Chapter 05 (Code Generation) PDF

5.
CODE GENERATION
5.1 Introduction
In order to generate executable code, usually the front-end compiler (i.e. the parser) will generate
an intermediate code, somewhat similar to assembly code, and then either an interpreter is used
to run this intermediate code or a suitable back-end compiler is used to generate the desired
machine code (from the intermediate code). The back-end compiler is always machine
dependent.
The two popularly used intermediate code language formats are the P-Code and the 3-Address
Code. In our discourse, we will only discuss the 3-address code.
5.2 The 3-Address Code

5.2.1 Introduction
In general, a 3-address code program is a sequence of statements, each of which has at most three
references (i.e. addresses), hence the name. More precisely, we present the following BNF
description for the 3-address code language:
<3-address code statem ent sequence> ::= [ <3-address code statem ent> ] [ <com m ent> ]
[ newline <3-address code statem ent sequence> ]
<com m ent> ::= ; text
<3-address code statem ent> ::= <label> : [ <statem ent> ] | <statem ent>
<label> ::= identifier | natural num ber
<statem ent> ::= identifier = <unary or binary expression> | IF <condition> GOTO <label> |
GOTO <label> | <function call>
<unary or binary expression> ::= <unary expression> | <binary expression>
<unary expression> ::= [ <unary operator> ] <id or value>

<unary operator> ::= + | -
<id or value> ::= identifier | value literal
<binary expression> ::= <id or value> [ <binary operator> <id or value> ]

<binary operator> ::= + | - | * | /
<condition> ::= <id or value> <relational operator> <id or value>

<relational operator> ::= > | < | >= | <= | ==| !=
Introduction To Com piler Construction and Design © mofana mphaka Page -63-
Compiler Construction and Design – Intermediate Code Generation Page -64-
<function call> ::= [ <param eter list call> ] <function invocation>
<param eter list call> ::= PARAMETER <id or value> newline [ <param eter list call> ]
<function invocation> ::= [ identifier = ] CALL <function nam e> , <num ber of param eters>
<function nam e> ::= identifier
<num ber of param eters> ::= natural num ber
Our 3-address code above does not offer a grammar of definitions: variable declarations and
function definitions. Variable declarations are (in C++) statements like
int x, y, z;
Function definitions (in C++) are statements like
float foo(long x, double y) { ... }
Although, it may not be difficult to offer a 3-address code for definitions, one may see that
definitions information would already be accessible from the symbol table! This information can
be accessed by the system functions like PARAMETER and CALL.
The reader should note that since PARAMETER pushes the corresponding parameter into the
stack, the calls to PARAMETER for arguments must be in reverse order so that the CALL
instruction will pop the arguments in correct order (for the corresponding function).
Example 5.1
Convert the following C++ code segment to 3-address code:
i = 1;
while (i <= 10)
{
foo = exp(10, i);
cout << foo << ‘\n’;
i++;
}
Solution
i=1
while: IF i <= 10 GOTO loop_body

GOTO end_while
loop_body:
PARAMETER i
PARAMETER 10
foo = CALL exp, 2
PARAMETER ‘\n’
PARAMETER foo
CALL cout, 2
i = i + 1;
GOTO start
end_while:
We present below, a generic format in which one can easily generate a 3-address code for some
( C++) program segment. We do so by showing a generic way to generate a 3-address code for
the constructs: arrays (i.e. array indexing), if statement, while loop, for loop, do while loop and
a switch statement.
5.2.2 A 3-Address Code For Array Indexing

Since an array occupies a contiguous block of bytes in memory, proper array index addressing
will be a multiple of the index (i.e. array offset) and the array base type (i.e. the type of its
elements).
For example, if the array contains integers (i.e. int), then the base type is 4 bytes. That is, each
element occupies 4 bytes of memory. This means that the first element, say, array[0], starts at the
array offset and occupies the first 4 bytes. Then, the next element, arra[1] will start at (offset +1)
* 4.
Example 5.2
Generate a 3-address code for the following C++ code fragment which prints an array of 10
integer elements. The C++ code is
j = 0;
while (j < 10)
{
cout << arra[j] << ‘\n’;
j++;
}
Solution
A possible 3-address code could be:
j=0
while : IF j < 10 GOTO loop_body

