The Earth and the Universe

Introduction

Stars are not scattered regularly in the space; they occur in clusters which are
called galaxies or nebulas. Milky Way, the earth’s galaxy contains about
100,000 million stars. Light takes about 4 years to reach earth, from the
nearest star, 8 minutes from the sun and 1 sec from the moon.

The Solar System

It consists of Sun and nine planets. It is formed by condensation of gases and

lesser particles. Planets revolve in elliptical orbits around sun. Temperature of
Sun at the surface is about 6000 C and at the core is about 20 million C. Sun is
about 300,000 times big as the earth.

Mercury – It is Smallest and closest planet, only 36 million miles away from Sun.
A year is of just 88 days.

Venus- It is about 75 million miles (approx.) away from sun. Also, it is considered
to be the Earth’s twin because of similar size, mass, density.

Earth- It is about 93 million miles away from Sun and has a satellite, the moon,
which is about 2,98,900 miles away and takes 27 days to complete a revolution
around Earth while revolving eastwards (anti-clockwise).

Mars- It has dark patches and is expected to have some plants.

Jupiter- Biggest planet. Has circular light and dark band. Made up of gases like
hydrogen, helium and methane. Has 12 satellites and is about 485 million miles
away from Sun. Temperature is about -130 C.

Saturn- Second biggest planet. Has 3 rings and 9 satellites around it. Takes
29.5 years to complete a year.

Uranus- Faint bluish disc like when seen through a telescope. Around 50 times
bigger and 15 times heavier than Earth with 5 satellites revolving around it. Only
planet to revolve from east to west around sun (clock-wise direction).

Neptune – Its discovery was the result of mathematical calculations of their

irregular gravitational effects on other planets. Similar to Uranus but having only 2
satellites.
Pluto- Its discovery was the result of mathematical calculations of their irregular
gravitational effects on other planets. Smaller than Earth. Distance from Sun is
2,766 million miles during perihelion (when it is closest from Sun) and 4,566
million miles during aphelion (when it is closest from Sun).

The shape & size of the Earth

It is geoid (earth-shaped). Equatorial circumference is about 24,897 miles

which is 83 miles more than its polar circumference. Similarly, equatorial
diameter is 7,926 miles that is 26 miles longer than polar diameter.

Evidence of Earth’s Shape

 Circum-navigation of the earth- The first Voyage around the world from
1519-1522 proved that Earth is spherical in shape.
 The circular horizon- Horizon viewed from any altitude is circular in shape
and the width increases with increase in altitude which is possible only in
case of sphere.
 Ship’s visibility- Entire ship is not visible at once. Mast is visible first when a
ship appears and then comes the hull and vice-versa.
 Sunrise and Sunset- Sun rises and sets at different times in different place as
earth rotates from west to east which is possible only in case of sphere.
 The Lunar eclipse- Outline of the shadow cast by earth on the moon during
lunar eclipse is always an arc of the circle.
  Driving poles at equal interval- While driving poles at an equal interval, it is
found that they are not at the same not at the same horizontal level because
of the earth’s curvature. This is taken into account by surveyors and
engineers and some corrections are made; i.e. 8 inches per mile.
 Aerial photograph- Photographs taken from space clearly show that earth is
spherical.

The earth’s movement

Earth rotates about its axis from west to east once in 24 hours causing day and
night. Also, it revolves around sun from west to east in an orbit once in 365.25
days causing seasons and the year.

Day and Night

At a time, only a part of earth is exposed to the rays of sun and experience
daylight and the rest experience darkness. As the earth rotates from west to
east, all the parts get exposed or get obscured to the rays of Sun eventually, thus
causing Sunrise and Sunset respectively.

The Earth’s revolution

The earth spins around the sun at the speed of 66,600 miles per hour
completing a year in 365.25 days. But it is not possible to show a quarter of a day
on calendar, so a year is taken to be 365 days and 1 day is added every four
years as a leap year.

Varying length of day and night

The axis of rotation of earth is inclined at an angle to 66.5 degree to the elliptic
plane (plane of revolution) which causes this variation and causes seasons.
If axis were inclined at 90 degree to the ecliptic, all parts of globe would
experience equal length of day and night.
Northern hemisphere

During winter (December), the length of day decreases as we go northwards. At

the Arctic Circle (66.5 degree latitude), there remains darkness for the whole day
on 22nd December. The number of days with complete darkness increases as we
go northwards and there remains darkness for half a year at the North Pole.

During summer (June), the conditions are just reverse. At Arctic Circle, there
remains daylight for the whole day on 21st June. The number of days with
complete daylight increases as we move northwards. In summer the area above
Arctic Circle is called ‘Land of the Mid-night Sun’. At the North Pole, there is
six months of continuous daylight.

Southern hemisphere

Here, the conditions are just reverse. Winter/ mid-winter in Northern hemisphere
means summer/ mid-summer in southern hemisphere and vice versa.

The altitude of mid-day Sun

Because of the inclination (66.5 degree), the apparent altitude of mid-day sun
varies during a year.

Sun is vertically overhead at equator two times a year. Those periods are called
equinoxes, meaning equal day and night.

The times when sun is vertically overhead at the Tropic of cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn are called Summer Solstice and Winter Solstice respectively.
During Summer Solstice, the day is longest in Northern hemisphere and during
Winter Solstice the day is longest in southern hemisphere.
Tropics mark the limits, above which Sun is never vertically overhead. Regions
beyond tropics are marked by distinct seasons -summer, autumn, winter &
spring.

Within the tropics, as the altitude of Sun does not change much during a year,
the four seasons are indistinguishable. Length of day and night does not varies
much and is almost equal within tropics.

Beyond Arctic and Antarctic Circle, it is always cold as sun is never much high
in the sky.

Seasonal changes and their effects on temperature

During summer, Sun is higher in the sky and the rays of Sun fall nearly vertically
on the surface of earth causing heat to concentrate over small area. Also, days
are longer than nights in summer thus net heat is gained. All these factors lead to
increase in temperature during summer.

During winter, the conditions are reversed as the oblique rays of sun spread over
larger area and much of heat is initially absorbed by atmospheric impurities and
water molecules. Also, nights are longer than days. Thus, temperature is lowered.
Dawn and twilight

Dawn- Period between sunrise and complete daylight.

Twilight- Period between sunset and complete darkness.

These are caused as refracted or diffused rays of light of Sun reaches a region,
when the Sun is actually below the horizon.

Near equator, the spans of both are short as the Sun rises and sets in nearly
vertical path.

In temperate region, this span is longer as Sun rises and sets in oblique path.

At the poles, these spans are still longer so that winter darkness is really twilight
most of the time.
Mathematical location of a place

Parallels of Latitude- Set of lines running east and west, parallel to the equator.

Meridians of Longitude- Set of lines running from north to south and passing
through poles.

Intersection of these gives location of any place on the globe.

Latitude

It is the angular distance of a point on earth’s surface, measured from the

centre of the earth with respect to the equator, which lies in the middle of north
and south poles.

Lines of latitude are drawn at an interval of 1 degree, which is sub-divided into 60

minutes and 1 minute is further sub-divided into 60 seconds for locating any place
precisely.

The linear distance of a degree of latitude at poles are longer than at equator as
the earth is a little flattened near the poles. At equator it is about 68.7 miles per
degree and at poles, it is about 69.4 miles per degree. An average of 69 is used
for distance calculation.

Tropic of Cancer- 23.5 degree north. Tropic of Capricorn- 23.5 degree south. Arctic
& Antarctic Circle- 66.5 degree north and south.

Longitude
It is the angular distance, measured in degrees, along the equator east or west
of the Prime or First Meridian. Lines of longitude are represented on the globe by a
semi-circles running from pole to pole passing through equator. It goes till 180
degree west and 180 degrees east as earth is a sphere.

In 1884, the meridian of longitude passing through Royal Astronomical

Observatory in Greenwich was internationally selected to be the reference line
of longitude, the Prime Meridian (Zero Meridian).

As the circles of latitude become smaller as we move towards the pole, the linear
distance of a degree varies from 69.1 miles at equator to 0 miles at poles. So, it is
not frequently used as a standard for distance calculation. (some facts are to be
added)

Longitude and Time

Longitude is used to determine the Local Time of an area in relation to the
Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), which is also called World Time.

Earth makes a rotation of 360 degrees in 24 hours while rotating from west to
east. Thus in 1 hour it rotates by 15 degrees and in 4 minutes by 1 degree.

As the earth rotates from west to east, local time is advanced as we go towards
east and conversely the local time retards as we go towards west.

Local Time = G.M.T. ± advancements/ retardation (1 degree = 4 minutes)

Standard Time and Time Zones

The world is divided into 24 Standard Time Zones, each of which differs from
the next by 15 degrees or 1 hour.

To avoid any kind of confusion regarding time among towns/ states, generally a
country adopts its Standard Time from the central meridian of the country. The
Indian Government has accepted the meridian of 82.5 degrees east for
Standard Time which is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of G.M.T.

But due to peculiar location, shape and size of some countries the deviations from
Standard Times become unavoidable. Larger countries like U.S.S.R., Canada,
U.S.A. which have very large east-west stretch adopt several Standard Time
Zones for practical purposes.
U.S.S.R. which extends through about 165 degrees of longitude is divided into 11
Standard Time Zones.

Both Canada and U.S.A. are divided into 5 Standard Time Zones- the Atlantic,
Eastern, Central, Mountain and Pacific Time Zones with difference of about 5
hours between the Local Time of Atlantic and Pacific Coasts.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics consisted of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics

with Moscow as its capital, which disintegrated under the pressure of west in
1991 at the end of Cold War.

The International Date Line

As we go 180 east of Prime Meridian, we become 12 hours ahead of GMT.

Conversely, going 180 west of Prime Meridian makes us 12 hours behind of GMT.
Thus, there comes a difference of 24 hours or 1 day between the two sides of 180
meridian. This is the International Date Line on crossing which the date
changes by 1 day. On crossing this line from east to west, one day is lost and vice-
versa.

The normal 180 degree meridian passes through various islands and places.
This will create confusion of the day and time in these places. To prevent these
confusions, the International Date Line is curved from normal 180 degree at
some places like Bering Strait, Fiji, Tonga and other groups of island. Some of
these adopt Asiatic date and time and the others adopt American date and time.
The Earth’s Crust

The structure of the Earth

Earth was formed about 4,500 million years ago. We came to know about the
structure of the earth from the evidence of volcanic eruption, Earthquake
waves, deep-mine operations and crustal boring.

Lithosphere (Crust)- Outermost part of the earth. It consists of two distinct parts-

Continental plate-

 Consists majorly of granitic rocks

 Contains Silica & alumina (Sial)
 Density is about 2.7
 Forms continents
Oceanic plate-

 Continuous plate consisting majorly of Basaltic rocks

 Contains silica, magnesium and iron (Sima)
 Density = 3.0
 Forms ocean floor

Thickness- varies from 3-4 miles beneath oceans and to 30 miles under some
parts of continents.

SIAL can be viewed as floating over the dense layer of SIMA.

Mantle (mesosphere) –

 1800 miles thick

 Composed of rocks rich in olivine

It is divided into upper and lower mantle.

Aesthenosphere is highly viscous and mouldable part of upper mantle which

lies just below the lithosphere and is responsible for plates-tectonic
movements and isostatic adjustments.

Isostacy refers to a state of gravitational equilibrium between the

Aesthenosphere and the lithosphere such that the tectonic plates “float” at an
elevation depending upon their thickness and density.

Core (Barysphere)-

 Composed mainly of Iron and Nickel (Nife). Believed to cause earth’s

magnetism.
  About 2,160 miles in radius
 Temperature is about 3500 degree F/ 2200 C

Inner Core- Solid due high density and pressure though the temperature may be
5000C.

Outer core- Disappearance of S-waves in outer core suggests that it is in liquid

state.

Hydrosphere- Parts of earth’s crust immersed by oceans and sea (not lakes and
all?).

Atmosphere- An envelope of mass of gases about 15 miles above the earth’s

surface.

The classification of rocks

Rocks differ from one another in various properties such as texture, structure,
permeability, resistance to denudation, composition etc. Types of
landforms and vegetations of an area depend mainly on the rock and soil type
of that area, so it is indispensible to have idea about the basic types of rocks and
landforms associated with them.

Igneous Rocks

 Origin/ formation- Formed by solidification of molten rocks (lava) from

beneath the earth’s crust
 Structure- Crystalline
 Properties- Hard and resistant
 Do not exist in strata (layers) nor they contain fossils
 Applications- Road-making and polished as monuments and grave-
stones.
Classification based on composition-

1. Acid igneous rocks-

 Contains silica
 Low density
 Light in colour
 Example- Granite
2. Basic igneous rocks-
 Contains basic oxides (iron, magnesium, aluminium)
 Higher density
 Dark in colour

Classification based on origin/ formation-

1. Plutonic Rocks-

 Origin/ formation- Solidify inside the earth’s crust (intrusive)

 Structure- Slow solidification leads to formation of large crystals.
 Examples- granite, diorite, gabbros

These are exposed to the surface by the process of denudation and erosion.
2. Volcanic Rocks-

 Origin/ formation- Lava comes out to the earth’s surface as a result of

volcanic eruption and solidification occurs outside the earth’s surface
(extrusive)
 Structure- Fast solidification process leads to formation of smaller crystals
 Example- Basalt
 Locations- Lava plateau in Antrim of Northern Ireland, Deccan plateau,
Columbia-Snake plateau of USA, columnar basalt of Giant’s Causeway in
Antrim
When lava pushes its way to the surface through clefts, it gets solidifies as
vertical dykes and horizontal sills.

Sedimentary Rocks

Origin/ formation-

 Accumulation of sediments over long period of time, usually under water

Properties-

 Non-crystalline in structure
  Made up of several layers so are called stratified rocks. These strata may
vary in thickness from few inches to several feet
 Can be course-grained/ fine grained, hard/ soft
 May contain fossil of plants, animals, microorganisms etc

The sediments may be brought by wind, water, glacier or even animals.

