discussed and conclusions drawn based on the
knowledge gained?
o How did errors occur?
o Did any of the errors affect the conclusion of the experiment/study?

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Conclusion: The conclusion section analyzes for the most important results from the
discussion and evaluates those results in the context of the entire work. The conclusion:
o Must answer any questions raised in the introduction regarding what was
shown, discovered, verified, proved, or disproved.

o Must explain why the experiment is significant.

o Must explain the implications for your particular field of study

o It should not include discussion of new information not already mentioned

in the report.

In your conclusion, you often make recommendations based on those evaluations. The
conclusion is much like an informative summary except for one thing-in the conclusion,
you are writing to an audience who has read your report. Note that you do not
necessarily have to use the word "Conclusion" as the title for this section. Depending on
the situation, you might for example choose "Conclusions and Recommendations." In
still other situations, your conclusion might span two sections.

Back Matters

The back matter portion of your report contains your appendices, glossary, and
references. The back matter portion usually begins on the page following the
conclusion. Continue numbering back matter pages with Arabic numerals. In other
words, if the conclusion section ends on page 16, the first appendix will begin on page
17.

Appendices: Use appendices to present supplemental information for secondary

readers. When the occasion arises in the text, refer readers to information in the
appendix. For example:

This section compares three software pages to run tests on Homodyne‘s blood analyzer.
Homodyne‘s blood analyzer performs test for such diseases as syphilis, tuberculosis,

55
and the AIDS virus. The analyzer has a complex design, which is discussed in Appendix
B. The three software packages considered in this report are...

Treat each appendix as a major heading. If you have only appendix, call it the
"Appendix." If you have more than one appendix, number the appendices with letters:
Appendix A, Appendix B, and so on. As with all major headings, skip three returns from
the top margin and center the appendix name and title. Illustrations in appendices are
numbered as follows. In both a single appendix and in an Appendix A, figures and
tables are numbered A-1, A-2, and so on. Equations in Appendix A are numbered in the
same way. In an Appendix B, illustrations and equations follow a B sequence.

Glossary: Use a glossary to define terms for secondary readers. Arrange terms in
alphabetical order. Use italics or underlines to key readers to terms that the glossary
will define. Footnote the first italicized or underlined term in the text and key readers to
the location of glossary, where that term and all future underlined or italicized terms
will be defined. Use a reverse indent for each definition and treat each definition as a
separate paragraph.

References: Use a reference page to list alphabetically the references of your report.
Also skip a space between each citation.

Writing and organizing reports

Writing is a process. Good writing doesn‘t happen overnight; it requires planning,

drafting, rereading, revising, and editing.

Clear presentation of results is at least as important as the results themselves;

therefore, writing a report is an exercise in effective communication of technical
information. Results, such as numerical values, designed systems or graphs by
themselves are not very useful. To be meaningful to others, results must be supported
by a written explanation describing how results were obtained and what significance

56
they hold, or how a designed system actually functions. Although the person reading
the report may have a technical background, the author should assume unfamiliarity
with related theory and procedures. The author must therefore supply details that may
appear obvious or unnecessary.

Good report organization should promote readability and reflect the scientific method of
attack, which proceeds with objective, method, results, and conclusions. It is logical to
report a project in the sequence in which it is done, and many engineering reports are
organized on this basis. Two improvements to the logical sequence are the addition of
an abstract or executive summary and the insertion of headlines. These two features
facilitate ―scanning‖ of the report. Thus, a busy executive or engineer may quickly
assess the major findings and conclusions of the report, and then easily find further
details as required.

In writing a full-length engineering report, you should start with a report outline, and
then proceed to a rough draft. The outline defines the organization of the report, and
the rough draft serves to avoid omissions. Once the content is established, the rough
draft is refined for clarity and conciseness. After proofreading and correction of minor
mistakes, the finished product is produced. This entire writing process is most easily
done using a word processor. ―Spell checkers‖ are particularly useful in removing
spelling or typographical mistakes.
The outline for a general full-length engineering report contains the following items:
1. Title
2. Summary or Abstract (Executive Summary)
3. Introduction
4. Theory and Analysis
5. Experimental Procedures
6. Results and Discussions
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
8. Acknowledgments
9. Literature Cited
10. Appendix

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The individual sections of the report will have headings, which are made to stand out
with underlined, bold, italic, or large size print. The names of the sections may be more
descriptive than the generic names listed above. Headings may be numbered, especially
in longer reports, theses or books. Longer documents may also have subheadings
within sections.

A title page should be used with full identification including names and dates. If the
report is long, a table of contents should follow the title page.

The abstract should summarize the major points in the report in concise manner and
should allow the reader to make a decision on whether or not to read the full paper.
The first sentence should state what was accomplished. The abstract is not a
condensation of the entire paper, but rather a clear statement of the project scope,
results achieved, and the conclusions and recommendations drawn from the results.