GOTO end_while
loop_body: i = j * 4 ; j is the array offset

T1 = array[i] ; T1 is the generated tem porary for the ith elem ent of the array
PARAMETER ‘\n’
PARAMETER T1
CALL cout, 2
j=j+1
GOTO while
end_while:
5.2.3 A 3-Address Code For An If Statement

A. A simple C++ if statement has the form
if ( C )
S;
To generate a 3-address code one proceeds as follows:
1. Convert C to 3-address code to obtain C’. Then

2. The 3-address code for the if construct is
IF C’ GOTO S_start
else: GOTO end_if
S_start:
3-address code for S
end_if:
Example 5.3
Generate a 3-address code for the following C++ if construct.
if (prim e(n))
{
cout << n << “ is prim e \n”;
}
Solution
; First convert the condition to 3 address code – prim e(n)
PARAMETER n
T1 = CALL prim e, 1 ; T1 is the result of 3-address code conversion of prim e(n)
IF T1 != 0 GOTO if_body ; The value of T1 is true, so print that n is prim e

else: GOTO end_if ; otherwise exit the if construct
if_body: PARAMETER “ is prim e \n” ; This is the “body” of code that m ust be executed if the
PARAMETER n ; the condition holds

CALL cout, 2
end_if :
B. For the construct with a negated condition
if ( ! C )
S;
we do

IF C’ GOTO end_if
else: 3-address code for S
end_if:
Example 5.4
Generate a 3-address code for the following C++ if construct with a negated condition.
if (! prim e(n))
{
cout << n << “ is NOT prim e \n”;
}
Solution
; First convert the POSITIVE condition part to 3 address code – prim e(n)
PARAMETER n
T1 = CALL prim e, 1
IF T1 != 0 GOTO end_if ; The value of T1 is true, so exit the if body
if: PARAMETER “ is NOT prim e \n” ; otherwise execute the if body, by default
PARAMETER n
CALL cout, 2
end_if:
The condition, C, in A and B above will be of the form:
E1 rel_opr E2
where rel_opr is one of the 3-address code relational operators. So, C is converted to 3-address
code as follows:
If E1 is not in 3-address code then convert it to 3-address code, E1' (otherwise rename it E1'),
also
If E2 is not in 3-address code then convert it to 3-address code, E2' (otherwise rename it E2').
Then
C’ will be of the form
E1' rel_opr E2'
C. For the disjunction condition construct
if ( C1 || C2 )
S;
we do
1. Convert C1 to 3-address code to obtain C1’. Then

IF C1’ GOTO S_start

else1: Convert C2 to 3-address code to obtain C2’
else2: GOTO end_if
S_start:
end_if:
The above code uses the short circuit technique. That is, if the first condition, C1, evaluates to
true we execute S, no matter what the value of C2 is. We evaluate C2 only when C1 fails and,
again, execute S when C2 evaluates to true, otherwise we skip S (i.e. GOTO exit).
Example 5.5
Generate a 3-address code for the following C++ if construct with a disjunction condition.
if (ch == ‘y’ || ch == ‘Y’)
{
cout << “Enter next num ber -> ”;
cin >> num ;

}
Solution
; Convert to 3 address & evaluate the first condition and if true execute the if body
IF ch = ‘y’ GOTO if_body
; Otherwise, convert to 3 address & evaluate the next condition and if true execute the if
; body
else1: IF ch = ‘Y’ GOTO if_body
else2: GOTO end_if
if_body : PARAMETER “Enter next num ber -> ”

CALL cout, 1
num = CALL cin, 0
end_if :
D. For the conjunction condition construct
if ( C1 && C2 )
S;
we do
1. Convert C1 to 3-address code to obtain C1’.