Classification based on origin & composition-

1. Mechanically formed-

Origin/ formation-

 Materials/ fragments derived from other rocks are cemented together to

form this rock

Examples-

A. Sandstone-

 Most common of this type

Composition-

 Composed mostly of sand or quartz fragments derived from granite

Properties-
  Varies greatly in texture, colour, composition etc
 Coarser type is called grit

Applications-

 Making buildings
 Making grindstone

B. Conglomerate-

 Formed by cementing together of rounded pebbles

C. Breccia-

 Formed by cementing together of angular fragments

D. Clay-

 Composed of finer sediments

 Used for making bricks

E. Sand and gravel may exist in un-cemented form.

F. Shale/ Mudstone

2. Organically formed-

Origin/ formation-

 From remains of living organisms compressed under high pressure

Types on the basis of composition-

A. Calciferous type

Composition-
  From hard shells of corals/ shellfish whose fleshy parts were
decomposed

Examples-

 Limestone
 Chalk

B. Carboniferous type-

Composition-

 Formed from vegetative materials- swamps and forests which

are compressed under high pressure by the weight of sediments

Examples-

 Lignite
 Peat
 Coal

Advantage-

 Bear great economic value

3. Chemically formed-

Origin/ formation-

 From precipitate of some kind of solution

Examples-

A. Rock salt-

Formation-

 Salt accumulated at the beds of lakes/ sea formed rock salts

B. Gypsum, Nitrates & Phosphates-

Formation-

 Formed from sea/ lakes having high salinity such as black sea

Metamorphic rocks

Origin/ formation-

 Intense heat and pressure changes form of igneous or

sedimentary rocks to metamorphic or changed rocks
 Earth movements cause drastic changes the properties of rocks

Examples of this conversion-

1. Sedimentary to metamorphic-

 Clay to Slate
 Shale to Schist
 Limestone to Marble
 Sandstone to Quartzite
 Coal to Graphite

2. Igneous to metamorphic-

 Granite to Gneiss

Influence of rock types on the landforms

Rationale-

 Softer rocks like clay and shale gets eroded much faster than
harder rock like granite thus forming low heighted landforms

Examples to fortify above rationale-

 Granitic landforms in West Malaysia like Main Range and

Eastern Range have several high peaks (>2000 feet)
 Quartzite, which is even more resistant than granite, compose
the highest peak in West Malaysia, the Gunong Tahan (7, 186
feet)
  Limestone, which is resistant due its permeability, forms
steep-sided hills such as those near Ipoh and in Perlis
 Shale, Schist & Sandstone being much less resistant forms
much lower and rounded hills

Earth movements and major landforms

Creator or modeller of mountains, plateau & Plain- Earth

movements

Modifier of these- Agents of denudation such as rain, running water,

frost, sun, glacier, wind, waves etc

Numbers of orogenic (mountain building) movements till now ≥ 9 (to

ensure)

Periods of their occurrences-

1. Pre- Cambrian period (600-3500 million years ago) –

 Shaped major parts of the world

2. About 320 million years ago-

Caledonian movement rose-

 Mountains of Scandinavia & Scotland

 Northern part of UK
 Part of eastern side of South America

3. About 240 million years ago-

Hercyanian movement-

 Ural mountain ranges

 The Pennines of UK
 Welsh highland in Britain
 Appalachians mountain range in North America
 Harz mountains in Germany
 Siberian plateau of Russia
 Plateau of China (to be reviewed)
Great Britain (England+Scotland+Wales) and Northern Ireland
constitute United Kingdom of Great Britain.

3. About 30 million years ago-

Alpine movements cause formation of young fold mountain ranges

such as-

 The Rockies of North America

 The Andes of South America
 The Alps of Europe
 The Himalayas

(Image to be included from book)

(To include basics of Gondwana and Lawrasia part later from various
reliable sources)

Fold Mountains

Steps of formation-

1. Setting up of stress-

 Contractions & Expansion of earth’s crust

 Flow movements in mantle
 Magmatic intrusions into the crust
 Increased load of overlying rocks

2. Folding of Earth’s crust-

 Initiation of such stresses produce compressive forces which

cause folding of the earth’s crust along line of weakness thus
forming fold mountains
Features-

 Earth’s crust is folded or wrinkled and takes form of a series of

waves
 Up-folds are called anticlines
 Down-folds or Troughs are called synclines
 Rock strata attains great height (sometimes even miles), so called
mountains of elevation
 These mountains are generally associated with volcanic
activities and contains many active volcanoes, esp. in circum-
pacific belt

Various distinguishing features associated-

 Overfold- It is formed when the crest is pushed too far

 Recumbent fold- It is formed in case the crest is pushed even
further
 Overthrust fold-It is formed in the extreme cases, when
fractures occur in the earth’s crust and the upper part slides
over the lower part along the thrust plane
  Nappe- The over-riding portion of Overthrust plane is called
nappe.

Significance-

 Rich source of minerals such as-

a. Tin
b. Copper
c. Gold
d. Petroleum

Block Mountains

Basics-

Fault is a crack or discontinuity in a volume of rock created due to

force of tension or compression generated in earth’s crust due to
earth movement.

Normal Fault- These faults are formed when hanging wall drops
down as the forces that creates it are of pulling nature (tension
creating)

Reverse fault- These faults are formed when the hanging wall moves
up. The forces that creates these faults are of compressive nature
that pushes sides towards each other

Trans-current/ strike-slip fault-In this case walls move sideways,

not up or down
Block Mountain/ horst- The upstanding block formed / block which
is elevated in relation to surrounding rocks as a result of faulting.

Rift Valley/ Graben- The block which is lowered in relation to

surrounding rocks as a result of faulting is called graben.

In general large scale horsts/ graben are formed as a result of normal

faulting process.

Features-

 Horsts have nearly flat summit

 Horsts have very steep slopes
 Tilting or irregularities may lead to formation of complicates
shapes
 Denudation modifies the shape of these with time

Examples-

Block Mountains-

 The Hunsruck Mountains of Rhineland

 The Vosges mountain range in eastern France near Rhineland
 The Black Forest (wooded mountain range) of Rhineland
 Hunsruck Vosages

Graben-

 East African Rift Valley, 3000 miles long, stretching from East
Africa through the Red Sea to Syria

Volcanic Mountain

Also called as mountains of accumulation.

Steps of formation-

1. Molten materials are ejected out of fissures in earth’s crust. These

materials are-

 Molten lava
 Liquid mud
 Ashes
 Cinders
 Volcanic bombs
 Dusts

2. After ejection, these materials fall around the vent and get
accumulated in successive layers forming characteristic volcanic
cone.

Examples-

These are common in circum-pacific belt.

 Mt. Catopaxi of Ecuador

 Mt. Fuji of Japan
 Mt. Mayon of Philippines
 Mt. Merapi of Sumatra
  Mt. Agung of Bali (Indonesia)

Residual Mountains

Also called as mountains of denudation.

Origin/ Formation-

1. From general land/ upland (to be reviewed)-

 General level of land is lowered by agents of denudation but

few very resistant areas remains forming residual mountain

E.g. Mt. Manodnock in U.S.A.

2. From plateaus-

 Down-cutting stream of rivers or glaciers dissect these

uplands into hills and valleys which are all very similar in height

Examples of dissected plateaus/ residual mountains (clarification

needed)-

 Highlands of Scotland
 Highlands of Scandinavia
 Highlands of Deccan Plateau

Plateaux (Tablelands)

Features-

 Elevated uplands
 Have extensive level surface
 Descends steeply to the surrounding lowland

Classification based on formation & physical appearance-

1. Tectonic plateaux-

Formation-

 Formed as a result of isostatic arrangements/ earth movements

which cause uplift
Features-

 Of considerable size
 Have uniform altitude (level surface)

Examples with distinguishing features-

 Deccan Plateau (Continental block)

 Meseta of Central Iberia (Tilted)
 Harz of Germany (Faulted)

Iberian Peninsula consists of territory of Spain, Portugal, Andora,

part of France and British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar.

Intermont Plateaux

Tectonic plateaux enclosed by Fold Mountains are called intermont

plateaux.

Features-

 Among some the highest Plateaux

 Among the most extensive plateaux

Examples-

 Tibetan plateau between the Himalayas and the Kunlun range

 Bolivian plateaux between two ranges of the Andes
2. Volcanic Plateaux-

Steps of formation-

 Molten lava issue out of earth’s crust

 It spreads over the earth’s surface to form successive sheets
of Basaltic Lava
 These sheets solidify to form Lava plateau

Examples-

A. The Antrim Plateau of Northern Ireland

B. The north-western part of Deccan plateau

C. The Columbia- Snake Plateau of U.S.A.

 Area almost equal to twice the area of Malaysia

 Thickness of each layer is over 100 feet
 Overall thickness is about a mile

3. Dissected plateaux-

Formation-

Agents of denudation such as rivers, winds, glaciers etc cause

erosion and weathering of extensive plateaux, making their
surfaces irregular.

A. Humid highlands-

 Streams of water and sometimes glaciers act as an agent of

denudation and dissect the plateaux

Features-

 Valleys cut are deep & narrow

Examples-

 Scottish Highlands

B. Highlands in drier areas-

 Vertical corrosion by rivers and abrasion by winds cause

erosion

Features-

 Due to dissection, plateaus take form of steep-sided tabular

masses called mesas & buttes
 These tabular masses are intersected by deep canyons
 Common in arid and semi-arid regions

Examples-

 Common in south-western America

Arid region- Characterized by severe lack of water, to the extent to
prevent proliferation of plants and animal life.

Semi-arid region- These receive low precipitation, but not extremely

low.

Significance-

Many of these plateaux are rich in minerals and are actively mined-

A. Deccan Plateau-

 Iron
 Manganese
 Coal

B. Brazilian plateau (particularly Minas Gerais area) -

 Iron
 Manganese

C. African plateau-

 Gold
 Diamonds
 Manganese
 Copper
 Chromium
D. Western Australia-

 Gold
 Iron

Plains

Features-

 An area of lowland
 This area can be level or undulating
 Altitude above sea level seldom reaches few hundred meters
 May have low hills giving it Rolling Topography (meaning to be
checked)
 Generally densely populated

Significance-

 Generally is fertile and intensely cultivated

 When traversed by river, its economic importance increases

Examples of Plains traversed by river-

 The Indo-Gangetic plain

 The Mississippi plain (Great plain of USA) (to ascertain)
 The Yang-Tze plain
Examples of temperate plains that are grasslands-

 The Russian Steppes

 The North-American Prairies
 The Argentinean Pampas

Classification based on the mode of formation-

1. Structural Plain-

Formation-

 It is structurally depressed

Features-

 Very extensive
 Composed of horizontally bedded rocks
 Rocks composing the plains are relatively undisturbed by crustal
movements of earth

Examples-

 The Great plain of USA

 The Russian Platform ( meaning/ location to be ascertained)
 The Central Lowland Australia

2. Depositional Plains-

Formation-

 Materials (sediments) are transported from one place to other place by

agents of transportation
 These sediments are deposited to form this type of plains

Features-

 Leveller than Structural plain

 Rise gently towards adjacent highland

A. Plains formed by rivers as an agent of transportation-

Steps of formation-

 A large quantity of materials are eroded in the upper course of river

 These materials (called alluvium) are carried to the lower course
and then, are subsequently deposited to form plains of various kinds
(will be explained later)

a. Flood Plains

b. Alluvial Plains
c. Deltaic Plains

Features-

 Very fertile and intensively cultivated

 Intensively tilled
 Densely populated

Examples with their significance-

a. The Nile Delta of Egypt

 Cotton & Rice cultivation

b. The Ganges Delta-

 Jute & Rice cultivation

c. Plain of North-China composed of alluvium deposited by Hwang-Ho

 Support various crops

B. Plains formed by glaciers and ice-sheets as an agent of transportation-

Outwash Plain- (to be detailed in other chapter)

Formation-

 Melting of glaciers or ice-sheets deposits a mantle of unsorted

fluvioglacial sand and gravels which form outwash plains

Features-

 Generally barren lands

Examples-

 Parts of Holland
 Parts of northern Germany

Holland- Western part of Netherland

Till or drift plains-

Formation-

 Composed of boulder clay, a mixture of various sizes of boulders and

clay

Features-

 May be fertile

Examples-

 Mid-west USA
 East-Anglia in England

C. Plains formed by Waves and winds (in coastal areas) as an agent of

transportation-

Formation-

 These carry beach material, sand, mud, shingles etc on coastal plains
to form various lowlands such as-

a. Marine swamps- An area of low, salty or brackish (salinity

intermediate between fresh and sea water) water along the shore
containing abundant grasses, mangrove trees and similar
vegetations.
b. Mud-flats/ tidal flats- These are coastal wetlands (land area
saturated with water), either temporarily or permanently
 c. Estuarine lowland (to be read in later chapters)

Tidal plain Marine swamps

Examples-

 Coastal lowland of Belgium

 Costal lowland of Netherland
 Gulf coast of USA

Gulf- A landlocked portion of sea/ ocean opening through a strait.

Strait- A narrow passage of water connecting two seas or large body of

water.

Emergent coastal plains-

Formed when coastal lowlands are uplifted.

Example-

 Coastal margin from Florida to Texas

D. Plains formed by winds as an agent of transportation-

Formation-

 Winds pick up very fine Aeolian deposits known as loess (a kind

(fine) of Aeolian deposits) from interior of deserts or barren lands
 These are deposited over hills, valleys or plains. These deposits fill the
depressions of undulating plain and forming loess plain

Features-

 Generally very fertile

Example-

 Pampas of Argentina

In case of deposition of loess over hills and valley loess plateaux are
formed, like that of present in north-western part of China

Aeolian deposits- Windblown sediments that are characteristics of very dry

periods.
3. Erosional plain-

Formation-

Agents of denudation such as rivers, glaciers, wind, icebergs etc carve out
plains of denudation by the action of erosion. Even mountains are eroded
to form undulating plain in terms of millions of years.

A. Peneplains formed by erosive action of rivers on hills in humid

regions-

Formation-

 River flowing through valleys deepens the bed and widens the bank
by an action of erosion
 Hills are both lowered and widened in due course of time forming
undulating plains called Peneplains

B. Ice-scoured plains formed by erosive actions of glaciers and icebergs-

Features-

 Generally levelled
 Often characterized with several lakes formed at the place where ice
scooped out holes once

Examples of ice –scoured plains-

 Northern Canada
 Northern Europe
 Finland has about 35, 000 such lakes covering 10% of its total land
area

C. Pediments/ Pediplains and stony desert plain formed by erosive

action of wind in arid and semi-arid areas-

a. Pediments-

Formation-
  Hills are worn back due to mechanical weathering caused by wind
forming Pediplains

Features-

 A gently sloping plain

 Characterized by some steep hills which remain, called Inselbergs

b. Stony desert plain-

Formation-

 Wind sweeps away eroded desert materials leaving behind extensive

stony desert plain called reg in Africa
Vulcanism and Earthquakes

Landforms associated with volcanic activities

Basics-

Molten magma is ejected or issued out of earth’s crust. Solid, liquid &
gaseous materials (that constitute magma) from deep seated reservoir
can be ejected out.

Types of landforms formed depend upon these factors-

 Magma- Strength & fluidity

 Cracks/ Joints/ Faults- Their types
 Manner of ejection of magma

Intrusive landforms (plutonic rocks)

They are all variations of igneous intrusions placed differently in the

earth’s crust and solidifying within the upper layer of earth’s crust.

1. Sills-

Formation-

 Molten magma intrude horizontally along the bedding plane of

sedimentary rocks
 Solidification takes place in the same position inside the earth’s crust
forming sills

It is exposed on the account of denudation of surrounding sedimentary

rocks.

Shape-

a. Resembles lava flow

b. Like bold escarpments

 E.g. Great Whin Sill of N.E. England

2. Dykes-

Formation-

 Molten magma intrude vertically within layers of sedimentary rocks

 Solidification takes place in the same position inside the earth’s crust
forming dykes

It is exposed on the account of denudation of surrounding sedimentary

rocks.

Shape-

a. Resembles upstanding wall when they are more resistant than

surrounding rock strata

b. Resembles shallow trenches when they are less resistant than

surrounding rock strata

Examples-

 Cleveland dyke of Yorkshire, England

 Isles of Mull & Arran in Scotland
 A narrow ridge of quartzite to the north of Kuala Lumpur (how
quartzite can form a dyke?)

Yorkshire
3. Laccoliths-

Features-

 Upper surface is dome shaped

 Bottom surface is flat
 It is fed by pipe like conduit from below

Effects-

It arches up the sedimentary rocks strata over it

Example-

 Henry Mountain, in Utah USA

4. Lopoliths-

Features-

 Saucer-shaped

Effects-

A shallow basin is formed in the midst of country rocks.

Example-

 Bushveld Lopoliths of Transvaal, South Africa

Transvaal is the geographical area north to Vaal River.