An introduction is desirable to indicate the background of the project and the reasons
for undertaking it. Some information on previous work is usually included.

In the theory and analysis section, pertinent principles, laws, and equations should be
stated and unfamiliar terms should be defined. Analytical diagrams such as theoretical
cycles or flow and field patterns should be shown here. Be sure to include all necessary
supporting theory without adding deadwood.

The experimental procedures section should describe apparatus and materials.

Instrument types, ranges, and identification numbers should be indicated. A sketch of
the test setup showing relative positions, connections, and flows should be included.
Preliminary results, equalizing periods, duration of runs, and frequency of readings
should be indicated. Special precautions for obtaining accuracy and for controlling
conditions should be described. Conformity with or divergence from standard test codes
or procedures should be clearly stated.

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The results and discussion section should summarize the important findings with
supporting tables, graphs, and figures. Original data or extensive data tables should be
included in appendices. Graphical representation is very important in conveying
quantitative results. The use of logarithmic or other special scales should be considered.
Deviations from smooth curves should be carefully checked. Apparent discrepancies
should be pointed out and explained.

The discussion should describe the accuracy and importance of the results. Sources of
measurement error should be evaluated. Results should be critically compared with
theory, and differences greater than the experimental errors should be explained.
Limitations of the theory and tolerances in engineering values should be considered.
Conclusions should be supported by specific references to data and results, quoting
numerical values, and guiding the reader from facts to conclusions. Conclusions should
follow directly from the numerical results quoted, without the need for mental
arithmetic by the reader. Omit any part of the discussion which could be written without
performing the experiment.

The conclusions and recommendations section should summarize the conclusions which
have been drawn. These conclusions may be supported by brief reference to data or
results. Recommendations are often more important than conclusions. Few
experimental projects are an end in themselves. Either the results are to be used for a
purpose, or the experimenter sees more work that could be done. In student reports,
recommendations on improving the laboratory experiments, equipment or procedures
are accepted gratefully.

Acknowledgments are usually unnecessary in a student report. They are very important
in theses, journal articles, or company reports. Always acknowledge all other
contributors to the work, people who have contributed ideas or materials, and sources
of financial support.

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The bibliography must list sources to which direct reference was made in the text.
Other general references may also be given. Numbered footnotes, or preferably
endnotes, are used to list sources in the order of reference.

2.5 Language of technical report writing

Technical writing requires a strong foundation in general writing, including knowledge
of common grammar and punctuation conventions. The process is interactive and
involves multiple reviews and revisions prior to publication.

Primarily, the aim of technical writing is to inform rather than to entertain. Hence, the
style or principle of writing adopted is generally simple and concise. As informing an
audience is the primary aim of the scientific writer, emotive language is avoided. The
scientific writer should try to transmit information as objectively as possible and should
take a scientific standpoint... Thus, there is no room for ―I think...‖, or ―I believe‖,
expressions.

2.5.1 Some Technical Writing Principles

A. Conciseness
A hallmark of good technical papers and reports is that they are as concise as is
consistent with being complete and unambiguous. Most readers are busy people, and
the writer should avoid too many long sentences, wordiness and redundancy.
Sentences with 4 or more clauses, or parts, are confusing to read. Your text will
probably read better if you consider making two sentences rather than one long
sentence. If you want to include a qualification or an example then a long sentence is
usually appropriate. Use words and expressions economically. If you can use one word
instead of 2 or 3 then chose the one word (get around = avoid). This also creates a
more written and formal style. In writing a technical report, one can often assume that
the audience is familiar with the scientific and engineering terminology. Consider the
following Examples:
a. After consulting three manufacturers: Dibble and Co., Sooky Ltd. and Bungle Pty, we
have found that there are two types of vibration suppression devices for portable CD

60
players and both are simple in design but have inherent drawbacks. (Long and
unconcise sentence)

b. Three manufacturers were consulted: Dibble and Co., Sooky Ltd. and Bungle Pty. We
have found two types of vibration suppression devices for portable CD players. Both
types are simple in design but each has inherent drawbacks. (More concise sentence)

Consider further the following excerpt from the middle of a doctoral thesis proposal.
A schematic illustration of the spot friction welding process is shown in Figure 1. The
process is applied to join the two metal sheets as shown. A rotating tool with a probe
pin is first plunged into the upper sheet. When the rotating tool contacts the upper
sheet, a downward force is applied. A backing plate beneath the lower sheet is used to
support the downward force of the tool. The downward force and the rotational speed
of the tool are maintained for an appropriate time to generate frictional heat. Then,
heated and softened material adjacent to the tool deforms plastically, and a solid-state
bond is made between the surfaces of the upper and lower sheets. Finally, the tool is
drawn out of the sheets as shown in Figure 1.