IF C1’ GOTO C2'_evaluation

else: GOTO end_if
C2'_evaluation:
GOTO else
S_start:
end_if:
Example 5.6
Generate a 3-address code for the following C++ if construct with a disjunction condition.
if (OW M >= 60 && OW M < 70)
{
owm Grade = ‘C’;
recom m endation = “Second Class – Second Division”;
}
Solution
IF OW M >= 60 GOTO next_cond ; If first condition holds then check the next one
else: GOTO end_if ; otherwise the whole conjunction is false – exit
next_cond : IF OW M < 70 GOTO if_body

GOTO else
if_body : owm Grade = ‘C’

recom m endation = “Second Class – Second Division”
end_if :
E. For the simple IF-ELSE construct
if ( C )
S1;
else
S2;
we do

2. The 3-address code for the IF-ELSE construct is
IF C’ GOTO S1_start
else: 3-address code for S2 ; The “else” part is by default
GOTO end_if
S1_start:
3-address code for S1
end_if:
Example 5.7
Generate a 3-address code for the following C++ if-else construct.
if (m ark >= 50
status = “Pass”;
else
status = “Fail”;
Solution
IF m ark >= 50 GOTO if_body ; condition holds – go to the “if” part
else: staus = “Fail” ; otherwise the condition is false – “else” part

GOTO end_if
if_body : status = “Pass”
end_if :
For a conjunction condition like:
if ( C1 && C2 )
S1;
else
S2
we do
1. Convert C1 to 3-address code to obtain C1’.

IF C1’ GOTO C2'_evaluation

else: 3-address code for S2
GOTO end_if
C2'_evaluation:
IF C2’ GOTO S1_start
GOTO else
S1_start:
end_if:
For a disjunction condition like:
if ( C1 || C2 )
S1;
else
S2
we do


else1: Convert C2 to 3-address code to obtain C2’
else2: 3-address code for S2

GOTO end_if
S1_start:
end_if:
Example 5.8
Generate a 3-address code for the following C++ if-else construct, with a conjunction.
if ((m ark >= 50) && (m ark <= 100)
status = “Pass”;
else
status = “Fail”;
Solution
IF m ark >= 50 GOTO next_conjunct
else: staus = “Fail”

GOTO end_if
next_conjunct:
IF m ark <= 100 GOTO if_body
GOTO else
if_body : status = “Pass”
end_if :
F. For the nested IF-ELSE construct
if ( C1 )
S1;
else if ( C2 )
S2;
else
S3;
we do

2. The 3-address code for the nested IF-ELSE construct is

Convert C2 to 3-address code to obtain C2’
else: 3-address code for S3
GOTO end_if
S1_start:
GOTO end_if
S2_start:
end_if:
Example 5.9
Generate a 3-address code for the following C++ nested If-else if-else construct.
if (OW M >= 60
recom m endation = “Pass with Distinction”;
else if (OW M >= 50
recom m endation = “Pass;
else
recom m endation = “Fail;
Solution
IF OW M >= 60 GOTO if_body ; condition holds – go to the “if” part
IF OW M >= 50 GOTO else_if_body ; condition for “else if” holds – go to the “else if”
part
else: recom m endation = “Fail; ; Default code for the “else” part
GOTO end_if
if_body : recom m endation = “Pass with Distinction”

GOTO end_if
else_if_body :
recom m endation = “Pass”
end_if :
G. For the general case nested IF-ELSE construct
if ( C1 )
S1;
else if ( C2 )
S2;
else if ( C3 )
S3;
!
if ( Cn-1 )
Sn-1;
else
Sn;
we do

2. The 3-address code for the nested IF-ELSE construct is

!
Convert Cn-1 to 3-address code to obtain Cn-1’
IF Cn-1’ GOTO Sn-1_start
else: 3-address code for Sn

GOTO end_if
S1_start:
GOTO end_if
S2_start:

GOTO end_if
S3_start:
GOTO end_if
!
Sn-1_start:
3-address code for Sn-1
end_if:
Example 5.10
Generate a 3-address code for the following C++ nested If-else if-else construct.
if ( m ark >= 80)
grade = ‘A’;
else if (m ark >= 70)
grade = ‘B’;
grade = ‘C’;
grade = ‘D’;
grade = ‘E’;
else
grade = ‘F’;
Solution
IF m ark >= 80 GOTO if_body
IF m ark >= 70 GOTO else_if_body1
else : Grade = ‘F’; ; Default code for the “else” part

GOTO end_if
if_body : grade = ‘A’