5. Phacoliths

Features-
  Lens-shaped
 Occupy top of anticline & bottom of syncline
 Fed by conduit from beneath

Example-

 Corndon hills in Shropshire, England

6. Batholiths

Probable mode of formation-

 Large mass of magma metamorphosed the country rocks with

which it came into contact
 These metamorphosed country rocks together with solidified
magma is believed to constitute batholiths

Features-

 Usually composed of granite

 Can be 100 of miles thick

After removal of the overlying rocks strata these are exposed as a

massive resistant upland.

Examples-

 Main ranges of West Malaysia

 Upland of Britannia, France
 Wicklow Mountain of Ireland
The origin of Volcanoes

Eruption basics and rationale-

 On an average, temperature increases by 1 degree Fahrenheit per

65 feet of descent below the earth’s surface
 So, various parts of the interior of earth remain in semi-molten
state comprising of solids, liquids and gases which are collectively
termed as magma
 Presence of gases like Carbon dioxide, sulphurated hydrogen,
chlorine, nitrogen and other volatile substances and vapours
increases the mobility and explosiveness of lava
 The density of semi-molten magma is lesser than the surrounding
rocks because of which it tends to move up, primarily through zones of
weaknesses, created mainly due to crustal disturbance like deep
faulting or mountain folding
 Subsequently, the magma ejects or issues out of vent of the volcanoes
during volcanic eruption as lavas

The difference between magma and lava is the location. Semi-molten

materials inside the earth’s crust are called magma and after coming out
to earth’s surface is called lava.
Types of Lavas-

1. Basic lavas

Features-

 Hottest lava (temperature is about 1000 C (1830 F))

 Similar to dark colour Basalt
 Contains more of iron and magnesium and less of silicon
 Highly fluid in nature
 After emission, it flows very quietly and very less explosively
 Speed of flow ranges from 10 to 30 miles per hour
 Before solidifying, these spread over as thin sheets over long
distances

Features of volcanoes formed by this lava-

 Gently sloping
 Have wide diameter
 Forms flattened shield or dome

Shield volcano, Hawaii

2. Acid lavas

Features-

 Light coloured
 High density
 Contains silica
 High melting point
 High viscosity
 Flow speed is very less

The rapid jellying (becoming thick) of lava in the vent obstructs the
flow of out-pouring lava leading to severe explosions, throwing out
several volcanic bombs or pyroclasts.

Volcanic bombs- Mass of molten rocks larger than 64 mm in

diameter. It may travel several hundred kilometres and acquire
aerodynamic shapes. A type of pyroclasts.

Pyroclastic flow- A pyroclastic flow is a fast moving current of

gases and molten rocks which reaches speed up to 700km/hr while
moving away from volcano.

Features of volcanic cones formed-

 Steep-sided

Plug or spine

Formation-

 Sometimes lava is so viscous that it solidifies and forms spine at

the crater

Example-

 Mt. Pelee of Martinique

Features-

 Some spines are very resistant that remain even after

surrounding materials are eroded

Example of resistant one-

 Puy-de-dome, France
Types of volcanoes

1. Active volcanoes-

Those which erupt frequently or is known to have erupted recently.

2. Dormant volcanoes-

Those which are known to have erupted in past and may erupt in
future.

3. Extinct volcanoes-

Those which are not erupted in historic times but retain the features
of volcanoes

All volcanoes pass through these three stages but it is not

thoroughly sure when they are extinct.

Examples of volcanoes (thought to be extinct) which erupted-

 Mt. Vesuvius, Naples

 Mt. Krakatau

Extrusive landforms

Types of these depend upon the nature and composition of lava.

1. Lava plain

Formation-

 Highly fluid basic lava, flowing long distances forms these

Example-

 The Great lava plains of Snake Basin, USA

2. Basalt plateau-

Formation-

 Highly fluid basic lava, flowing long distances forms these

Example-
  The north-western part of Deccan plateau
 In Iceland (flood basalt)

3. Volcanic cones

Also called as lava domes or shield volcanoes.

Formation-

 Highly fluid lava solidifying in successive layers form these

Features-

 Gentle slope
 Broad, flattened top

Examples-

Volcanoes of Hawaii

Features-

 Have best developed domes

It is composed of five volcanoes as shown in figure-

 Lava pit of
Halemaumau (Kilauea caldera)

Most accessible of these are-

a. Mauna Loa

b. Kilauea

 Kilauea caldera has very steep walls

 Many lava fountains rise & fall in Lava pit of Halemaumau in
the Kilauea caldera

4. Ash & Cinders cone-

Formation-

 Lava low in fluidity leads to its formation

Features-

 Steep-slope
 Large central craters
 Small in extent
 Generally occurs in groups
 Height is generally less than 1000 feet

Examples-

 Mt. Nuovo near Naples

 Mt. Paricutin in Mexico

5. Lava tongues

Formation-

 When viscous lava flows over shield-shaped mountains’ gentle

slope in tongues like flows

6. Lava dammed lakes

Formation-

 When lava flow is confined within valleys, it solidifies and dams

the river valley

7. Lava bridges

Associated with obstructions caused by lava.

8. Lava tunnel

Associated with obstructions caused by lava.

9. Composite volcanoes-

Also known as strato-volcanoes.

Formation-

 Several eruptions of lava, ashes and other materials occur from

main conduit bringing materials from to reservoir of magma
beneath
 During each eruption a layer is added and subsequently height is
increased forming composite cone

Features-

 Generally highest
 Most common

Parasitic cone-

 Fed by dykes or pipes originating from main conduit

 Lava flows along the sides of parent cone after erupting from
parasitic cone
Dykes- These are almost perpendicular to the layers of cone.

Sills- These run along the layers of cone.

(Definitions of Dykes and sills are to be further clarified)

Examples-

a. Mt. Etna, Sicily

 Have hundreds of parasitic cone

b. Mt. Stromboli

 Also called lighthouse of Mediterranean

 Erupts very frequently that makes the summit glow
c. Mt. Vesuvius, Italy

d. Mt. Fuji, Japan

e. Mt. Chimborazo, Ecuador

f. Mt. Popocatepetl, Mexico

10. Crater

Formation-

 Top portion of volcanic cone may blow off or collapse into the vent
forming it

11. Caldera

Formation-

 Result of violent explosion that caused much of volcano to

subside to magma beneath

Features-

 Greatly enlarged depression

 My be several miles across
12. Caldera or crater lakes-

Formation-

 Collection of water in these depressions lead the formation of

such lakes

Example-

 Lake Toba, Sumatra

Volcanic dust or ashes are thrown so high in the sky that it travel
round the world several times before coming to rest, and falls as black
snow.

The coarser fragmental rocks that are spread in volcanic area are
called pyroclasts that include cinders or lapilli, volcanic bombs,
Pumice, Scoria.

Cinder/ scoria- A partly burnt substance (basaltic lava) that is not

converted into ash but is incapable of further combustion.

Lapilli- Rock fragments ejected out of volcano having diameter

between 2 to 64 mm.

Volcanic bomb- Rock fragments ejected out of volcano having

diameter greater 64 mm.
Pumice- Very light and porous rock which is formed when gas rich
molten lava solidifies quickly.

Some of the most disastrous volcanic eruptions-

Mt. Vesuvius-

Features-

 At the Bay of Naples

 Height is about 4000 feet

Series of events and their effects-

First event- (24 August A.D. 79)

 White hot lava flowed from the parasitic cones

 A large mass of gaseous magma was ejected high in the sky as
a result of explosion which finally fell to the ground as pyroclasts
& ashes

Effects-

 The city of Pompeii located south-west of the volcano was

buried beneath the twenty feet of volcanic ashes which was
later cemented by torrential rain which followed the eruption
 The city of Herculaneum, west to the volcano was covered with
the 50 feet thick layers of ashes & cinders washed down by
torrential rain from the sides of volcano

Second event- (December 1631)

 Avalanche of height of about 1 foot and composed of pasty lava,

red hot volcano debris and highly energised gases
descended on Naples

Effects-

 15 towns were ruined and about 4000 people were killed

Mt. Krakatau-

Features-
  Perhaps, Biggest explosion known to man. Could be heard in
Australia about 3000 miles away
 Krakatau is a small island in Sunda strait, midway between Java
and Sumatra

Series of events-

First event - (August 1883)

 Dense black cloud of ashes were shot 20 to 50 miles high in

the sky which were brought down to nearby islands by rain
 Gigantic amount of magma was poured out which collapsed
two-third of the island and converted it into submarine caldera
 A huge amount of fine dust particles were thrown up in the sky
which made several round about the earth and caused brilliant
sunset and glowing sky in various parts of the globe

Effects-

 Krakatau was not inhabited by humans so no one was killed

because of lava flow
 But setting up of oceanic waves, over 100 feet high, drowned
about 36,000 people in the coastal districts of Indonesia
Second event- (1927)

Anak Krakatau (the child of Mt. Krakatau) –

Formation-

 Another explosion in 1927 pushed a cinder cone from

submarine floor, resulting in formation of 220 feet high summit
by 1952

Mt. Pelee- (West-Indies)

Features-

 Most catastrophic of modern times

 Consists of vertical spine

Event of formation- (1902)

  White-hot lava and super-heated steam descended the slope
at an amazing speed as a nuee ardente (glowing avalanche)
 Lava eruption continued for months

Effects-

 St. Pierre, the capital of Martinique was destroyed within

minutes and its population of 30,000 perished except two
persons
 Even the sea was boiling and ships at harbour wrecked

Spine formation-

In middle of 1903, a vertical spine made up by solidification of pasty

lava in the neck of volcano rose which stopped the lava flow. It is
about 1000 feet high but eventually got crumbled by the action of
agents of weathering and internal forces

West-Indies (Found by Columbus, first from Europe) - It is a large

group of islands that separates Caribbean Sea from Atlantic Ocean.
Now, it is better known as Caribbean. It consists of three parts-

 Bahamas (north)- Consists of over 3000 small islands

 Greater Antilles (Central)- Consists of Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti,
the Dominican Republic (Hispaniola) & Puerto Rico
 Lesser Antilles (Southeast)- Divided into two groups, the
Leeward islands & the Windward islands
The distribution of Volcanoes in the world-

Features-

 Generally located in the regions which are folded or faulted

 Location is fairly clearly-defined
 Around 500 active and over 1000 dormant and extinct
volcanoes are present

General distribution-

 Along coastal mountain ranges, as offshore-islands

 In midst of ocean
 Few in interior of continents

Region wise location details with examples-

1. Circum-Pacific region (Pacific ring of fire)

This region includes about two-third of the world’s volcanoes. The

chain of volcanoes extends to about 2000 miles. Important
locations from start to finish (taking anticlockwise direction) of the
ring is given below-

 Starting from Andes- Contains almost 40 active volcanoes

 To Central America (particularly Guatemala, Costa Rica &
Nicaragua)
 To Mexico
 Then running up right to Alaska
 From Alaska to the Aleutian Islands

 To Kamchatka
 To Japan- Contains almost 35 active volcanoes
 To Philippines- Contains almost 100 active volcanoes
 To Indonesia (particularly Java & Sumatra)- Contains almost 70
active volcanoes
 Moving southwards into Pacific islands of Solomon
 To New Hebrides
 To Tonga
 To North Island, New Zealand
2. Atlantic coast

Very few active volcanoes but many dormant and extinct

volcanoes are present.

a. Examples of Active Volcanoes-

 Of Iceland
 Of Azores

Examples of dormant or extinct

volcanoes. Those in-

 Madeira
 St. Helena
 Canary Island
 Ascension Island
 Cape Verde Island
3. Volcanoes in Mediterranean region-

Mainly associated with Alpine folds though, surprisingly, the

Himalayas have no active volcanoes.

Examples-

 Mt. Vesuvius
 Mt. Etna
 Mt. Stromboli
 Mt. Vulcano
 Those of Aegean Island
 Few in Asia Minor ( Mt. Ararat & Mt. Elbrus)
In Africa-

Example of Active volcanoes-

 Mt. Cameroon, West Africa

Examples of extinct (probably)

volcanoes-

These are along East African

Rift Valley.

 Mt.
Kilimanjaro
 Mt. Kenya

There are few volcanic cones in Madagascar, but active eruption was
not known so far.

In West Indian Islands-

 Mt. Pelee in Matinique

 In St. Vincent
 The Lesser Antilles are mainly made up of volcanic island,
some of which bear sign of volcanic liveliness.
In Asia, North America, Europe and Australia, active volcanoes are
rare.

Geysers & Hot Springs-

Geysers-

These are fountain of hot water and superheated steam that may
may spout up to 150 feet from the earth beneath.

Formation-

 Water beneath the earth’s surface is heated above boiling point

(100 C) in volcanic or thermal areas
 A jet water is ejected with an explosion triggered by bubbles of
gases

Examples-

These are majorly confined to three areas-

 Iceland
 The Rotorua district of North Island, New Zealand
 “Old faithful” in Yellowstone National Park, USA – Erupts every
63 mins on an average. (Perhaps the world’s best known Geyser)
Hot springs or thermal springs-

Formation-

 Water goes deep beneath the earth’s surface

 It gets heated by internal forces and are ejected out of the
earth’s surface without any explosion

Examples-

These are common and may be found anywhere on the earth. Majorly
in-

 Iceland- Thousands of it are present

 Japan & Hawaii- Centre of attraction for tourism

Significance-

 Contains various minerals so can be of medicinal value

 Heat is harnessed for various puposes (domestic, heat house)

Earthquakes-

More than 50,000 earthquake are recorded annualy.

Minor earth tremors-

Cause-

 Caused by gente wave of vibrations within the earth’s crust

Frequency fo occurence-

 Usually occurs every few minutes

Major earthquakes-

Cause-

 Caused as a result of movement along Faults

Major after-effects-

 Gigantic tidal waves, called Tsunami (by Japanese) are

produced
 Passage of surface waves cause ground to twist and undulate
and fissures are opened. A wave of magnitude of quarter an
inch is suffircient to collapse the prdinary buildings

General after-effects-

 Fire may break out as a result of shattering of Gas Lines etc

 Buildings collapse
 Railways, roads and bridges are buckled and twisted
 Hill are shaken causing landslides
 Telecommunications are cut

A very sensitive seismograph is needed to detect the movements of

earthquake waves.

Some major earthquakes-

1. Great Lisbon Earthquake- (1 Nov 1755)

Cause-

 Subsidence of Ocean floor in the Atlantic, to the west of Lisbon

After-effects-
  Tidal waves as high as 35 feet was set up which collapsed
buidings and killed about 60,000 people in the districts of Lisbon
 Effects of the earthquake was felt within the 400 miles radius of
Lisbon, in North Africa and Europe

2. Earthquake of Tokyo and Yokohama- (1 Sep 1923)

Cause-

 Cracking of earth’s crust off the coast of Japan cause the

earthquake

After-effects-

 Half a million of building collapsed

 Quarter a million of people died because of widespread fire of the
factories, gas mains etc

3. Earthquake in loess region of Kansu, China-

a. 1920- Killed 200,000 people

b. 1927- Buried 100,000 cave dwellers

4. Earthquake of eastern Iran- (1968)

 Epicentre was in Kakh

Earthquake at Agadir, Morocco in 1960 and earthquake in San

Francisco in 1906 were also very disastrous.

The distribution of earthquakes-

Its distribution coincides very closely with that of volcanoes. Though

no part of the world can be said completely immune to earthquakes.

1. Circum-Pacific areas-
General things-

 About 70 % of the world’s earthquakes occur here

 It is region of greatest seismicity with most of the epicentres
and frequent occurrence along the Pacific Ring of Fire

Seismicity- The frequency or magnitude of earthquakes in a

given area.