This could be rewritten in a much more concise form without any loss of meaning as:
Figure 1 is a schematic illustration of spot friction welding of two sheets. A rotating tool
with a probe pin is plunged into the upper sheet. A backing tool beneath the lower
sheet supports the downward force of the tool. The force and rotational speed are
maintained long enough to generate heat. The heated material adjacent to the tool
deforms plastically and forms a solid-state bond. Note that the number of words is
reduced from 130 to 66.

B. Clarity
Technical writing should be unambiguous so the audience knows exactly what the
writer intends .Ambiguity can happen when you do not specify what you are writing
about and can even depend how you use words like ‗it‘, ‗this‘, ‗thing‘, ‗way‘, ‗some‘ ,etc.

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Do not use contractions of verbs and pronouns as these are ‗spoken forms‘ (doesn‘t,
can‘t, it‘s, they‘re). The formal writing you will do at university and in the workplace will
require the full form (does not, cannot, it is, they are). Here is an example paragraph
taken from a student report:

The cast is removed from the oven and molten metal was poured into the mold until
the sprue filled. The mold is cooled until the metal is no longer red-hot. It is then placed
into a water bath to remove the investment from the casting.

Here there is confusion between the words cast, mold, and investment. It is not clear
what is meant by the word cast. It is unnecessary to refer to filling of the sprue, and
the word bath adds nothing. A shorter and more precise version might be: Molten
metal is poured into a preheated investment mold. When the casting is no longer hot, it
is plunged into water, facilitating removal of the investment.
C. Correctness
Check that the spelling, punctuation and grammar of your sentences are correct. Use
computer spell checkers with care and make sure that you know which word to select.
Many easily corrected errors in your written work will affect your presentation and your
marks. Sometimes you can see errors more easily if you do not proof read your writing
till a day or two after you finish. This is called ‗the drawer treatment‘.

a. The way we did the experiment was not so successful. Some of what we needed
wasn‘t there. (Unclear sentence)
b. We were unable to complete the experiment. The glass tubing and tripods required
for the experiment were not located in laboratory G025. (Clear expression)

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 2.5.2 Pronouns, Voice, Tense, Adverbs and Adjectives
For many years, it was customary to write scientific papers in the third person, passive
voice, and past tense. Even today, this style is preferred by many. More and more,
however, the first person, active voice, past tense is becoming the preferred style
A. The Pronoun ‘I’
There are various considerations for using or not using ‗I‘ in technical and scientific
writing.
Reasons for using ‘I’ include:
• The more practiced a writer is, the more latitude the writer can have in being casual
or creative.
• If a writer is Nobel laureates, an accomplished engineer/scientist/professional, then as
an ‗expert‘ in their field the writer can use ‗I‘ to give authority to their ideas
Reasons for not using ‘I’ include:
When ‗I‘ is used too often it can make your writing sound casual or spoken in style
rather than formal and objective.
• Not using ‗I‘ can make your writing more believable. The reader may interpret your
use of ‗I‘ to mean that you are not aware of formal writing conventions. By following
conventions you show you are aware of the practices in your field.
The reader may also interpret your use of ‗I‘ to mean that you are not aware or clear
about what other experts in the field have done or think, so instead you are making
your own choice.
• In a student‘s writing using ‗I‘ can suggest absorption with the self or that the student
does not recognize that their work needs to stand up to scrutiny.
B. The Use of Voice
In the past, it has been customary to write reports in passive voice in recognition of
the fact that the writer's relationship to the material he/she is presenting is a purely
objective one, a practice which is still adhered to in the preparation of material for the
more conservative technical publications. But, nowadays, there is a growing trend to
use active voice, at least occasionally, where it may be effective to do so, as in
emphasizing an especially pertinent point or in avoiding the awkwardness of a weak

63
passive. For example, "It was desired that the values be checked," may better be
rendered as, "We were asked to check the values." Using active voice in your writing
creates a direct and concise message, which also makes your writing easier to read.
The letter of transmittal, by preference, should be written in active voice because it may
be the writer's only opportunity to speak as him/herself and not as an impersonal
agent. . Most writing will have a mixture of active and passive clauses depending on
what word is chosen for the subject of a sentence.
C. Tense:
The procedural, narrative part of the report, including the calculations, should be
written in past tense, because the writer is giving an account of what he/she did or has
done. The present tense is to be used only for expounding theory and principles
involved, for stating known fact, and for explaining figures and diagrams. Fore example,
it is okay to use the present tense when stating an enduring truth like ―Current passing
through a resistor causes it to heat up.‖
Occasionally, the past perfect tense can be used to describe a prior event. Future tense
is rarely used in technical reports, because reports focus mainly on work that has been
completed or that is in progress. The difference in tenses is illustrated by the following
sentences:
Past tense: A break in the circuit interrupted the current.
Perfect tense: A break in the circuit had interrupted the current.
Present tense: Current passing through a resistor causes it to heat up
It is usually best to pick a tense and be consistent with it in your writing. Frequent
shifting of tenses can leave the reader confused.
D. Adverbs and Adjectives

State clear facts precisely and avoid flowery language. For the most part, eliminate
adverbs and adjectives, which can interfere with the precise, clear, and straightforward
writing needed to communicate technical and scientific processes. See the following pair
of sentences.