GOTO end_if
else_if_body1 :
grade = ‘B’
GOTO end_if
else_if_body2 :
grade = ‘C’
GOTO end_if
else_if_body3 :
grade = ‘D’
GOTO end_if
else_if_body4 :
grade = ‘E’
end_if :
Example 5.11
Generate a 3-address code for the following C++ code segment:
if (x >= 0 && y != 0)
cout << “The quotient “ << x << “ / “ << y << “ = ” << x / y << “\n”;
else if (y == 0)
cout << “Divide by zero error: the denom inator is zero!\n”;
else
cout << “The enum erator is negative!\n”;
Solution
One possible code could be:
IF x >= 0 GOTO next_conjunct
else_if: IF y == 0 GOTO else_if_body
PARAMETER “The enum erator is negative!\n” ; The default code for the “else” part
CALL cout, 1
GOTO end_if
next_conjunct:
IF y != 0 GOTO if_body
GOTO else_if ; the whole conjunction has failed – check else if
if_body:
PARAMETER “\n”
T1 = x / y
PARAMETER T1
PARAMETER “=”
PARAMETER y
PARAMETER “/”
PARAMETER x
PARAMETER “The quotient”
CALL cout, 7
GOTO end_if
else_if_body:
PARAMETER “Divide by zero error: the denom inator is zero!\n”
CALL cout, 1
end_if:
5.2.4 A 3-Address Code For A While Loop

In C++ a while loop construct is of the form
while ( C )
S;
This can be implemented, agin, in C++ as:

(1) A labelled if statement, and
(2) two goto statements, as follows:
start: if ( C ) gotot S_start; // this is a labelled if statem ent

goto exit; // a goto statem ent
S_start:
S; // a labelled statem ent, which starts the code block of S
goto start; // loop back to the testing statem ent, if ...
exit: // an em pty labelled statem ent
To generate a 3-address code one proceeds as follows:

2. The 3-address code for the while loop construct is
while: IF C’ GOTO while_body

GOTO end_while
while_body:
GOTO while
end_while:
5.2.5 A 3-Address Code For A For Loop

In C++, a for loop has the form
for (expr1; expr2; expr3)

S;
This can be implemented in C++ as a while loop as:
expr1;
while( expr2)
{
S;
expr3;
}
So, to generate a 3-address code for a for loop, one proceeds as follows:
1. Generate 3-address code for expr1. Then

2. Generate 3-address code for
while ( expr2 )
{
S;
expr3;
}
5.2.6 A 3-Address Code For A Do While Loop

In C++, a do while loop has the form
do
S;
while ( C );
Again, this can be implemented in C++ as a while loop as:
S;
while( C )
S;
So, to generate a 3-address code for a do while loop, one proceeds as follows:
1. Generate 3-address code for S. Then

2. Generate 3-address code for
while ( C )
S;
The above algorithm notwithstanding, we can generate an efficient code if we observe that
S;
while ( C )
S;
can be re-written in C++ as:
S_start:
S;
if ( C ) goto S_start ;
Exit: ;
So, we can generate an efficient 3-address code as follows:
S_start:
Covert C to 3-address code, C’
if ( C’ ) goto S_start
Exit:
The following example shows how, typically one would generate a 3-address code for a “while”
loop and/or a “do-while” loop.
Example 5.12
Generate a possible 3 address code for the following C++ code segment:
double biggest, next;
char ch = ‘Y’;
cout << “Enter the first num ber “;

cin >> biggest;
while (ch == ‘Y’)

{
cout << “Enter the next num ber “;
cin >> next;
if (next > biggest)

biggest = next;
do
{
cout << “Anym ore num bers to read? [Y/N] “;
cin >> ch;
ch = upcase(ch); // convert ch to upper case
}
while ((ch != ‘Y’) && (ch != ‘N’));
}
cout << “The biggest num ber is “ << biggest << “\n”;
Solution
A possible code could be:
ch = ‘Y’
PARAMETER “Enter the first num ber “
CALL cout, 1
biggest = CALL cin, 0
while:
IF ch == ‘Y’ GOTO while_body
GOTO end_while
while_body:
PARAMETER “Enter the next num ber “
CALL cout, 1
next = CALL cin, 0
IF next > biggest GOTO if_body