2. Mediterranean-Himalayan belt-

It includes Asia Minor, the Himalayas and the north-west parts of

China

General thing-

 About 20% of world’s earthquakes occur here

Weathering, Mass Movement and Groundwater

Introduction-

Internal forces of volcanic eruptions, tectonic plate’s movements,

folding, faulting etc create new relief features.

External forces tend to lower and level these reliefs.

The constructive and destructive actions of internal and external

forces respectively lead to formation of a variety of landforms.

Denudation-

It is the process of wearing away of the earth causing a general

lowering and levelling of the earth’s surface.

Four phases of denudation-

a. Weathering- Disintegration of rocks by the action of atmospheric

or weather forces

b. Erosion- Wearing of earth’s surface by the action of moving

agents like running water, ice, wind, waves etc

c. Transportation- Carrying away of eroded material from one place

to another

d. Deposition- Dumping the debris at various places where they may

accumulate forming new rocks

Rates of these processes depends upon these factors-

 Nature of relief feature

 Structure and type of rocks
 Local climate
 Human interference
Weathering-

Disintegration of rocks occurs by chemical or mechanical action,

though the processes involved in each are interrelated. The
processes of mechanical weathering work much easily if the rock
has already been weakened by chemical weathering.

1. Chemical weathering-

Extremely slow process

Cause/ Process-

 Air and water containing chemicals, though in small quantities,

initiate chemical reactions in the surfaces of rocks when they
come in contact with it
 This chemical reaction may weaken or entirely dissolve some of
the components of the rock
 This loosen the remaining crystals and other components
 Some of the loosened parts of weathered rocks are eroded and
carried away by the moving agents like river or wind, thus
exposing new surfaces
 But much of the remains of rocks (regolith), left after weathering,
stay in position forming basis of soil. Apart from regolith (mineral
remains of decomposed rocks), soil contains organic materials
such as leaves, small animals, insects etc
 Soil traps the water and keeps the underlying rocks in contact
with moisture. Water absorbs organic acids from soils making
thus becoming a stronger agent of chemical weathering than
pure water acting on the bare rocks

Example-

Surface of Granite in Malaysia are pitted and rough.

Cause-

 Granite is primarily composed of quartz, feldspar & mica

 Feldspar is more quickly weathered and is worn away
 Quartz crystal are loosened and subsequently formed a coarse
sandy residue
There are three major chemical weathering processes-

A. Solution-

Almost all the rocks are subjected to this process to some extent.
Various minerals are dissolved in water. Carbon dioxide dissolved in
rain water act as a weak acid and expedites weathering processes.

Rate of weathering by this process depends upon-

a. Mineral composition of rocks-

Examples to support this-

 Limestone- It is majorly composed of calcium carbonate which

gets readily dissolved in water. As a result, joints and cracks are
widened and subsequently the whole system of caves and
passages are worn out
 For others, rate is slow

b. Structure of rocks-

Examples to support this-

 Presence of pore-spaces between the grains of sedimentary rocks

provide for lodging of water and gases which expedite the rate of
their weathering

c. Density of joints and cracks-

As the density of joints and cracks in a rock increases, the rate of

weathering increases.

Examples to support this-

 By analysing the granite in Malaysia, it is found that the

underlying layer of solid rock is covered with thick layer of
regolith but it contains some core-stones which would have
 resisted the weathering process on account of having lesser
density of joints and cracks to hold moisture

d. Local climate-

Examples to support this-

 Weathering process occurs rapidly in the tropical regions which

are characterized by heavy rainfall and warm climate
 Dry climate hinders the chemical weathering processes but
supports the physical or mechanical weathering processes

B. Oxidation-

Oxygen in air or water reacts with minerals in rocks. This is called

oxidation.

Example-

 Iron which is a constituent of most of the rocks, react with

oxygen of air or water to form iron oxide which being weaker
crumbles and get eroded & removed easily
 Removal of iron from the parent rock loosen and weaken the
structure of rocks

C. Decomposition by organic acids-

a. Rocks covered by soil-

 Various microorganisms like bacteria etc thrive on the plant and

animal materials present in the soil and produce various acids
 These acids are mixed with water which speeds up the
weathering process

b. Bare rocks-

 Several microorganisms and few plants like mosses, lichens

etc live on damp bare rocks and absorb minerals from it while
producing organic acids
  This leads to chemical as well as physical or mechanical
weathering simultaneously

2. Mechanical or Physical weathering-

It is physical disintegration of rocks.

A. Repeated temperature change- (Generally in desert areas)

Process-

 Temperature rises rapidly during the day time causing expansion

of outer layer much faster than that of inner parts thus, causing
outer layer to pull the rest
 Conversely, temperature falls very rapidly during night which
causes outer layer to shrink much faster than inner part causing
stress
 This repeated stresses causes rocks to disintegrate or crack in
due course of time

Stresses and pressures are more at the surfaces and at sharp

angles thus the rectangular block is gradually rounded by shedding its
sharp corner. The surface layers of the rounded boulders gradually split
and are peeled off in layers. This process is technically called
exfoliation or is generally called onion peeling.

Various cases-

a. Well bedded and jointed rocks-

 Split along joints or cracks, breaking up into rectangular blocks

b. Shale & Slate-

 Split up in the form of platy fragments due to platy structure

c. Crystalline rocks such as granite-

 Granite is composed of mica, feldspar and quartz crystals

which expand and contracts at different rates thus increasing
the rate of disintegration
The fragments broken off from the rocks fall at the bottom of slope
forming screes or litters.

B. Repeated wetting and drying-

Process-

 The outer layers of rocks absorb a certain amount of moisture

and expand when is wetted
 These layers contract suddenly when is dried
 This repeated expansion and contraction of outer layers cause
the outer layers to split off (exfoliation)

Various cases-

a. In tropical region- (Malaysia etc)

 Short downpours saturate the rocks

 Hot Sun dries them up

b. At coastal region-

 Rocks are dried rapidly by sun and wind between the tides

c. In desert regions-

 Rocks are dried rapidly after being wetted by brief desert rain-
storms
 This is almost as important as repeated temperature change in
causing weathering in these areas

C. Frost action- (temperate latitudes)

Process-

 Rocks contain several cracks and joints, or pores, which are

occupied by the water, usually after shower
 As the temperature falls during the night, this water freezes.
 Freezing of water cause increase in its volume to about one-
tenth of its original volume. Water, thus, exerts a bursting
pressure of about 140 kg/ cm2 (2000 lb. to a square of inch)
  Repeated expansion of this type deepens and widens the cracks
or crevices
 Subsequently rock are broken into angular fragments

In case of mountains-

 Sharp pinnacles and angular outlines are created by this

process. Such peaks are called as frost-shattered
 Angular fragments fall to the base of foot of the slope where
they accumulate to form screes

D. Biotic factors-

a. Plants-

 Cracks and Crevices are developed in rocks due to chemical or

mechanical weathering processes
 Plants may sprout in these cracks or crevices
 As the plants grow, their roots penetrate deeper into the rocks,
along the joints or the plane of weakness, prising them apart

b. Humans-

 Various human’s activities such as mining, road making,

farming etc make them to excavate the rocks
 These excavation activities contribute to the mechanical
weathering of rocks and make them more vulnerable to agents
of denudation

Mass Movement-

The movement of weathered materials down the slope by the action of

gravitational force.

It can be gradual or sudden depending on these factors-

 Gradient of slope
 Weight of weathered materials
 Provision of lubrication, for example by rain water
1. Soil Creep-

It is the slow, gradual but more or less continuous movement of soil

down the hill slopes.

Rate of soil creep decreases when-

 Slope is gentle
 Soil is covered with grasses or other vegetations

Rate of soil creep increases when-

 Soil is damp, so that water acts as a lubricant and individual soil

particles move over one another and the underlying rocks easily
 When the hill is regularly trampled or treaded by animal
grazing which sets up vibrations which loosen soil and cause it
to move

Soil creep is not readily seen in action but its evidences are-

 Anything rooted in the soil viz. trees, poles, fences etc tilt with
time
 Soil accumulates at the foot of the hill or over any obstruction
such as wall that comes into its way of movement

2. Soil Flow (Solifluction)-

Process-

 Sometimes soil gets completely saturated with water as if soil

particles are almost suspended in water
 In this case soil behaves like liquid and soil-flow or mud-flow
occurs

Region wise process details-

A. Arid- region-
  Weathered rocks-debris are saturated with rain-water, followed
by desert storm
 These saturated debris flows down the slope as a semi-liquid
mass

B. Temperate & Tundra region-

 Surface layers of frozen ground thaw in the spring

 This soil and rocks debris saturated with water slips over the
underlying layers of frozen sub-soil

C. Area with Peat-Soil-

 Peat absorbs a lot of water

 If it gets saturated, it may flow down the slope
 In Ireland, such down flow of peat soil is called ‘bog-bursts’

3. Landslides- (Slumping or Sliding)

It is very rapid movement when a large mass of soil or rocks falls

suddenly.

Mode of occurrences and factors causing it-

a. Vibrations set up by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions may

loosen the soil or rocks structures causing them to fall suddenly

b. Presence of very steep slope such as in mountain region, cliffs etc

facilitates its occurrence

c. Man-made steepening, e.g. for railway tracks etc, undercuts the

slope as well as set up vibrations which loosen the soil and rocks

d. Slumping occurs when impermeable strata like those composed

of clay is covered with permeable layers of weathered debris or
rocks. Water percolates through the permeable strata and is stopped at
the impermeable layer. Damp clay provides the very needed
lubrication and the whole upper strata slumps down
e. Water may collect on the bedding planes causing one layer to slide
over other, especially in tilted strata

f. Water may collect at the base of the regolith because it sinks

readily in the weathered materials and cause it to slide over the layers
of underlying rocks

g. Removal of natural vegetation cover for agricultural purpose or

housing allows more water to percolate into the soil, thus increasing
the chances of landslides

 Removal of vegetation cover from the surface Cameron

Highlands leads to frequent minor landslides and slumps

Landslides lead to burying of villages, houses, people, railway tracks

etc and have disastrous effects.

Places generally affected by landslides-

 South Wales, UK
 British Columbia, Canada (administrative map of Canada to be
included)
 Hong Kong, China
 Cameron Highlands, West Malaysia- Village of Ringlet was
partially buried in 1961 and several houses were ruined/ effects
also in tea gardens

Hong Kong is one of the two Special Administrative Regions of

People’s Republic of China, the other being Macau.
Groundwater-

Hydrological Cycle- The whole circulation of water between land,

sea and atmosphere constitutes hydrological cycle.

Events, after it rains-

 Some amount of water may evaporate immediately after falling

to the ground and is returned to atmosphere
 Some amount of water may get absorbed by plants which is
gradually returned to atmosphere through the process of
transpiration
 Some amount of water my run off the slope, joining streams and
rivers, and finally draining into sea and oceans
 A considerable amount of water percolates into soil and rocks,
filling up joints and pores-spaces, constitutes groundwater

Significance of groundwater-

 It is an important source of natural water storage

 It plays an important role in weathering and mass movement

Groundwater re-enters hydrological cycle through springs and wells.

The proportion of rain-water becoming groundwater depends on-

1. Climate-

a. In case of dry climate-

 A large proportion of rain water may evaporate immediately to

dry atmosphere

b. In case of very humid climate-

 Soil may already be having a lot of moisture intact in it

 So, a large proportion of water is moved as run-off
c. In case of moderately humid climate-

 Water is both moved as runoff and percolates down

Thus, this proportion may depend on season too.

2. Rock types-

The amount of water which percolates into the ground and the depth
to which it goes beneath the surface depends greatly upon the
porosity and the permeability of the soil & rocks.

Porosity- It is the measure of presence of density of pores-spaces in

the rock. A porous rock allows a large amount of moisture to pass
through it absorbs a large quantity of the same in their pores-spaces.
Rocks like Sandstones, limestone, etc are very porous.

Permeability- It is the ability of rocks or soil to allow the passage of

fluid through them. Rocks like granite having pervious or permeable.

Generally a porous rock is permeable except for a few rocks. E.g.

Clay is made up of innumerable extremely fine particles having
pores-spaces between them and so is very porous, capable of holding a
large quantity of water. But due to very small gap between the
particles, it is practically impervious.

Also granite is made of several non-porous crystals which absorb

little or no water, but water usually passes through the joints and
cracks of it. It is thus non-porous yet generally permeable. Though,
some granite can be more porous than others.

The water table-

Formation-

 Water goes downwards through the layers of permeable rocks

until it reaches the surface of impermeable rocks
 If any outlet such as springs are not available, water
accumulates over the surface of impermeable rocks
 The layers of pervious rocks are saturated gradually and these
saturated rocks are called aquifer
  The upper surface of saturated area is called water table

Depth of water table from the surface of land depends upon-

a. Relief features-

 Water table is generally far from the surface of hill-top

 Water table is generally close to the surface of valleys or low
lying plains which may sometimes render the land waterlogged
or swampy

b. Seasons-

 When there is plenty of rain to augment ground water supplies,

ground water table may rise
 In dry periods, new supplies may not be available, and the
ground water table is lowered as water may be lost through
springs and seepages

C. Type of rocks

Springs-

It is the natural outlet of groundwater onto the surface. It may seep

gradually from the rocks or gush out as fountain.

Rationale-

 The groundwater reaches the surface at the point where water

table reaches the surface

Various types of springs-

1. Depending on nature of rocks

a. Well jointed rocks-

 Water may percolate down through the joints until it reaches a

joint which emerges at the surface
 Water is emerged out at the surface through this joint
b. Limestone or Chalk escarpment-

 In this case generally an escarpment of permeable rock lie

between the layers of impermeable rocks
 Water escapes out as spring from the foot of the scarp as scarp-
foot spring
 Water escapes out as spring from the base of dip-slope of
escarpment as dip-slope spring

c. In Karsts region-

 Rivers suddenly disappear underground

 They follow the passage worn by the process of chemical
weathering (solution)
 Rivers re-emerges as spring when it reaches some impermeable
layer. This is called vauclusian spring or resurgence

2. Depending on position of water table

a. Tilted strata-

 Layers of permeable and impermeable rocks are alternate

 Spring comes out to the surface through the base of permeable
layer

b. Presence of dykes or sills-

 Sometimes impermeable layer of dykes or sills are introduced

into the layer of permeable rocks
 It cause the water table to reach the surface from where spring
emerges as dyke or sill spring

Other types of spring include hot springs, mineral springs, geysers,

etc.

Wells-

Man can make use of the stored groundwater by sinking well.

Important points-

 A well is to be bored until it reaches the water table

 Well should be bored till the permanent water table line if
water supply in all seasons is required
 In case the well is bored only till the wet-season water table,
water will not be available in the dry season when water table
goes down
 Initially water is to be raised manually or by using pump after
boring the well
 It is more useful in arid regions where very little surface water
is available but sufficient amount of water exists between the
underlying rocks or soil as underground water

Artesian wells-

It is formed in a special situation described below-

 Sometimes rock strata are down folded to take the form of a

basin
 In such cases permeable rocks like limestone or chalk may be
sandwiched between the layers of impermeable rocks so that
the permeable layer touches the ground only through its edges
 Water goes down through this permeable layer through the
edges until it reaches the impermeable layer
 The bottom most impermeable layer prevent water from passing
downwards and the top layer of impermeable rocks prevent
water from escaping up
 Thus, the aquifer is saturated till the brim of the basin and water
gets trapped in the aquifer at high pressure
 And when a well is bored, the downward pressure is high enough,
and water gushes out the surface as fountain
 But as the pressure decrease it becomes necessary to pump up
the water
 The depth of Artesian well may vary from few feet to thousands of
feet

Locations where Artesian wells are generally found-

a. Great Plain of USA-

  Used to supply needs to an entire village

b. Queensland and other parts of Australia-

 Sheep farming

c. Arid regions (parts of Sahara and in Australia) -

 Water may enter the aquifer through the edges in the area of
high rainfall
 And it may get stored in the basin underlying arid region
Cautions-

 Water obtained may be hot or contain a lot of dissolved mineral

salts because of which it may become unsuitable for
agricultural or irrigation purpose
 Boring well leads to depletion of groundwater as water is
removed at much higher rate than under natural conditions and
rate of replenishment remains more or less same
Landforms made by running water

The development of a river system-(to be updated and expanded later

if required)

A part of rain which fall to the ground run off as rivulets, brooks,
streams and tributaries of the river.