64
a. The wind was blowing fiercely and the air outside was growing chilled. (Literary
sentence)
b. Onshore winds travelling at 45km per hour brought temperatures down to 15
degrees
Celsius. (Scientific sentence)

Miscellaneous

Abbreviations and Acronyms

In scientific and technical writing abbreviations and acronyms are commonly used.
Abbreviations are pronounced as letters, e.g. UNSW, whereas acronyms are
pronounced as words, e.g. laser. The first time you use an abbreviation or acronym,
you must spell out the full term followed by the abbreviation or acronym in brackets.
Subsequent use of the term is then made by its abbreviation or acronym.
E.g. The University of New South Wales (UNSW) is situated on Anzac Parade,
Kensington. The best way to travel to UNSW is by public transport.
The use of an abbreviation is largely dictated by the number of times you are going to
be using the term. If the term is only to be used three or four times, it may be better to
use the full term each time. This will improve readability, especially if you are using a
number of different abbreviations throughout your report.
Equations and Formulae
Each equation is to be placed on a line by itself. Equations that will be referred to in
the text of the report should be numbered, with the numbers flush with the right
margin. This number is used for identification throughout the rest of the text. All
statements relating to equations are to be treated as sentences and punctuated
accordingly, although a period is not required after an equation when it is on a line by
itself.
Example: The results are plotted in Figure 5. The data show good agreement with the
straight line of slope 1/2. Thus, the order of the reaction, n, is n = 1/2 (10) Equations
are generally centred, with consecutive equations on separate lines and with the equal
sign (=) vertically aligned, e.g.

65
y = mx + b (1)
X =l(h + f) (2)

Figures and Tables

Figures include diagrams, graphs, sketches, photographs and maps. Tables represent
data in columns. All figures and tables should be numbered and labeled. This caption is
placed above a table and below a figure. Each should have a very simple, descriptive
caption explaining the figure or table. Any symbols or abbreviations used in the figure
or table must be explained in the text. The figure must also be referred to in the text,
identified by its number (e.g. Figure 4 shows pore pressure ... ). Avoid using ―the figure
above‖ or ―the figure below‖, as text locations may change when editing your report. All
figures and tables must be referenced if copied or adapted from another source.
Non-Discriminatory y Language
The use of non-discriminatory language is a legal obligation for all writers. It aims for
truthful reporting of the facts. You should avoid statements that suggest bias or
prejudice towards any group. You should also avoid making unsupported statements
about a person‘s age, economic class, national origin, political or religious beliefs, race
or sex. For example, referring to all persons in an industry as ‗he‘ can be inaccurate
and misleading. It is best to name the profession using a non-sexist term (e.g.; police
officer).
2.5.3 Report Mechanics
1. Commas
1.1. A. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, yet, nor, so)
that joins two independent clauses.
The power supply was not damaged, but all of the integrated circuits burned up.
1.1. B. A comma is not required if the clauses are short and closely related:
Jose typed and Philip watched.
1.1. C. If the coordinate clauses are long or contain commas themselves, semicolons
may be used to separate them in order to avoid confusion.

66
The teaching assistant provided the students with circuit diagrams, and checked their
wiring; but several components were damaged when they applied power.

1.2 Use a comma to separate an introductory element (clause, phrase, conjunctive

adverb, or mild interjection) from the rest of the sentence.
If you ground two points in the circuit, a fuse may blow. (Clause)
Nevertheless, the doping behavior of gallium nitride is still not fully understood.
(Conjunctive adverb)
1.3. Use commas to set off parenthetical elements or interrupters (including transitional
adverbs):
The motor, which had been used for several years, suddenly failed.
1.4. Use commas to join items in a series. Except in journalism, this includes a comma
before the conjunction that links the last item to the rest of the series:
Measurements were made using Fluke digital millimeters, an analog wattmeter, and a
Hewlett Packard oscilloscope.
1.5. Sometimes commas are required to avoid the confusion of mistaken junction:
She recognized the man who entered the room, and gasped.
2. Semicolons
2.1 Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses that are closely related in meaning
and are not joined by a coordinating conjunction.
2.2 Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second one begins with
or includes a conjunctive adverb (nevertheless, therefore, however, otherwise, as a
result).
2.3 To avoid confusion, use semicolons to separate items in a series when one or more
of the items includes commas.
3. Colons
3.1 Use a colon to introduce a list, an example, amplification, or an explanation directly
related to something just mentioned.
3.2 Use a colon to introduce a formal statement or quotation.