GOTO end_if
if_body:
biggest = next
end_if:
do_while:
PARAMETER “Anym ore num bers to read? [Y/N] “ ;
CALL cout, 1
ch = CALL cin, 0
PARAMETER ch
ch = CALL upcase, 1 ; convert ch to upper case
IF ch != ‘Y’ GOTO next_cond

GOTO end_do_while
next_cond:
IF ch != ‘N’ GOTO do_while
end_do_while:
GOTO while
end_while:
PARAMETER ““\n”
PARAMETER biggest
PARAMETER “The biggest num ber is “
CALL cout, 3
Example 5.13
Generate a possible 3 address code for the following C++ code segment:
i = 0;
j = 10;
while ((i < 10) || (j >= 1))

{
if (even(j) && (i&j))
cout << “i and j are even, identical and positive\n“;
else if (i | j))
cout << “i and j are positive\n“;
else;
i++;
j–;
}
Assume that there exist functions to covert numbers from one base to the other. E.g
y = binary(x) – coverts x to binary and the result is assigned to y

y = decim al(x) – coverts x to decimal and the result is assigned to y
Solution
A possible code could be:
i=0
j = 10
while:
IF i < 10 GOTO while_body
IF j >= 1 GOTO while_body

GOTO end_while
while_body: ; enter the while loop body

PARAMETER j ; evaluate the 1 st part of the conjunction
T1 = CALL even, 1
IF T1 != 0 GOTO next_conjunct ; if true, then evaluate the 2 nd conjunct
else_if: ; otherwise execute the else if part

PARAMETER i
Ti = CALL binary, 1 ; convert i and j to binary
PARAMETER j
Tj = CALL binary, 1
Tij = Ti + Tj ; OR them bitwise
PARAMETER Tij
Tdec = CALL decim al, 1 ; convert the result to binary
IF Tdec !=0 GOTO else_if_body ; if the result is true then execute else if body
else: GOTO end_if
else_if_body: ; the else if body – display that i and j are positive

PARAMETER “i and j are positive”
CALL cout, 1
GOTO end_if
next_conjunct: ; in the 2 nd conjunct the two num bers, i and j are ANDed
PARAMETER I ; bitwise
Ti = CALL binary, 1
PARAMETER j
Tj = CALL binary, 1
Tij = Ti * Tj
PARAMETER Tij
Tdec = CALL decim al, 1
IF Tdec !=0 GOTO if_body
GOTO else_if
if_body:
PARAMETER “i and j are even, identical and positive”
CALL cout, 1
end_if:
i=i+1
j=j-1
GOTO while
end_while:
5.2.7 A 3-Address Code For A Switch Statement

A switch statement in C++ is of the form:
switch ( E )
{
case V1 : S1; break;
...
case Vn : Sn; break;
default : S
}
This is equivalent to the if statement:
if (E == V1) S1;
else if (E == V2) S2;
else if (E == V3) S3;
...
else if (E == Vn) Sn;
else S;
To generate a 3-address code for this if statement, we can do the following:
1. Generate 3-address code for E to get E’. Then

2. the 3-address code for the if statement is:
IF E’ == V1 GOTO S1_start
...
IF E’ == Vn GOTO Sn_start
3-address code for S ; this is the default else statement: else S;
GOTO exit
S1_start: 3-address code for S1

GOTO exit

GOTO exit

GOTO exit
...
GOTO exit
Sn_start: 3-address code for Sn
exit:
5.3 Exercises
1. Generate a possible 3-address code for the following C++ code segment. The code prints
elements of an integer (i.e. int array[10]) array of 10 elements:
for(int j = 0; j < 10; j++)

if (even(j))
cout << “even array index: array[“ << j << “] = “ << array[j] << “\n”;
else
cout << “odd array index: we don’t print the corresponding array elem ent“ << “\n”;
2. Consider the following C++ code fragment:
if ((int(x+=y) >= (z&5.6)) || (x&y == z|5.6))

{
float foo = x + y * z;
Z++;
}
Generate a possible resulting 3-address code.
Assume that there exist functions to covert numbers from one base to the other. E.g
y = binary(x) – coverts x to binary and the result is assigned to y

y = decim al(x) – coverts x to decimal and the result is assigned to y
3. Generate a possible 3-address code for the following C++ code segment.
if ( prim e(n) || (n % 2 != 0))