River is a potent source of denudation and its effects are seen all
over the globe unlike glacier or ice-sheets which effect on cold and
temperate region, waves which affect only coastal regions or winds
which are effective only in desert areas.

Effective erosion of rocks is possible only when it is earlier weakened

by weathering.

Sources of river-

The lakes, the marshes or springs etc can be the source of river, but it
is generally in upland.

Catchment area (drainage basin)-

It is the area of land from where surface water from rain, snow or
groundwater converges to a single point and joins river. It is generally
in uplands as-

 Precipitations are heaviest in uplands

 Slope provide for run off to flow downwards

Watershed-

It is a divide or line that separates two neighbouring drainage

basins.

It is generally the crest of the mountains from which streams flow

down the slopes on both the sides to start their journey to the oceans.
Types of streams-

a. Consequent streams- It (flow) is the direct result of original slope

or original topography of the surface. It is the initial stream that exists
as a consequence of slope.
Head ward erosion is the process by which a stream becomes longer and
more pronounced (wider). As rain falls, the river's head is eroded as the rain
erodes rock at the head. As more rain falls, the rock is eroded even more, and
the river cuts back at its origin. When it cuts, it erodes rock, and so the river's
length is extended.

b. Subsequent streams- Its flow path is determined by the headward

erosion by the original stream and is independent of original contours
of the surface. Its path is determined by weak rock belts.

c. Obsequent streams are streams flowing in the opposite direction of

the consequent drainage.

d. Insequent streams

 Have an almost random drainage often forming dendritic

patterns. These are typically tributaries and have developed by
headward erosion on a horizontally stratified belt or on
homogeneous rocks.
 These streams follow courses that apparently were not
controlled by the original slope of the surface, its structure or
the type of rock
As consequent stream wears down the surface while flowing, it is
joined by several other tributaries either obliquely or at right angle
depending upon-
 Alignment of rocks
 Degree of resistance of rocks

Types of Drainage patterns- (To be updated later from various sources)

1. Dendritic drainage- (Dendron, a Greek word means a tree)

Formation-

 Beds of rocks are homogenous

 This means that they have uniform resistance to erosion
 This causes oblique streams called Insequent streams to join
the main valley as tributaries

2. Trellised drainage-

Formation-

 Alternate layers of hard and soft rocks exist

 Stream tends to follow the pattern of rock structure
 If outcrops of rock are at right angle to the main valley
 Streams meet the main valley at right angle as subsequent
stream
 Drainage pattern so obtained will be rectangular in shape

The mechanism of Humid Erosion-

Humid erosion covers the matters of erosion caused running water,

rain-water, river etc.

Mass Movement is also affected by this.

The process of river action-

While running, rivers carry eroded materials which comprises river’s
load. Three categories of river’s load-

1. Materials in solution-

 Comprises of minerals dissolved in water

2. Material in suspension-

 Comprises of materials such as silt, sand and mud which are

carried away suspended in the water in the course of river flow

3. Traction load-

 Comprises of larger size materials such as boulders, rocks,

pebbles, stones, etc which are rolled along the bed of river as
river flows

Rationale-

The transportation capacity of river depends upon following-

a. Volume of the water

b. Velocity of the flow

 On doubling the velocity, transportation power increases by

almost 10 times. Thus, flow and transportation capacity of river is
dependent upon seasons. It becomes very high during flood times

c. Size, shape and weight of the load

Significance-

 On an average, around 200 tons of suspended solid materials

and about 50 tons of dissolved solid materials per square mile of
earth’s surface is carried away in a year
 Drainage basin is lowered slowly

Examples-

a. River Mississippi-It drains about half the land area of USA and
transport about 2 million tons of eroded materials to the Gulf of Mexico
b. The Irrawaddy- It is swift-flowing River and it lowers its drainage
basin by about a foot in about 400 years

River erosion and transportation-

Both occur simultaneously. Various processes-

1. Corrasion or abrasion-

 Caused by traction load

 Involves mechanical grinding of bed and bank of the river

Two types-

a. Lateral corrasion-

 Caused by hurling of load against the sides of the river.

 Widens V-shaped valley

b. Vertical corrasion-

 Caused by rolling of load materials along the bed of river

  Deepens the river channel

2. Corrosion or Solution-

 Various soluble or semi-soluble rocks are dissolved in the water

either fully or partly
 Limestone is greatly dissolved in water forming solution

3. Hydraulic action-

 Mechanical loosening and transporting by river water itself

 River water splashes against the sides of river and widens cracks
in them by promoting the disintegration process
 It undermines the softer rocks from the bed too
 It carries away the disintegrated materials from banks and bed
with it

4. Attrition-

 Process of wear and tear of the transported materials

themselves
 Occurs due to collisions among themselves, rolling along bed
and hurling against sides
 Boulders are broken into smaller stones
 Angular rocks are rounded and converted into pebbles
 Finer materials are carried to be deposited in lower lying areas

The upper course or mountain course- (in the age of youth)

Basics-

 It starts from the source, near the watershed which is generally

crest of the mountain

Formation of deep, narrow valleys-

  Water flows swiftly down the steep slope
 Main action is vertical corrasion (down cutting)
 Rate of vertical corrasion is so high that the lateral corrasion fails
to keep pace with it
 High rate of vertical corrasion and relatively much lower rate of
lateral corrasion cause formation of deep, narrow valleys

Various Cases-

a. Very resistant rocks area- In these cases, the relative rate of

lateral corrasion is much lesser and very deep and narrow valley
called gorges are formed

 E.g. Indus Gorge in Kashmir

b. Arid-region- Very little rainfall does not let much of lateral

corrasion to occur and an extremely deep valley called canyons are
formed

 Bryce Canyon, Utah, USA

Various outstanding features created-

1. River capture- (River piracy or river beheading)

Formation-

 One side of watershed may receive more precipitation than the

other side causing differential headward erosion (back-cutting)
at the two sides of divide
 The drainage basin area at the side, where the rate of headward
erosion is more, increases at the expense of other side basin
 Sometimes, the stream may break through the watershed and
capture or pirate a part of the stream of other side river
 The bend at which piracy occurs is called the elbow of capture
 The beheaded stream is called misfit
 The valley below the elbow is called wind gap and may be used
for constructing roadways or railways lines

Examples-

 Upper Sittang captured by Irrawaddy in Burma

 The Blyth and Wansbeck are beheaded by the North Tyne in
Northumberland, England
2. Rapids, Cataracts & Waterfalls-

These can be present at any course of the rivers though it is generally

present in the upper course because changes in gradient here is more
abrupt and frequent.

Rapids-

Formation-

 Bands of softer and harder rocks possess different resistances to

denudation
 The outcrop of harder rocks cause water to jump or fall down-
steam forming rapids

Cataracts-

Rapids of greater dimensions are called cataracts.

Example-

a. Five cataracts are present along the way of Nile

 Hinders smoother navigation along the river

Waterfall-

When water falls down from a height waterfall is formed.

Plunge-pool- The greater force of water plunging down creates

plunge-pool beneath.

Ways of formation-
A. Resistant rock lying transverse to the river valley.

Examples-

 Niagara Falls, USA- 167 feet high

 Kaieteur Falls, Guyana- 825 feet high

B. When fault-line cliff formed as a result of faulting lie in the way of

river course

 Victoria fall, on the River Zambezi- 360 feet high

C. When water plunges down from edge of a plateau

 Livingstone fall- River Congo leaps for about 900 feet through a
series of more than 30 rapids over 350 kilometres as Livingstone
fall

4. Interlocking Spurs-

An interlocking spur is a natural geographical feature that occurs in the

upper course of a river in which vertical erosion is the dominant force
determining the river's course.

Vertical corrasion creates new slopes which are in interlocking fashion

known as interlocking spurs.
D. Glaciations produce hanging valleys. Tributary streams falls down
from hanging valleys to the U-shaped valley below.

 Yosemite falls, California- total descent is 2,560 feet

The Middle-Course- (Valley Course)

Basics-

 Lateral corrasion tends to replace vertical corrasion

 Active erosion of banks widens the V-shaped valleys
 Volume of water increases on the account of merging of several
tributaries
 River’s load increases as volume increases
 Major river action is of transportation with a little of depositions
 Interlocking spurs, that projects from the both sides of valley
are cut back into lines of bluffs
 The river’s triple action of valley-cutting, bed smoothening and
debris removal becomes tranquil during the valley course though
the speed does not decrease

Various Features formed-

1. Meander-

Term derived from winding river Meanderez in Asia Minor.

Formation-

 The irregularities over the surface cause river to swing in loops

 Soon, rivers flow in a snake pattern
 Flow or speed is more toward outward side of the loop than inner
side because of centrifugal force
 So, active erosion is caused at the outer side and deposition at
the inner side
 As the bends are restricted by the interlocking spurs, the
meander formed in the middle course is just the starting of
downstream swing
 In lower course, the loops are enlarged across the level plain and
fully fledged meanders are formed

River’s Cliff- Active erosion at the outer edge leads to its formation in
due course of time.

River’s beach or Slip-off slope-Deposition at the inner side of the

loop leads to its formation in due course of time

(Meanders are formed in both middle and lower course?)

(Interlocking spurs are feature of upper course but are formed in
valleys?)

The lower course- (Plain course)

Basic features and consequences-

 Vertical corrasion almost ceases though lateral corrasion

continue to erode the banks of river
  The volume of river becomes much higher with several
tributaries joining it
 The amount of river’s load becomes very high. The coarser
materials are deposited and finer silts are carried to the mouth
 The main action is transportation
 Deposition of Several sheets of materials on the level plain
cause the river to split into several streams called the braided
streams

Several remarkable features-

1. Flood Plains-

Formation-

 During annual or sporadic floods, rivers spreads out off their

banks over adjacent low-lying area
 During this they deposit a layer of sediments on the surface
 This accruing deposition leads to the formation of flood plains
over due course of time which are generally very fertile

River bed- Beds are elevated as the sediments are deposited

Levee- Deposition of sediments near the banks of river leads to

formation of natural elevated bank called levee

Examples of rivers causing regular floods-

a. Yang-Tze Kiang

b. Mississippi

c. River Po

d. The Ganges

e. Huang-Ho

 Also called “China’s sorrow”

 Flood of 1852 drowned millions of people and caused severed
property damage
 River’s course was diverted over 300 miles, draining into the
Gulf of Pohai instead of Yellow Sea
Human’s measures to prevent flood-

a. Artificial Embankments- These are created over the levee to

prevent the flood from occurring. Though it also leads to rise in the
height of river’s water and the bank may bursts if the pressure
becomes very high causing devastating flood.

b. Dredging of bed deepens the channel preventing excessive

sedimentation.

2. Ox-Bow lakes-(Mort-lake/ dead lake)

Called as cut-offs or bayous in the Mississippi basin.

Formation-

 In lower course, the meander become very prominent

 The outside bend is so much eroded that the loop enlarges to
become a complete circle
  In due course of time, river break through the thin neck of the
loop, abandoning the ox-bow lake
 River flows straight thereafter

Features-

 Subsequent flooding may silt up the lake forming swamps

 Gradually marshes are formed and in due course of time the lake
dries up

3. Delta- (Greek word depicting shape similar to Nile delta)

Formation-

 Much of the finer particles being carried by river remains in it

until the river reaches the sea
 As river reaches the sea, these fine particles are deposited in a
fan-shaped manner

Features-

 It is basically extension of flood plain

 Alluvium deposits cause the river to split up into distributaries
 Deltas extend sideways and seaways at an amazing rate

Examples with significance-

a. Ganges Delta-

 Of size almost equal to West Malaysia

b. River Po delta-

 Extends dramatically in size, i.e. 40 feet per year

 The town of Adria located near 15 miles inland was formed by its
deposition. It was a seaport during the time of Christ

Factors influencing size, shape, growth and importance of deltas-

a. Features of river and its course-

 Depth of river
  Active vertical and lateral corrasion during the upper and middle
course promotes the formation of deltas
 Presence of larger lakes hinders in formation of deltas as a large
amount of sediments are deposited in the lake only

b. Features of the sea-

 Depth of sea should be less in order to promote the formation of

delta. Deeper sea will lead to sinking of the sediments
 Coast should be sheltered preferably tideless to promote the
formation of delta. Otherwise tides will sweep away the sediments
 There should be no strong currents at the right angle of delta
to promote the formation of delta. Otherwise currents will sweep
away the sediments

Types of deltas with relevant examples-

A. Bird’s foot delta-

 Delta of Mississippi river- Several major branches of this delta, like

foot of the bird extends to Gulf of Mexico

B. Fan-shaped arcuate deltas- Have numerous distributaries

 The Ganges, India

 River Nile, Africa
 River Mekong
C. Estuarine deltas- Delta partly submerged in coastal water

 Ob, Russia
 Amazon, South America (Mostly Brazil)
 Vistula, Poland
d. Cuspate deltas- Have tooth like projections at their mouth

 Ebro of Spain

River Rejuvenation-

Cause-
Uplift or depression caused in the course of river’s development may
create characteristic features associated with the rejuvenation that
means being young again.

Mode of Occurrence-

1. Negative Movement-

Different causes-

a. Uplift-

 The down-cutting power of river in renewed

 River cuts deep into their valleys

b. Lowering of sea level in relation to flood plain-

 River with its renewed vigour cuts deep into the prior flood plain
forming terraces on both the sides

There remains a break in the graded profile of the river, often

accompanied with a series of rapids.

The point where old profile meets the rejuvenated profile is known as
Knick Point or Rejuvenated Head.