67
4. Dashes
In typing, make a dash with two hyphens, leaving no space between them. Common
word processors will convert two hyphens into a thin, continuous line. Dashes are
somewhat informal—use them sparingly.
4.1 Use a dash to introduce a summarizing word, phrase, or clause, such as an
appositive (a noun set beside another noun and identifying it):
Richard Stone‘s book describes overhead cams, double overhead cams, and overhead
valves—all the important valve train configurations.
4.2 Use dashes to mark off a parenthetical element that represents an abrupt break in
thought.
Reagan‘s sweep of the south—he won every state but Georgia—was the most
humiliating defeat for Carter.
4.3 To avoid confusion, use dashes to mark off parenthetical elements that contain
internal commas:
Seven of our first twelve presidents—Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe,
Harrison, Tyler, and Taylor—were from Virginia.
5. Parentheses
5.1. A Use parentheses to enclose parenthetical elements.
5.1. B A parenthesized sentence that appears within another sentence need not begin
with a capital or end with a period.
5.1. C A comma may follow the closing parenthesis, but one should not precede the
opening parenthesis.
6. Ellipsis Dots
6.1 Use three spaced dots to signal omission of a word or words in the middle of a
quoted sentence or to signal hesitation or halting speech in dialogue.
6.2 Use four spaced dots to signal the omission of the end of a quoted sentence, or to
signal the omission of one or more whole sentences.
7. Hyphens
7.1 Use a hyphen to form a compound noun or a compound modifier:
Rebecca Lobo was a scholar-athlete.
7.2 Use a hyphen between the components of any number (including fractions) below
one hundred that is written as two words:
One-half, forty-three, two-thirds
8. Apostrophes
8.1 Use apostrophe ‘s to indicate singular possessive:
Most of the machines use Intel‘s Pentium chip.
8.2 Use s, apostrophe to indicate plural possessive:
The students‘ lounge contains eight IBM workstations and a laser printer.

68
8.3 Use apostrophe, s to form the plural of abbreviations with periods, lowercase
letters used as nouns, and capital letters that would be confusing without the
apostrophe:
M.S.‘s and Ph.D.‘s S‘s and T‘s x‘s or y‘s
8.4 When it can be done without confusion, use s alone to form the plural of letters,
figures, and words treated as words: three Rs they come in twos the 1990s
9. Italics
Underlining may be used as a substitute for italics.
9.1 Use italics to emphasize a word or phrase.
9.2 Use italics to identify a letter treated as a letter or a word treated as a word.
He used the word microchip fifty-four times in his speech.
9.3 Use italics to identify foreign words or phrases not yet absorbed into English.
10. Titles
10.1 Italicize or underline the titles of books, magazines, journals, newspapers, films,
radio shows, and television shows.
10.2 Enclose in quotation marks the titles of journal articles, newspaper columns,
songs, short stories, and book chapters.
11. Numbers
11.1 Spell out a number when it begins a sentence.
11.2 Spell out a number that can be written in one or two words.
Twenty-three six four billion
11.3 If numbers that can be written as one or two words cluster closely together in the
sentence, use numerals instead:
We took measurements at 2, 5, 10, 12, and 15 GHz.
11.4 Use numerals if spelling out a number would require more than two words:
301 7,012 7.38 2.1 x 10-4
11.5 Use numerals for addresses, dates, exact times, exact sums of money, exact
measurements, game scores, mathematical ratios, and page numbers:
p. 6 75 mph a 2:1 ratio 12:50 am