{
if ( prim e(n) )
{
cout << n << “ is prim e!”;
if ( n % 2 != 0)
cout << “ and it is odd!\n”;
else
cout << “ and it is even!\n”;
}
else
cout << n << “ is not prim e but odd!\n”;
}
else
cout << n << “ is even\n”;
4. Generate a possible 3-address code for the following C++ code segment.
do
{
cout << “Enter a natural num ber to test with => “;
cin >> n;
if ( prim e(n) )
cout << n << “ is prim e!\n”;
else if ( n % 2 != 0)
cout << n << “ is odd!\n”;
else
cout << n << “ is even!\n”;
cout << “Any m ore num bers to test ? [Y/N] “;

ans = getchar();
}
while (ans == ‘Y’ || ans == ‘y’);
5. Generate a possible 3 address code for the following C++ code segment, that sorts an array
of real numbers (i.e. float item[]):
bool sorted = false; // Start by assum ing that the list of item s is not yet sorted
while (!sorted) // while (the list is) not sorted – !sorted
{
sorted = true; // sort the list as follows:
for(int i = 1; i < n; i++) // traverse the entire list
if (item [i] > item [i+1]) // if at any instance, item [i] > item [i+1] then
{
swap(item [i], item [i+1]); // swap the two item s – a call to function swap
sorted = false; // and record that the list is not yet sorted and repeat
}
}

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5.

5.2 The 3-Address Code

<com m ent> ::= ; text

<label> ::= identifier | natural num ber

<unary or binary expression> ::= <unary expression> | <binary expression>

<unary expression> ::= [ <unary operator> ] <id or value>

<binary expression> ::= <id or value> [ <binary operator> <id or value> ]

<condition> ::= <id or value> <relational operator> <id or value>

<function call> ::= [ <param eter list call> ] <function invocation>

Function definitions (in C++) are statements like

float foo(long x, double y) { ... }

while: IF i <= 10 GOTO loop_body

5.2.2 A 3-Address Code For Array Indexing

while : IF j < 10 GOTO loop_body

loop_body: i = j * 4 ; j is the array offset

5.2.3 A 3-Address Code For An If Statement

To generate a 3-address code one proceeds as follows:

1. Convert C to 3-address code to obtain C’. Then

IF T1 != 0 GOTO if_body ; The value of T1 is true, so print that n is prim e

PARAMETER n ; the condition holds

B. For the construct with a negated condition

1. Convert C to 3-address code to obtain C’. Then

IF T1 != 0 GOTO end_if ; The value of T1 is true, so exit the if body

The condition, C, in A and B above will be of the form:

C’ will be of the form

E1' rel_opr E2'

C. For the disjunction condition construct

1. Convert C1 to 3-address code to obtain C1’. Then

IF C1’ GOTO S_start

cin >> num ;

IF ch = ‘y’ GOTO if_body

else1: IF ch = ‘Y’ GOTO if_body

else2: GOTO end_if

if_body : PARAMETER “Enter next num ber -> ”

num = CALL cin, 0

D. For the conjunction condition construct

1. Convert C1 to 3-address code to obtain C1’.

IF C1’ GOTO C2'_evaluation

next_cond : IF OW M < 70 GOTO if_body

if_body : owm Grade = ‘C’

E. For the simple IF-ELSE construct

1. Convert C to 3-address code to obtain C’. Then

else: staus = “Fail” ; otherwise the condition is false – “else” part

if_body : status = “Pass”

For a conjunction condition like:

1. Convert C1 to 3-address code to obtain C1’.

IF C1’ GOTO C2'_evaluation

For a disjunction condition like:

1. Convert C1 to 3-address code to obtain C1’. Then

IF C1’ GOTO S1_start

else2: 3-address code for S2

else: staus = “Fail”

if_body : status = “Pass”

F. For the nested IF-ELSE construct

1. Convert C1 to 3-address code to obtain C1’. Then

IF C1’ GOTO S1_start

if_body : recom m endation = “Pass with Distinction”

G. For the general case nested IF-ELSE construct

1. Convert C1 to 3-address code to obtain C1’. Then

IF C1’ GOTO S1_start

else: 3-address code for Sn

3-address code for S2

IF m ark >= 70 GOTO else_if_body1