Effects in different courses-

a. Upper course-

 Valley are extremely deep-cut

 Steep-sided gorges are formed

b. Middle and Lower course-

 Lateral corrasion is replaced by vertical corrasion

 Existing meanders are deep-cut due to intense vertical erosion
forming entrenched or incised meanders

Examples of entrenched meanders-

i) Those of River Colorado, USA-

  Formed by uplift of 7000 feet in Tertiary period

Grand Canyon- (formed by river Colorado)

 In some parts depth is almost a mile

 10 miles wide at the top
 300 miles long

ii) River Moselle, Germany

iii) River Wear, Durham, England

iv) Wye Valley, Monmouthshire (border of England and Wales)

2. Positive movement-

Causes-

a. Depression of land

b. Rise in sea level-

 In most areas, this is caused by release of water earlier locked in

the masses of ice in Quaternary ice-period
General Effects-

 Coastal lands are submerged in coastal water

 Valleys are drowned
 Erosive power of river is weakened
 River flow is checked and a huge quantity of materials being
carried by it dare dropped

Effects on the courses of river-

a. Upper course-

 Very little affected by rise of sea level

b. Middle course-

 Features of depositions may get shifted to the middle course

c. Lower course-

 It may occur partly in sea

The Human Aspects of Rivers-

Applications/ Advantages-

1. Serve as Chief highways for commerce and transportation-

a. Yang-Tze Kiang-

 Navigable up to 1000 miles from its mouth

b. Amazon (World’s largest river)-

 Navigable up to 2300 miles upstream till the foot of Andes

 Though less extensively used

c. River Nile- (Have many Cataracts)

 Navigable for its first 960 miles upstream, up to the First

Cataract at Aswan
d. Mississippi

e. Mekong

f. Rhine

g. St. Lawrence, North America

h. Irrawaddy, Burma

i. Congo, Africa

j. Darling, Australia

k. Murray, Australia

l. Danube, Europe
Danube river
These serve as important waterways in their respective countries for
transportation of bulky goods, raw materials, food-grains, wood logs
etc

2. Generation of hydro-electric power-

 In upper course rivers with steep gorges and waterfalls provide for
setting up hydro-electric power plants
 These provide source of cheap-power to various industries thus
support their establishments

3. Construction of Dam-

 Hold a large amount of flood water which prevents flood in lower

course
 Channelize the held water for useful purposes

E.g.- Dams constructed in the Indus and Ganges plain

4. Irrigation purpose-

 Main stream can be used to feed irrigation canals which helps

in proper irrigation of crops, thus improving yields
 Very important source of water for irrigation particularly in areas
receiving low rainfall e.g. Egypt and Chao Phraya basin in
Thailand

5. Improving land communication in uplands-

 Wind gaps created as a result of River Capture near the

watershed facilitate construction of upland roads and railways

6. Support agriculture-

a. Flood-Plains-

 Flood-plain of large rivers with their thick mantle of silt form

very rich agricultural lands

b. Deltas-

 These are equally fertile

Examples-

i) The Ganges delta- Accounts for almost all the jute produced for
world’s consumption

ii) The Nile delta- Finest quality cotton and a variety of rice are
cultivated

7. Productive areas support ports-

  Calcutta for the Indo-Gangetic Plain
 Rotterdam for the Rhineland
 New Orleans (L.A.) for Mississippi basin

8. Fresh-water fishing-

 Organic matters brought by the rivers provide valuable food to

fishes

9. Rivers supply water for domestic consumption, sewerage,

industrial consumption, etc

10. Forms Political boundaries-

 Mekong separates the Laos from Thailand

 River Yalu form well-defined boundary between the North
Korea and Russia

Disadvantages-

1. Hindrance in navigation-

 Presence of rapids and waterfalls interrupts regular navigation

through the rivers
 Seasonal variation in volume and flow of water also interrupts it
 Frequent changes in the paths of rivers also hinders in navigation

2. Problem in establishment of large ports-

  Larger amount of silt deposited by river during the lower course
hinders in effective anchoring of larger steamers
 So, estuaries are preferred for building ports than deltas

Artificial Harbours may be established or dredging may be done to

prevent this problem but these methods are very expensive and
sometimes impractical.

3. Frequent floods-

 River breaking out the levee causes flood destroying crops,

properties, etc
 These floods may discourage people from cultivating crops like in
case of Orinoco river

Though floods caused by rivers may deposit silt rendering soil fertile.
Landforms of Glaciations

The Ice Age and Types of Ice Masses-

Pleistocene period or ice-age (about 30, 000 years ago) scenario-

 About 12 million square miles of Northern Hemisphere was

covered with ice sheets
 Half of this was in North America, rest in Europe, Greenland and
the high mountains of Eurasia

Current Scenario-

Two major Ice sheets are present, in Greenland and Antarctica

 Greenland with an area of about 720, 000 square miles

 Antarctica with an area of about 5 million square miles
 Glaciations are still evident on the highlands in various parts of
the world which are above snowline
 Snowline varies from sea level in polar regions to 9000 feet in
the Alps and 17,000 feet at the equator (Mt. Kilimanjaro)

Snowline- The climatic snow line is the point above which snow and ice
cover the ground throughout the year.

Facts/ Things-

 They are composed of compact sheets of ice hardened and

crystallised to depth over a mile
 In Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica the thickness of Ice cap was
found to be 14,000 feet
 Under weight of the ice cap, land sinks gradually
Basic things-

a. Ice cap- These are Ice mass that covers less than 50 000 km² of
land area (usually covering a highland area).

From the central dome of ice cap, the ice creeps out in all the
directions to flow as glaciers

b. Ice sheet- Masses of ice covering more than 50 000 km² are
termed an ice sheet.

c. Ice shelf- These are thick floating platform of ice formed when
glaciers or ice caps flows down to coastline and onto the sea
surface.

They terminate in precipitous cliffs. These are found only in

Antarctica, Canada and Greenland.
d. Ice Bergs- These are large piece of freshwater ice that is broken
from glacier or ice shelf and floats freely in an open water.

These assume tabular or irregular shape and only one-tenth mass

is visible above the surface.

These diminish in size when approaching warm water and eventually

melt completely, dropping the rocks debris that was frozen inside
them on the sea bed.

e. Nunataks- A nunatak is an exposed, often rocky element of a

ridge, mountain, or peak not covered with ice or snow within (or at
the edge of) an ice field or glacier.

f. Glaciers- These large masses of snow, re-crystallized ice and rock

debris that accumulate in great quantities and begin to flow outwards
and downwards under the pressure of their own weight.

Formation-

 When the slope is gentle and the hollow is sheltered from the
direct sunlight and fast moving wind, snow accumulates rapidly
 The surface snow melts during daytime but the molten ice
refreezes by nightfall
 Repetition of this process continues till hard, granular mass of
ice is formed called neve (in French) or firn (in German)
 Owing to the gravitational force, this mass of ice moves to valley
from the upland
 This is the beginning of flow of glacier, that is “river of snow”

Flow of glaciers-

 Though it is a solid mass of ice, it flows under the continual

pressure of accumulating ice mass above
 The speed of flow is maximum at the middle of the glacier and is
less at the sides and back of it due to resistance offered to these
by the side spurs and floor friction of the surface
 The stakes driven into the glacier in the straight line, width-to-
width arches down with time as glacier flows downwards
 It assumes tongue shape, broadest at the source and narrows as
it moves downhill
Average rate of flow-

a. Alpine region- about 3 feet per day

 The Aletsch Glacier in Bernese Oberland of Switzerland

(longest glacier in Europe) is about 10 miles long

b. Greenland- about 50 feet per day

c. Antarctica- a few feet per day owing to less receipt of sunlight

The glaciers in Himalayas and Alaska region are more than 50 miles
long.

Piedmont glaciers-

Formation-

 Several glaciers may converge at the foot of mountain ranges

 An extensive mass of ice called Piedmont glacier is formed

Example-

 Malaspina glacier- 65 miles long and 25 miles wide covering an

area 1600 square miles
 Such combined glaciers are rare and in most continents only
Valley or Alpine glaciers are seen

Landforms of Highland Glaciations-

Glaciations play role of erosion, transportation and deposition

throughout its course, though it generally produces Erosional
features in highlands and depositional features in lowlands

Modes of erosion-

a. Plucking-

 Joints and beds of underlying rocks are frozen

 Individual blocks are tore away and dragged

a. Abrasion-
  While flowing, it scratches, scours and polishes the floor
underlying it with the help of debris carried by it
 Larger angular fragments deep cut the surface of valley
forming evident by presence of scratches and striation
 Smaller angular fragments polish and smoothen the surface
and produce finely powdered Rock Floor

Factors affecting rate of flow-

 Velocity of flow
 Weight of glacier
 Slope of valley
 Temperature of ice composing glacier
 Geological structure of valley

Characteristic features-

1. Corrie (in Scotland)/ Cirque (French)/ CWM (in Wales)-

Formation-

 Down-slope movement of glacier from the ice-covered peaks

and breaking (weathering by frost action) of upland slope leads
to formation of a depressions
 Fern or neve are accumulated in these depressions
 As ice moves, tensional crevasses called Bergschrund are
formed
 Melt-water enters the crevasses causing freeze-thaw to occur
 This causes plucking of rocks from the back-wall and steep
slope is formed
 Abrasion causes the floor of depression to deepen forming a
horse-shoe shaped basin called corrie

Corrie Lake or tarn or Lochan-

 A ridge is formed at the end of this basin

 This ridge acts as a barrier and water is accumulated behind it
forming tarn
2. Arêtes (French word) and Pyramidal peaks-

Formation of Arêtes-

 Sometimes two corries are cut back on the opposite sides of

mountain
 It causes formation of a knife-edged ridge called Arêtes

Example-

 Striding edge on Helvellyn in Westmorland

Formation of Pyramidal peaks or angular horns-

 Sometimes three or more corries cut back together

 It causes formation of pyramidal peak

Example-

 Matterhorn of Switzerland
3. Burgschrund (German)/ Rimaye (French)-

Formation-

 As the glacier tend to move out of the corrie, ac deep vertical

crack opens up near its head called Rimaye
 This generally occurs in summer when sufficient snowfall is not
there
 Sometimes several such cracks occur

It acts as a major obstacle for the climbers.

As glacier flows over the bend or precipitous slope, more Crevasses

are formed.

4. U-shaped glacial troughs-

Formation-

 Ice is fed to the glacier from several corries just like tributaries
feed river
 Glacier starts eroding the sides as well as the floor of the valley
 Characteristic U-shaped valleys with wide, flat floor and very
steep sides are formed in due course of time

Truncated spurs formation-

 Glacial flow grinds the projecting spurs and produce flat triangular
faces
 Interlocking spurs are thus converted into truncated spurs

Ribbon lake / Trough Lake/ Finger Lake-

Formation-

 After disappearance of ice from these long, narrow glacial

troughs, water may fill it
 Thus Ribbon lakes are formed
Examples-

 Loch Ness, Britain

 Lake Ullswater, Britain
5. Hanging valley-

Formation-

 Rate of erosion of main valley is much more than that of

tributary valley as the mass of ice in main valley is much higher
 Because of this the floor of tributary valley becomes at much
higher level than the floor of main valley
 As the ice melts the tributary valley seem to be hanging above
main valley and so is called hanging valley

Benefits-

 Water may plunge down the hanging valley forming waterfall

 This natural head of water can be used for generating hydro-
electricity
6. Rock basin-

Formation-

 Erosion and excavation caused by glaciers are of irregular pattern

 Thus, several rock basins are formed in water lakes may form in
the trough

7. Rock steps-

Formation-

a. Mode 1-

 When ice from a tributary valley is added to the main valley,

the weight of glacier increases
 The heavier glacier cuts even deeper into the valley trough at
the point of convergence
 Thus, rock steps are formed

b. Mode 2-

 Bedrocks may possess different degree of resistance to the

glacial erosion
 Thus, it gets eroded to different depths at different places forming
rock steps

8. Moraines-

a. Lateral Moraines-

 Rocks are shattered (weathered) by frost action, imbedded into

the glacier and are carried down the valley
 They are dropped and deposited as lateral moraines

b. Medial moraines-

 When two glaciers converges, the lateral moraines converge to

form medial moraine
 These are dropped near the middle of the valley

c. Terminal or end moraines-

  As glacier reaches the foot of the valley, it eventually melts
 End moraines are deposited at the snout in this process

d. Ground moraines-

 Rock fragments may lie beneath the frozen ice mass and
dragged with the glacier
 As the glacier melts, these are spread across the floor of the
valley

e. Recessional moraines-

 Ice melts at the foot of valley in stages, as it reaches there

subsequently
 Thus, successive waves of terminal moraines are formed called
recessional moraines

f. Sea case-

 If glacier flows to the sea it drops its load of moraines in sea itself
 If a piece breaks off from the glacier and floats into the sea as
icebergs, the moraines will be dropped only when the iceberg
melts

g. Fjord-

 When lower end of trough is drowned

 A deep, steep-sided inlet called fjord is formed

Example-

 Norwegian coast
 South Chilean coast

Landforms of Glaciated Lowlands-

Basics-

 Landforms are mainly depositional in nature

 But where rock masses projects above the level surface,
Erosional features such as Roche Moutonnee, crags and tails
are formed
  Can be formed by glaciers or continental ice-sheet
 Depositional features created by ice-sheets are much
widespread and prominent as they have moved across much
larger area than glaciers which leave behind the materials only
in restricted areas
 Almost one-third of land-surface of Europe and North America
is believed to be littered with glacial and fluvio-glacial materials
of all description (described later)

Glacial Deposits Fluvio-glacial Deposits (includes deposits once

Un-stratified (difficult to identify layers)
Material is angular, from physical
weathering and erosion (unaffected by
water) and various shapes and sizes
(boulders - rock flour)
Unsorted (random sorting as ice melts and
deposits material regardless of size)
deposited by ice and re-deposited by meltwater)
Stratified (vertical layering due to seasonal
/ annual layers of sediment accumulation)
Material is smooth and rounded (due to
attrition), it is sorted and graded.
Sorted - larger rocks and boulders are
deposited first as the melt-water looses
energy.
Landforms created-

1. Roche Moutonnee- (resembles sheep-skin wig once worn in France)

These are residual resistant Rock Hummock. These are eroded as

the glacier flow past these.

 Upstream side is smoothened and a gentle slope is formed by the

action of abrasion
 Downstream side is roughened and very steep slope is created by
the plucking action of glaciations
 The surface is striated by the ice movement

It is present both in highlands and lowlands.

2. Crag and tails-

Formation-

 Crag is a resistant rock with precipitous (extremely steep) slope

 It prevents the softer rocks at leeward side from being completely
eroded by the on-coming glacier
 Thus the softer side assumes tails shape, strewn with rocks debris

Example-

 Castle Rock of Edinburg, Scotland (Castle is located on the Crag

and high Street on tail)
3. Boulder clay or glacial till-

Composition-

 Unsorted glacial deposits comprising of a range of eroded

materials
 E.g. Boulders, angular fragments, sticky clay, rock flour

Features-

 These do not accumulate to form mounds

 These spread out in sheets forming drift or till plain
 Degree of fertility of land depends greatly upon the
composition of materials deposited
 The landform is rather monotonous and featureless

Examples-

 Boulder clay plain of East Anglia and North mid-west part of

USA form rich arable (fertile) land

4. Erratic(s)-

These are termed so because they are composed of materials

entirely different from the materials of the region in which they are
found.

Formation-
  Boulders of various sizes are carried by glaciers or ice sheets
from one to another place
 When ice melts, these glaciers or ice-sheets deposits the
boulders carried by them forming erratics

Significance-

 Presence of erratics help in predicting the source and direction

of advancement of ice

Disadvantages-

 Presence of erratics in large number act as hindrances in the

farming

Perched Blocks-

Sometimes these erratics are found to be perched (sitting) in

precarious (odd/ dangerous) position and are called perched blocks

Examples-

These are found in both uplands and lowlands.