69
12. Quotation Marks
12.1 Use double quotation marks to create irony by setting off words you do not take at
face value.
His ―lecture‖ pertained mostly to his visit to the Hawaiian volcanoes.
12.2 Do not use quotation marks to create emphasis.
12.3 Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.
12.4 If the quotation will take more than three or four lines on the page, use
indentation instead of quotation marks.
12.5 Do not use quotation marks with indirect discourse, or with rhetorical, unspoken,
or imaginary questions:
The professor said we could submit the homework on Friday.
Why am I studying business administration? She wondered.
13. Punctuating Quotations
13.1 Do not use a comma to mark the end of a quoted sentence that is followed by an
identifying tag if the quoted sentence ends in a question mark or an exclamation point:
―Hit the kill switch!‖ he screamed.
13.2 Commas and periods go inside closing quotation marks; semicolons and colons go
outside the closing quotation marks.
14. Introducing Indented Quotations, Lists, and Formulas
The punctuation immediately following the introduction to an indented quotation, list, or
formula is determined by the grammatical structure.
14.1 If the introduction is a main clause, follow it with a colon:
Each student was asked to buy the following: a protoboard , a digital multimeter, a
laboratory manual, a component kit
14.2 If the introductory element is not a main clause, follow it with a comma if one is
required by 1.2:
In VLSI Fabrication Principles, S. K. Ghandhi points out that
The MOS transistor is the most promising active component for silicon VLSI circuits at
the present time. There are a number of reasons for this choice. First, it is self-isolating,
so that devices can be placed side by side on a chip without the need for providing
isolation tubs. As a result, it is considerably smaller than its bipolar counterpart.
14.3 If the introductory element is not a main clause and a comma is not required,
follow it with no punctuation at all.
15. Punctuating Indented Lists
The items in a vertical list may be preceded by bullets or sequential numbers, or they
may stand alone. The following devices can be modeled in PSPICE:
resistors
capacitors
inductors
diodes
BJTs

70
JFETs
MOSFETs
The advantages of BiCMOS are
1. the quiescent dissipation is very low;
2. the packing density is very high; and
3. high off-chip data rates are possible.
16. Question Marks
Use a question mark at the end of an interrogative element within or at the end of a
sentence.
Why am I studying chemical engineering? she wondered.
17. Exclamation Points
Use exclamation points sparingly; too many of them will blunt your report.

2.6 Format and style of technical report

Many considerations and decisions are required when choosing your overall layout and
design. In particular, you will need to think about:

 format
 page size and orientation
 margins and spacing
 headings and subheadings
 numbering.

Format

Reports of today do not have to look like the traditional reports of yesterday. They can
look interesting and make people want to read them. Word processing and desktop
publishing techniques can be used to create new, reader-friendly reports in exciting
formats such as modern, ultra-modern and enhanced modern.

A traditional report is the kind produced on a typewriter. A modern report takes this
format one stage further by adding lines and boxes, changing font sizes and using
italics. In an enhanced modern report, images are added and manipulated. This is an
excellent format for reports because people are used to reading newspapers, journals
and magazines presented in this way.

71
Paper and margins
 White A4 paper is appropriate, and printing on one side only is often preferred
for assessment purposes.
 Each major section of the report begins on a new page; this may be
inappropriate for very short sections or short reports.
 Wide margins are recommended; for example, allowing 2.5 cm on all sides.
 Bound reports have a left-hand margin of at least 3.5 cm, and 1.5 on the other
three sides.
Page numbering
 The title page should not be numbered
 All other pages may be numbered either in the right-hand upper corner, or in the
centre at the bottom of the page.
 Roman numerals — i, ii, iii, iv etc. — are usually used to number the preliminary
pages (Abstract, Contents etc.).
 Arabic numerals — 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. — are used to number the text from the
Introduction page to the end of the Appendices.
 Alternatively, pages in the Appendices can be numbered internally, according to
the letter of the individual appendix and the number of pages within each
appendix — A1, A2, B1, C1, C2, C3 etc. (where Appendix A has two pages;
Appendix B has one page, and so on).
Headers and footers
 Headers or footers position page numbers automatically.
 Two different headers or footers must be created so that the preliminary pages
are numbered separately from the text of the report.

Format of type and headings

Font
 A serif font (such as Times or Palatino) is usually chosen for the text of a report,
as serif fonts tend to be easier to read.
 A different font (such as the sans serif fonts, Helvetica or Arial) may be used for
headings and tables.
 The same font should be used throughout the whole report, unless a second font
is chosen for headings and tables.

72
Size and style of type
 11 or 12 point type are the normal sizes for the text of a report.
 For long, indented quotations, figures and tables, it is acceptable to use a point
size one point smaller than the main font.
 Italics can be used to emphasise text where necessary (but it should not be
overused, particularly as there may be confusion with italicised titles).
 Underlining or bold is avoided in emphasis of text as it is distracting.
 The use of precise words may be sufficient to create the required emphasis.
Headings
 Headings are numbered according to their importance, using the decimal
numbering system.
 Some writers do not use numbering, but differentiate between levels of headings
through size and style. (Readability and access to information are the key
considerations.)
 Headings without text should never appear on the bottom line of a page.
 Size and style of headings should vary according to the importance of the
heading.
 Headings can be differentiated using bold type, size and italics. (Overuse of
underlining should be avoided as it makes reading more difficult.)
 Capital letters are for the first letter of the first word only in each heading;
except for any acronyms (e.g. IEEE), trade names, or personal names and
places, which may require more than one capital. Aim for minimal capitalization
in headings as overuse of capital letters slows reading.