 Generally in Europe
 Silurian grits, perched on the Carboniferous Limestone of the
Pennines

5. Drumlins-

Features-

 These are swarm (group) of oval, elongated, “whale back”

hummocks (small natural hill)
 Composed wholly of Boulder Clay
 Height varies from few yards to 400 feet
 Length can be a mile or two
 These are tapered in the leeward side
 Elongation is towards downstream flow side
 These have steep slope at the onset (beginning/ early stage)
  They are arranged diagonally and so are called to have ‘Basket
of Eggs’ topography

Examples-

 Country down, Northern Ireland

 Glaciated plains around Great Lakes, North America
6. Eskers-
Features-

 Long, narrow, sinuous (curving in and out) ridges

 Composed mainly of sand and gravel
 Height varies from few feet to 200 feet
 Length may be several miles
 Because of high porosity, water is rapidly drained off the crest
and many trees are not supported (though eskers of Finland
between lakes are generally tree-covered)

Examples-

a. In Maine, USA- 100 miles long eskers are there

b. Generally found in Scandinavia

 Punkaharju esker, Finland

7. Terminal moraines-

Features-
  Composed of coarse debris
 Deposited at the edge of ice-sheet
 Form hummocky or hilly structure

Example-

 Baltic Heights of North-European Plain

North-European Plain- consists generally of Poland, Denmark, Germany

and Netherland.

8. Outwash plain-

Formation-

 Formed by fluvio-glacial deposits

 Streams and channels of melt-water from stagnant ice wash out
materials from Terminal moraines
 Melt-water sorts and re-deposits the materials forming various
features associated with the plain

Features associated-

A variety of features ranging from low hilly heathlands to undulating

plains are created where terraces, alluvial fans and deltaic deposits of
melt-water streams form landscape.

a. Kames- These are small rounded hills composed of sand and gravel

b. Kettle lakes- If an alternating ridges and depressions are

created then the later may form Kettle lakes

This gives rise to knob and kettle topography.

Example of heathland-

 Luneburg Heath of North European Plain

The Human Aspects of Glaciated Landforms-

General aspects-
  Even after 30, 000 years of ice age, the effects of glaciations are
still evident
 The most striking impact is on temperate region of Europe and
North America
 Effects of glaciations can be seen on high mountains of Alps,
Himalayas, Rockies and Andes even now

Glacial influence on human’s economic activities can be both

favourable and unfavourable based on-

 Intensity of glaciations
 Relief of region
 Whether effects are Erosional or depositional in nature

Advantages/ benefits-

a. Glacial drift (Wander from a direct course) in valleys, Alps etc which
(valleys etc) were not affected by glaciers (land not rendered
unfertile by glacial action) have good pastures during summer. Cattle
are driven up to valley to graze on the grass and are brought down the
valley during winter. Such form of animal-migration type of farming is
called Transhumance
Transhumance is the seasonal movement of people with their livestock between fixed
summer and winter pastures. In montane regions (vertical transhumance) it implies
movement between higher pastures in summer and lower valleys in winter.

b. Formation of fertile lands-

 Boulder clay plain of East Anglia and mid-west of USA

 Loess plain of Europe and Central USA with high percentage of
humus is also very fertile
 When lakes are eliminated, the old glacial lake beds with rich
alluvial deposits support many crops

c. Forms Waterways-

 Lakes formed as a result of former glaciations forms excellent

waterways
 E.g. Great Lakes of USA

d. Forms Route-ways-
  Glaciers cut deep channels while draining off which forms
excellent route-ways in the mountainous terrain (a piece of
ground having specific characteristics)
 E.g. Hudson-Mohawk Gap which links the interior to the
Atlantic seaboard of USA

e. Sands and gravels are extracted from kames and eskers of the
outwash plain for-

 Constructing buildings and highways

 The purest sands are extracted for making moulds for metal
castings

f. Lakes basins of glaciated mountains acts as natural reservoirs

g. Producing hydro-electricity-

 Water that plunge down from the hanging valleys or glaciated

uplands is used to produce hydro-electricity
 Especially in areas having less coal reserves such as
Scandinavia, Switzerland and Canada

h. Acts as a tourist place-

 Magnificent Scenery provided by the Glacier Mountains attracts

a large number of tourists annually. Skiing, mountain climbing and
sightseeing is very famous in Alpine region
 E.g. French, Swiss and Italian Alpine region

Disadvantages-

a. Renders land infertile-

 In hilly areas such as mountain ranges of Scandinavia, the

glacial advancement removes the top soil rendering the area
barren
 Even if a thin layer of top soil remains, it cannot support
agriculture
 Sandy and gravelly outwash plain is infertile. E.g. the heath-
covered geest of Northern Germany
 The marshy boulder clay deposits of Central Ireland is
infertile
  The barren and ice-scoured surface of Canada and Baltic
Shield are infertile
 Presence of erratics and perched blocks in large numbers
hinders farming and use of large machines.E.g.in Britain and in
Alberta, Canada.
 Lakes formed because of damming caused by Morainic deposits
or scouring caused by glaciers hinder large-scale farming or land
development

b. Presence of drumlins renders drainage system either very complex

or confusing

c. Terminal and recessional materials are of not much use to men until
it is sorted by fluvio-glacial action
Arid or desert landforms

Types of Deserts-

About one-fifth of the world is covered with deserts, some sandy,

some rocky and some stony.

Basic classification-

a. True deserts-

 Characterised by an extreme dryness

 Nothing grows at all
 Are rare

b. Tropical hot deserts/ Trade Wind Deserts-

They have definite pattern of their occurrence-

  Lie mostly within 15 to 30 degree parallels of latitudes south
and north of the Equator
 Lie in the Trade Wind Belt of the western parts of the continents
where Trade Winds are off shore
 Are washed by cold currents which produce ‘desiccating
effects’ and prevents moisture to condense into precipitation

Examples-

 The great Sahara Desert

 The Arabian, Iranian and Thar deserts
 The Atacama, Namib and Kalahari deserts
 The Great Australian desert
 Desert of South-west USA
 Desert of Northern Mexico

c. Deserts of continental interiors-

 Characterised by extreme of temperatures

Examples-

 Gobi desert
 Turkestan desert
Five distinct types of deserts-

Erosion of uplands, transportation and deposition of worn off materials

by wind and water have given rise to the five distinct types of deserts-

a. Hamada or Rocky desert-

 Consists of large stretches of bare rocks, swept clear of sand and

dust by the wind
 The exposed rocks are smoothed and polished
 Are bare and sterile

Examples-

 Hamada el Homra, in Libya of Sahara Desert- covers an area of

about 20,000 sq. miles.

b. Serir (Libya & Egypt) or Reg (rest of Africa) or Stony Desert-

 Consists of extensive sheets of angular stones and gravels

which the winds could not sweep away
 Much more accessible than the Sandy Deserts are large herds of
Camels are kept here

c. Erg or Koum (Turkestan) or Sandy Desert-

  A sea of sand typifying the popular idea of desert scenery
 Extensive stretches of undulating sand dunes are deposited
by the winds
 Intricate patterns of ripples on the surface of sand dunes can be
used to determine the wind’s direction

Example-

 Calanscio Land Sea, Libya (Characteristic of a sandy deserts)

d. Badlands-

Deserts with the features similar to ‘badlands’ are referred to a

badlands.

Badlands-

 Term was first coined for the arid region of South Dakota, USA
 Occasional rain-storm in the hilly areas of this region caused
excessive erosion of hill slopes and rock surfaces carving out
ravines (A deep narrow steep-sided valley) and gullies (Deep ditch
cut by running water)
 The hills were so badly eroded that these were completely
abandoned by the inhabitants and so are called badlands

Example-

 Painted Desert of Arizona- Lie south-east of Grand Canyon of

Colorado River

e. Mountain deserts-

 Some deserts are found on the highlands such as plateaux and

mountains
 Dissection of these highlands due to erosion has created
serrated (saw-toothed) outlines of peaks and ranges
 Their steep slopes are cut by wadis (steep sided valley, often
dry)
 Frost action carves out irregular and sharp edges

Examples-
  The Ahaggar mountains and the Tibesti mountains of Sahara
desert

The mechanism of Arid Erosion-

Combined effects of various modes, one reacting over another has lead
to formation of a large variety of desert’s landforms.

Cause of Aridity-

 Insufficient rainfall (less than 5 inches)

 Irregularity of rainfall
 High temperature (avg.= 87 F)
 High rate of evaporation

Various mechanisms of sub-aerial denudation acting-

1. Weathering (Mechanical and chemical)-

 Solution mode
 Temperature variation mode (exfoliation occurs)
 Frost action (teeth or tools of wind erosion are formed)
2. Wind action-

 Acts as much better agent of erosion, transportation and

deposition in arid region than humid region
 Absence of vegetation or moisture to bind the loose surface
materials makes the action of wind very effective

Wind erosion is carried out in following ways-

a. Deflation-

 Involves lifting and carrying away of materials (sand and

gravels) from the ground
 Materials may be may be lifted and blown off or may be rolled
over the ground depending upon their grain sizes
 Fine dusts and sands may be blown several hundred miles away,
sometimes outside the desert margin
 Removal of materials cause lowering of land surface creating
huge depressions known as deflation hollows

Example of deflation hollows-

 Qattara depression of Sahara Desert- lies 450 feet below the

sea level
b. Abrasion-

 Sand blasting of the rock surfaces by the winds when they hurl
the sand being carried away by them against the rocks
 Blasting cause the surface of rocks to be scratched, polished and
eroded
 Impact of blasting is maximum at the base of the rocks as the
quantity of materials being carried by wind is maximum near the
base (that is why telegraph poles are protected by covering them
with metal for a foot or two)

c. Attrition-

 Wind-borne particles collide with each other

 As a result they wear each other away and are greatly reduced in
size
 So gradually grains are reduced to millet seed sand

Landforms of Wind Erosion in Deserts-

1. Rock Pedestals and Mushroom rocks-

Formation-

 Wind cause abrasion of softer layers of projecting rock masses

faster than the resistant layers
 Irregular edges are formed on the alternating soft and hard layers
of rocks because of this process
 Grooves and hollows are cut into the surfaces of rocks forming
fantastic and grotesque (odd) pillar called Rock Pedestals

Mushroom rocks-

 These rock pedestals are further eroded near the bottom where
friction is greatest
 This process of undercutting produces mushroom rocks (gour in
Sahara)
2. Zeugen-

These are tabular masses of rock with soft rock lying beneath a surface
layer of harder rocks

Formation-

 It is formed in the case when a layer of Mechanical weathering

open ups the joint of surface rocks
 Wind abrasion then eats into the softer rock forming furrows
(groove)
 Harder rocks are not much abraded and stand above the furrow
created as Zeugen (10 to 100 feet high) or may overhang too
 A ‘ridges and furrows’ shaped landscape is created
 With time the Zeugens are lowered and furrows are widened by
the wind action

3. Yardangs- (Name originated in Central Asia)

Formation-

 These are formed when vertical bands of soft and hard rocks are
aligned in the direction of prevailing wind
 Wind abrasion wears out the softer rock into long, narrow
corridors (enclosed passageway)
  Harder rocks are not much eroded and overhangs (Project over)
above the corridors as steep-sided ridges called Yardangs

Examples-

a. In Atacama Desert, Chile- Generally found there

b. In interior deserts of Central Asia- Well developed with height of

about 25-50 feet

4. Mesas (Spanish) and Buttes-

Mesas- These are table shaped rock masses having a flat top and very
steep sides.

Formation-

 Top layer of the mesas are made up of very hard rock which
inhibits denudation by both wind and water
 It prevents the underlying layers from being eroded away as well
 Thus a table-shaped rock mass, often separated by gorges or
Canyons are formed

Examples-

 In Arizona- Canyon region

 Table mountain of Cape Town, South Africa- On fault block

Buttes-

Formation-

 Continuous denudation of mesas over ages reduces it to an

isolated hill with flat top called Buttes, often separated by deep
gorges or Canyons in arid regions

5. Inselberg- (German)

Features-

 Isolated residual hill emerging abruptly from the plain ground

  Rounded top and steep-sided
 Generally composed of granite or gneiss
 Generally found in desert and semi-arid areas

Formation-

 When a plateau or valley is completely eroded away by the wind

action, resistant parts may remain and project from the ground as
Inselbergs

Examples-

 In northern Nigeria
 In Kalahari Desert
 In Western Australia

6. Ventifacts and Dreikanter-

Ventifacts-

These are pebbles faceted (smooth surface created) by sand-blasting.

These are shaped and polished by the wind abrasion to shape
resembling Brazil Nuts.

Formation-

 Angular rock fragments, mechanically weathered from

mountains and upstanding rocks, are moved by wind and are
smoothened on windward side
 These pebbles with flat surface(s) are called Ventifacts
 When wind changes its direction, another facet is created. These
are characterised by flat facets with edges

Dreikanter-

A Ventifact with three wind-faceted surfaces is called Dreikanter.

These faceted pebbles form Desert Pavements, a smooth mosaic like

region covered with rock fragments and pebbles.

7. Deflation hollows-

Formation-
a. Wind lifts and blow off unconsolidated materials from the surface
and depressions may be formed in this process

b. Faulting-

 Minor-Faulting may create an initial shallow depression

 Eddying action of on-coming wind erodes the weaker rocks until
water table is reached
 Water seeps out forming Oases or swamps in deflation hollows
or depression

Examples-

a. Faiyum Depression in Egypt- 130 feet below the sea level

b. Western USA-

 Land was stripped of its natural vegetation cover for farming

 Deflating action of winds blown off the unconsolidated materials
as sand-storm, laying waste crops and creating what today is
known Great Dust Bowl

In dust storm, winds may lift dusts 100 of feet high and carry them
thousands of miles away.

Landforms of Wind Depositions in Deserts-

These are formed when winds deposits the materials being carried by
them. The distance to which the materials can be carried depends
greatly on their coarseness.

Fine dusts-

 These are lighter and may be transported out of the deserts

limits and deposited somewhere else
 Sometimes these travel as far as 2300 miles

Examples-

 Dusts from Sahara Desert sometimes crosses the

Mediterranean and fall over Italy as ‘blood rain’ or over glaciers
of Switzerland
  Dust that settles in Hwang Ho basin while coming from Gobi
desert has accumulated to a depth of several hundred miles over
centuries

Coarser materials-

 These are heavy, so are not transported out of the desert limits
 These form various depositional features such as dunes, etc
within the desert limits

These landforms are rarely static and their migration pattern depends
on-

 Size of the particles being carried by them

 Direction and the velocity of the wind
 Location and nature of the surface over which the particles are
being carried and the presence or absence of water and
vegetation

Some major features are as follows-

1. Dunes-

These are hills of sands formed as a result of depositional action of

wind and are imparted characteristic shape as per the direction and
velocity of winds.

Basic types-

a. Live dune- These are in continuous motion

b. Fixed dunes- These are rooted with vegetation and do not move

These are best represented in Erg deserts where sea of sands are
continuously moved, reshaped and re-deposited forming a variety of
features.

Based on size, shape and alignment various types are as follows-

 Star dunes
 Parabolic blow-out dunes
 Attached or head dune
 Tail dune
 Lateral dune
  Sword dune
 Pyramidal dune
 Wake dune
 Smoking dune
 Hairpin dune
 Transverse dune
 Advanced dune

Two most common dunes-

a. Barchans-

Formation-

 Sometimes sands are accumulated over some obstacle, such as

a patch of grass or a heap of stones
 These occur transversely to the wind, so frictional retardation is
minimum at the edges because of which horns thin out and are
lowered by the action of prevailing wind forming a crescent
shaped structure

Advancement-

 Sands are driven up the windward side by the action of prevailing

wind till these reaches the crest
 After reaching the crest, the sands slips down the leeward side
 In this way, the dune advances
 Rate of advancement varies from 25 feet per year for higher
dunes measuring up to 100 feet high to 50 feet per year for lower
dunes which may be a dozen feet high

Features-

 Crescent or moon shaped which may occur individually or in

groups
 Move steadily by the action of wind coming from the prevailing
direction
 Windward side is convex with gentle slope while leeward side
(slip face) is concave with steep slope
 The crest of the dune moves forward as more sands are
accumulated by the prevailing wind
Disadvantages of migration-

 Migrating dunes may encroach on the oasis burying trees and

houses, thus are threat to humans
 Long-rooted sand holding plants and trees are planted into these
dunes to prevent it from wandering and devastating fertile lands
 These dunes take chaotic (unpredictable/ unorganised) shapes
under the action of winds which change directions. Sometimes
these coalesce to form irregular system of ridges. Ergs or
sandy deserts are thus very difficult to be crossed

Examples-

 Prevalent in deserts of Turkestan and Sahara

b. Seifs or Longitudinal Dunes- (Arabic word meaning Sword)

Features-

 Lie parallel to the direction of prevailing wind

 Long, narrow serrated ridges of sand, often over a hundred mile
long
 May attain height of over 200 feet
 The crest-line of the seifs rises and falls in alternate peaks and
saddles in regular succession
 The dominant winds that blow straight along the corridor between
the line of dunes sweep clear the corridor of the sands
 The eddies that are set up blow towards the sides of the
corridors, and, having low energy, drop the sands to form dunes
 In this way, the prevailing winds increases length into the
tapering linear ridges
 And cross winds increases the height and width of these dunes

Examples-

 In Sahara deserts (South of Qattara depression)

 In Thar Desert
 In West Australian Desert

2. Loess-
The fine dusts blown out of the deserts limits and deposited over the
neighbouring lands are called Loess.

Features-

 Yellow in colour, friable (easily broken into small fragments or

reduced to powder) and usually very fertile
 These are Fine loam, rich in lime, coherent and highly porous. Its
surface remains dry as water that falls, sinks in immediately
 Deep valleys may be cut into the thick mantle of loess deposited
by the streams giving it the features of badland topography
 It is so soft that roads constructed over the mantle of loess soon
sinks in and very steep walls of it is formed

Examples-

a. In loess plateau of Hwang Ho basin in north-west China-

 These yellowish loess brought from the Gobi desert is termed as

Hwangtu (meaning the yellow earth)
 Most extensive deposits of loess
 Spread over an area of about 250, 000 square miles
 Accumulated to a depth of 200 to 500 feet

b. In France-

 Similar depositions occurred in its parts too

 Term Loess comes from Alsace, France

c. In parts of Germany, France and Belgium-

 Here, wind-borne particles come from the edges of ice sheets

 Loess termed as Limon

d. In mid-west USA-

 Wind-borne particles are derived from ice-sheets which covered

northern North America
 Loess termed as Adobe
Landforms due to water action in deserts-

Basics-

 In few deserts of the world, no rainfall occurs at all

 The annual precipitation in most of the deserts is very less, 5 to
10 inches in a year

Effects of thunderstorms-

 Thunderstorms do occur during which rain falls in torrential

(abundant) downpours, producing devastating effects
 Several inches of rain falls during few hours, drowning people and
flooding mud houses in the Oases
 Loose gravels, sands and fine dusts are swept down the sides of
the hills
 Flow of rain water cuts deep into the hills forming deep Ravines
and gorges forming badland topography. Subsequent torrents
widens and deepens the gorges cut into the hills
 Flowing rain water looks like liquid mud, owing to a large amount
of materials being carried by it
 Materials being carried by the flowing rainwater is deposited at
foot of the hill or mouth of the valley forming alluvial fans or dry
delta
 Several streams drop materials into these deltas
 The water present in these deltas is soon lost through evaporation
caused by hot sun and downward percolation in the porous
ground, leaving mounds of debris

Wadis-

Formation-

 Vertical corrasion caused by the raging torrents during

cloudbursts deepens the channels and valley, forming Wadis

Features-

 Remains dry most of the time

Chebka (Algeria)-
Formation-

 Sometimes streams of water resulting from melting snow over the

mountains outside the desert region join the river’s stream,
resulting in the formation of exotic (characteristic of another place
) stream
 These streams cut deep into the valley forming deep and steep
sided gorges, called Chebka in Algeria

Temporary lakes-

Also called as Playas (USA), Salinas or Salars (Mexico) and Shotts

( northern Africa)

Formation-

 In arid and semi-arid regions, the outflowing streams from the

uplands are both short and intermittent
 These streams drain into some depression in the desert itself,
thus the drainage is completely internal
 Temporary accumulation of water in these depressions leads to
formation of temporary lakes

Features-

 These lakes have high concentration of salts because of high rate

of evaporation and percolation into ground in deserts
 These forms glistering white floor after drying up

Features of the lake-

 The base of depression consists of two features, the bajada and

the pediments
 Bajada- It is depositional feature composed of alluvium deposited
by the intermittent streams
 Pediments- It is an Erosional plain formed at the base surrounding
mountain scarps
 Limestone and Chalk landforms

Limestone & Chalk-

 Sedimentary rocks derived from accumulation of shells and

corals in the sea
 Mainly composed of Calcite or calcium carbonate. Sometimes
contains magnesium, and are called dolomite
 Chalk is the purest form of limestone, white in colour, and is
very soft
 These dissolve readily in rain-water, which, with carbon dioxide
of air, forms weak acid
 Region with limestone features exhibit distinct features and are
called Karst features (named after Karst district of Yugoslavia,
where such topography is particularly developed)

Characteristics features of Karst regions-

Karst regions have bleak (barren) landscape, broken by precipitous

slopes.

Rationale behind such characteristics-

 There is general absence of surface drainage in these regions and

water goes underground
 Streams originating over some other rocks travel a very small
distance over limestone and disappears underground
 These streams cut through the joints and fissures while
penetrating downwards forming system of underground channels
 As these streams reach the base and encounter the non-porous
rocks, these re-emerges onto the surface as springs or
resurrection

Formation of limestone pavements-

 Limestone are well-jointed and through these joints rain-water

enters into the underlying rocks
  These streams widen and enlarge the cracks leading to formation
of the most intriguing (causing curiosity) characteristic called
limestone pavements
 The enlarged cracks are called grikes and the isolated,
rectangular blocks are called Clints
 These pavements may be formed beneath the soil cover and are
exposed after removal of soil cover

Sink holes-

 These are swallow depressions/ holes formed at the surface of

limestone, as rain-water sinks into the surface at the point of
weakness
 These holes are enlarged with subsequent solvent action of rain-
fall
 Several sink holes may coalesce to form a larger hole called
doline
 Several doline may merge as a result of subsidence (sudden
collapse of something into a hollow beneath) to form an even
larger depression called uvala, some which are a mile across and
contains clayey soil from limestone, weathered after subsidence

Example of sink holes- In Gaping Ghyll in Yorkshire

Caves and Limestone gorge-

 Rain-water etches (cuts) through the joints and fissures forming

caverns (caves) and passages
 Subsidence of roof of such caverns leads to formation of
limestone gorge, such as Cheddar Gorge

Polje-

 These a very large depressions, several hundred square miles in

area, and are generally found in Yugoslavia
 Their formation partly a result of faulting
 These may form temporary lakes, where the floor is close to water
table
 Drier regions are generally fertile and can support large villages

Caves and Caverns and features adorning (make more beautiful) them-
  When subterranean (beneath surface) streams descend to the
underground passage through swallow holes, the region is
honeycombed with caves and caverns, some containing ponds
and lakes
 These caves and caverns are adorn with Stalactites, Stalagmites
and pillars

Stalactites- Sharp, slender and down-growing pinnacles that hang from

the roof of the caves

Formation-

 As water carrying calcium carbonate evaporates, it leaves behind

the crystalline solid composed of lime which in due course of time
grows downwards forming Stalactites

Stalagmites- Round and fatter and more rounded growing upwards

from the floor of the caves

Formation-

 As water drips from the roof, trickles down the stalactites and
drop onto the floor and evaporates subsequently, calcium
carbonate is deposited leading to formation of Stalagmites

Pillar-

 In due course of time, both the stalactites and stalagmites join to

form pillars

Examples of caves where these features are prominent-

 Banes cave, Kuala Lumpur

 Postojna Cave, Yugoslavia
 Carlsbad cave, New Mexico, USA
 Mammoth cave, Kentucky
The major Limestone Regions of the World-

 North-western parts of Yugoslavia- most characteristic stretch

 Causses district, south of France
 Pennines of Britain, particularly Yorkshire and Derbyshire
 Kentucky region of USA
 The Yucatan peninsula of Mexico
 The Cockpit country of Jamaican
 The Limestone Hills of Perlis

Human aspects of Karst Region-

Vegetation and animal grazing-

 These regions are generally barren and at the best have a thin
layer of top soil
 The porosity of rocks and absence of surface drainage makes the
proliferation of vegetations difficult, though short grasses or turfs
may be present; some sheep grazing is possible
 In tropical regions, these regions have luxuriant vegetation
because of the presence of excessive rain-water, owing to heavy
rainfall

Minerals-
  Only lead is extracted, which occurs in the veins in association
with limestone
 Limestone is often used as building material or quarried for
cement industries
 In West Malaysia, the limestone outcrops of Main Range and
Kledang range are quarried for using it in Pan-Malaysian and
Tesang Cement Works

Chalk-

Landforms of chalk are different from those of limestone

 These have nor a little surface drainage and valleys are generally
dry, sometimes called Coombes
 These are generally covered with turfs, and in places with
woodlands (Land that is covered with trees and shrubs), and can
be used for pasture and sometimes for arable farming

Downs- (in south and south-east England)

 Small rounded hill of chalk

 Also found in northern France

As chalk rocks are very friable in nature, swallow-holes and

underground cave networks do not generally develop.
Lakes

General-

 Formed by accumulation of water in the hollows of the earth

surface
 Varies greatly in their sizes, shapes, depth and mode of formation
 Smaller one may be of the size of a pond or pool
 Larger one are so big that they are termed as sea, e.g. the
Caspian Sea which is about 760 miles long, 3215 feet deep, with
an area of about 143,550 square miles, is bigger than whole of
the Malaysia

Various types-

a. Temporary and permanent-

 Rain-water may accumulate in the depressions of undulating land

for a short period of time forming temporary lakes
 Lakes, deep enough, that the rate of evaporation is never enough
to evaporate all the water accumulated in it, form permanent
lakes

b. Fresh-water and Salty-

Fresh-water-

 Many of the lakes are fed by rivers and out-flowing streams, and
form fresh-water lakes

Examples-

 Lake Geneva, Switzerland

 Lake Poyang, China
 Great Lakes of USA
Salty-

 In the regions with low precipitation and intense evaporation, a

few rivers make it to sea; most of the rivers drain into lakes
forming a system of inland drainage. Due to high rate of
evaporation, the concentration of salt in these lakes increases
leading to formation of salty lakes

Examples-

 The Dead Sea- concentration of salt is 250 parts in 1000 parts of

water
 The Great salt lake of Utah, USA- has salinity of 220 parts per
thousand parts of water
 The Black Sea- many rivers drain into it, and it has salinity of 17
parts per thousand
  Playas or salt lakes are common in deserts

Life of Lakes-

 Lakes are temporary features of the earth’s crust; they will

eventually be eliminated by the combined action of evaporation
and draining
 In regions with unreliable rainfall, lakes dry up during the
summer
 In deserts, the combined action of evaporation, percolation and
outflow cause lakes to dry up rapidly
 Lakes dry up quickly in terms of geological time

The formation and origin of lakes-

Lakes are formed as a result of various processes and events; its

formation can be affected by one or more factors.

Lakes formed by Earth movements-

1. Tectonic lakes-

Formation-

 Warping, sagging, bending and fracturing of earth’s crust leads to

formation of tectonics depressions
 Water accumulates in these depressions forming tectonic lakes

These lakes are very large and deep, in general.

Examples-

 Lake Titicaca- occupying a huge depression in the intermont

plateau of Andes, 12500 feet above the sea level and is the
highest Lake of the world

 Caspian Lake- occupies an area of about 143 550 Square miles

and is five times larger than its nearest rival, the lake Superior

2. Rift Valley Lake-

Formation -

 Rift valleys are formed by the sinking of land been two parallel
faults, narrow, deep and elongated in character

 Waste accumulates into it, forming Rift Valley lakes

The floor of these lakes are often below the sea level.

Examples-

a. East African Rift Valley-

 Runs through Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia and

extend along the Red Sea to Israel and Jordan

 Covers a distance over 3000 miles

b. Lake Tanganyika-

 World's deepest Lake

 4700 feet deep

C. Malwai, Rudolf, Edward and Albert lakes

 D. Dead Sea-

 1286 feet below the earth surface

 World's lowest Lake

Lakes formed by glaciation-

1. Cirque lakes or tarns-

It is arm-chair shaped lake formed as result of glaciation (details in the

ch. Glaciers)

Examples-

 Red tarn- English Lake District

Ribbon lakes- These are formed by accumulation of water in the glacial

trough, and are long and deep

 Lake Ullswater

2. Kettle lakes-

Formation -

 These are depressions in the outwash plain left by the melting

mass of stagnant ice

 These are irregular because of uneven Morainic surface

 These are generally shallow and are of small size

Examples-

3. Rock hollow lakes-

Formation -

 These are formed by ice-scouring when valley glaciers or ice

sheets scoop out hollows on the surface

Examples
4. Lakes due to Morainic damming of valley-

Formation -

 Valley glaciers deposit moraines across the valley

 These moraines may act as a barrier and water may accumulate

behind these

 Both Terminal and lateral moraines are capable of damming the

valley

Examples

5. Lakes due to deposition of glacial drifts-

Formation -

 In glaciated Lowlands with a predominant drumlins landscape,

where drainage is poor, the intervening depressions may be water
logged

 Thus, lakes are formed

Examples

Lakes formed by volcanic activities-

1. Crater or caldera lakes-

Formation -

 During volcanic eruption, the top of cone may blow off forming a
hollow depression called crater

 These crater may be enlarged by subsidence into caldera

 These steep Cliff bounded hollows are roughly circular in shape

 These are generally dry

  In case of dormant and extinct volcanoes, rain water falls directly
into the hollows and forms create or caldera Lakes as there is no
superficial outlet present

Examples

2. Lava blocked lakes-

Formation-

 In volcanic regions lava may flow across the valley, solidifies and
dam the the river forming a Lake

Examples

Lakes formed due to subsidence of volcanic land surface-

 The crust of hollow lava flow may collapse

 This subsidence leaves behind a wide and shallow depression in

which a Lake may form

Examples

Lakes formed by erosion-

1. Karst lakes-

Formation-

 Rain water carves out solution depressions in the limestone

 Sometimes these depressions are clogged by debris

 Because of this train waste fails to east into the limestone surface
and lakes are formed

 The roof of the caverns may collapse exposing the long and make
lakes that were once underground

Examples

2. Polje lakes-

 These are large depressions, which generally do not have surface

outlets
  Water may accumulate in these forming lakes

 During rainy period water may cover most of the polje's floor

 But during dry season, they shrink because of seepage

Examples

3. Lakes formed due to solution action on rocks salts-

 Sometimes underlying layers of rock salts may be gradually

removed in solution

 This leads to local subsidence in which a Lake may form

Example

4. Wind deflated lakes-

Formation-

 The deflating action of wind causes formation of depression in the

deserts. When these depressions touch the water table, water
seeps out forming lakes.

 Due to excessive evaporation these lakes become salt lakes or

playas.

Examples-

 Quattara depression

Lakes formed by deposition-

1. Lakes due to river deposits

Formation-

 In due course of time, generally during floods, river shorten its

course by cutting through the meandering loops, leaving behind
ox-bow lakes

Examples-