Format of text
Justification
 All text and headings can be aligned against the left margin except for where
indentation is appropriate.
 Text may also be justified on the right-hand margin, and full justification (right
and left margins) is often preferred for formal documents and theses.
Line spacing
 1.5 or double line spacing is generally used for work submitted for assessment;
automatic line spacing (as provided with word processing) may be acceptable.
 Line spacing should be greater at the end of a section so it assists in separating
sections.

73
  Line spacing may be decreased between headings and text so it assists in
grouping information; the smallest line space (i.e. a four point space) may be
appropriate before text such as a list of bullet points.
 Extra line spacing should be used in the following cases:
– to separate paragraphs
– to separate figures, tables, equations and long quotations from the text
– to separate a main heading from the section of text which comes before.
Indentation and centring
 Indenting text at the beginning of a paragraph is unnecessary when an extra line
space is being allowed between paragraphs.
 Indentation is appropriate for long quotations, complex mathematical
expressions, lists with bullet points (dots •) and the list of headings on the
contents page.
 Long quotations are usually indented from both the left and right margins.
 Figures and tables may be centred in the text.
 Students may choose to indent each subheading with its associated text, as
shorter lines of text are easier to read; overall length is then affected.
Figures and tables
 Figures include diagrams, graphs, sketches, photographs and maps.
 Tables summarise data in rows and columns; a dash (—) indicates no data.
 All figures and tables may be centred.
 All should be labelled in bold with the appropriate consecutive number (figures
are generally labelled at the bottom, and tables at the top)
 Another method of labelling figures and tables is to number them according to
the major section where they appear.
 Each should have a simple, descriptive caption which explains the figure or table;
arrows, symbols, or abbreviations should be explained in the text.
 All figures and tables must be referred to in the text; avoid using words such as
‗Figure above‘ or ‗Table below‘.
 All should be referenced (either author-date or numerical) if copied or adapted
from another source.
 Figures and tables can be separated from the text with extra line spacing; labels
and captions can be separated using four point spacing.

74
Referencing

Referencing is one of the most convention-ridden areas of scientific and technical

documentation. Many assessors expect the conventions to be observed in the minutest
detail. There are two basic systems of referencing technical documents: the author–
date system and the numerical system.

Purpose of referencing

 To acknowledge other people’s work or ideas in relation to your own.

All scientific and technological work has to be placed in the context of other work
in the field. Your reader has to know that you are familiar with the literature in
your area, and that you can assess your work in relation to it.
 To enable readers to find the source material. Other people must be able
to find the reference if they wish. This means it has to be cited accurately, in
detail, and according to certain conventions.
 To avoid plagiarism, or literary theft. Failure to acknowledge sources is
plagiarism and is a form of stealing. It is regarded very seriously in the academic
world.

When references should be used

You need to use references:

1 When you cite factual material taken from other sources. This is the commonest form
of citation in a science or engineering document. The sources may include:

a) Material on paper such as:

• papers in professional journals and conferences;
• books or book chapters;
• theses;
• lecture or laboratory documents;
• magazine articles;
• newspaper articles;
• an organization‘s publicity material;
• engineering standards and specifications;
• government documents, such as Acts of Parliament and reports of committees;
and others.
1) Electronic sources such as:
• World Wide Web pages;

75
 • online journal papers;
• online conference proceedings; and
• CD-ROMs and electronic databases.
2) Visual and audio material such as:
• videos;
• tapes; and
• CDs.
2 When you need to quote word for word from another work.

The two main systems of referencing

There are two main systems commonly used in technical documentation for cross-
referencing citations in the text with the full reference in the List of References. The
two systems are described in overview in table below.

Overview of the two referencing systems

The author – date (Harvard) system The numerical system

In the text of the document In the text of the document

− Surname of the author and the date of −
publication placed in parentheses. For
example: (Brown, 1999).
− Page numbers of a book can be
included if needed. For example:
(Smith, 2000, 103–121)
− If you need to cite a reference more than
List of References
Each citation in the text is given a unique
number, either in square brackets, e.g.
[5], or superscripted, e.g.5. Each is
numbered in the order in which it appears
in the text.
once in the text, the number of its first
appearance (its unique number) is used
each time you cite it.
List of References

− Listed in alphabetical order of the − Not listed alphabetically. It is a list

surnames of the authors. numbered from 1 to n, the number of
each listing corresponding to the unique
number that each source was assigned in
the text.

76
Choosing between referencing systems
 Journals will always specifically state the system required to be used.
 Individual staff members usually have a preference for one or the other system.
It is essential to find out which system you are required to use.
 Either one system or the other must be used in a document. Care must be taken
not to use a mixture of both.
Referencing: Examples
Author‘s surname and date placed in
brackets.
Author‘s surname cited in the text.
References precisely placed.
The paper cited is by two authors.
The paper cited is by more than two authors.
Cite the surname of the first author and add
‗et al.‘ (italicised in some house styles).
Several sources are cited within one set of
brackets.
Depending on house style: separate them by
semicolons, and cite them in order of either
(1) publication date or (2) by alphabetical
order of the author.
Two or more papers written in different years
by the same author.
The author has written several papers in one
year.
Distinguish between them by adding a lower
case letter to each paper. These letters must
be added to the listing‘s date in the List of
The wind velocity and behaviour of a geographical
region is a function of altitude, season and hour of
measurement (Johnson, 1985).
Miller (1978) showed that glucose and cellobiose
are taken up and metabolized to succinate, acetate
andsmall amounts of formate.
This runoff has also introduced heavy metals
(Louma, 1974), pesticides (Schultz, 1971),
pathogens (Cox, 1969), sediments (Gonzalez,
1971), and rubbish (Dayton, 1990).
The considerations are developed by assuming the
general mathematical scheme defined in the case of
a single slit (Zecca and Cavalleri, 1997).
Martin and Zubek (1993) compiled a comprehensive
list of dust activity on Mars from 1983 to 1990.
In the soft X-ray band pass, the solar X-ray flux
varies by about one order of magnitude during the
solar cycle
(Peres et al., 1999).
or
Peres et al. found that in the soft X-ray band pass,
the solar X-ray flux varies by about one order of
magnitude during the solar cycle.
The locomotion activity of a given species may be a
source of considerable error in estimating energy
budgets (Boisclair and Sirois, 1993; Facey and
Grossman, 1990; Hansen et al., 1993; Lucas et al.,
1993; Ney, 1993; Ware, 1975).
To develop a mathematically based understanding
of cell death dynamics, Wu et al. (1993, 1994)
separated the cell death process into two phases.
Previous analysis of the Clock gene in mice (King et
al., 1997a,b) has shown that Clock is expressed in a
manner consistent with its role in circadian
organization. In mice (King et al., 1997b) the
CLOCK locus lies distal to. . .
77
 References.
There is a large body of work, but you are Martian dust storms, also called Martian yellow
citing only a few representative examples. storms or Martian yellow clouds, have been
Use e.g. within the brackets. observed for a long time (e.g. Antoniadi, 1930;
Martin and Zurek, 1993)
Referencing a large body of information Zebrafish generate large numbers of transparent
contained in a review paper. embryos that develop synchronously to a free-
swimming hatchling in a period of three days
(forreview, see Driever et al., 1994).
You have been unable to obtain the original Smith (1928) as cited by Brown (1999) showed that
reference, but have seen it cited in another ...
paper:
_ It is acceptable to cite the secondary
source provided the primary source is
included.
_ Include full citation details of both
references in the List of References.
Different authors with the same surname, It has been shown by Smith, C.W. (1998) . . .
publishing in the same year. whereas Smith, J.G., (1998) . . .
Where the publication date of the source is All the branches of a tree at any degree of height, if
known only approximately: Use a small c put together, are equal to the cross-section of its
before the date: trunk (Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1497).
Sources where author is not stated. . . . as shown in a previous study (Wylie Stream
Use the first few words of the title, and the Intake, 1997).
date if known. For example, where the . . . in accordance with a previous study (CORINAIR
citation is: Working Group, 1993)
− Wylie Stream Intake Feasibility Report . . . as specified (Twintex TPP, undated)..
(1997). James Consultants Ltd,
Contract TKA 97/101. Prepared for
Middletown Central Electricity
Generation.
− CORINAIR Working Group on Emission
Factors for Calculating 1990 Emissions
from Road Traffic, 1 (1993).
Commission of the European
Committees (Office for Official
Publications, Luxembourg).
− Twintex TPP fact sheet (undated).
Verdex International S.A.

NB: There are three things to consider when creating a citation: 1) cite appropriately
(don‘t forget anyone); 2) be accurate with the author‘s names, dates, and titles; and 3)
present the citations in a consistent style.

78
There is no one way to cite your research. It is therefore a good idea to check with
the people to whom you are submitting your work (i.e.; your professor or the
editors of a journal) to ensure you are using the appropriate citation style.

Common mistakes

1) Citing a reference in the text and leaving it out of the List of References, and
vice versa.
2) The date of the text citation does not correspond with that of the citation in the
List of References. These two faults tend to be regarded as unforgiveable by
many assessors.
3) In the List of References:
– Inconsistencies of formatting.

– Using a non-standard abbreviation for a journal.

– Insufficient details given: in particular, omitting the publisher and place of

publication of a book.

4) Not inverting the author and the initials: for example, instead of the correct form
of Smith, A.N., putting A.N. Smith.
5) Unobtainable references.
6) Incorrect volume and page numbers.

79