CHEMISTRY - NCERT UPDATES

FOR CLASS XI
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CHAPTER 1 - SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

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Chemistry deals with the composition, structure and properties of matter. These
aspects can be best described and understood in terms of basic constituents of
matter: atoms and molecules. That is why chemistry is called the science of atoms and
molecules. Can we see, weigh and perceive these entities? Is it possible to count the
1. 1 number of atoms and molecules in a given mass of matter and have a quantitative
relationship between the mass and number of these particles (atoms and molecules)?
We will like to answer some of these questions in this Unit. We would further describe
how physical properties of matter can be quantitatively described using numerical
values with suitable units.
Updated Content
Science can be viewed as a continuing human effort to systematise knowledge for
describing and understanding nature. You have learnt in your previous classes that we
come across diverse substances present in nature and changes in them in daily life.
Curd formation from milk, formation of vinegar from sugarcane juice on keeping for
prolonged time and rusting of iron are some of the examples of changes which we
come across many times. For the sake of convenience, science is sub-divided into
various disciplines: chemistry, physics, biology, geology, etc. The branch of science
that studies the preparation, properties, structure and reactions of material
substances is called chemistry.

DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry, as we understand it today, is not a very old discipline. Chemistry was not
studied for its own sake, rather it came up as a result of search for two interesting
things: i. Philosopher’s stone (Paras) which would convert all baser metals e.g., iron
and copper into gold. ii.‘Elexir of life’ which would grant immortality. People in ancient
India, already had the knowledge of many scientic phenomenon much before the
advent of modern science. They applied that knowledge in various walks of life.
Chemistry developed mainly in the form of Alchemy and Iatrochemistry during 1300-
1600 CE. Modern chemistry took shape in the 18th century Europe, after a few
centuries of alchemical traditions which were introduced in Europe by the Arabs.
Other cultures – especially the Chinese and the Indian – had their own alchemical
traditions. These included much knowledge of chemical processes and techniques. In
ancient India, chemistry was called Rasayan Shastra, Rastantra, Ras Kriya or
Rasvidya. It included metallurgy, medicine, manufacture of cosmetics, glass, dyes,
etc. Systematic excavations at Mohenjodaro in Sindh and Harappa in Punjab prove
that the story of development of chemistry in India is very old. Archaeological ndings
show that baked bricks were used in construction work. It shows the mass production
of pottery, which can be regarded as the earliest chemical process, in which materials
were mixed, moulded and subjected to heat by using re to achieve desirable qualities.
Remains of glazed pottery have been found in Mohenjodaro. Gypsum cement has been
used in the construction work. It contains lime, sand and traces of CaCO3. Harappans
made faience, a sort of glass which was used in ornaments. They melted and forged a
variety of objects from metals, such as lead, silver, gold and copper. They improved the
hardness of copper for making artefacts by using tin and arsenic. A number of glass
objects were found in Maski in South India (1000–900 BCE), and Hastinapur and
Taxila in North India (1000–200 BCE). Glass and glazes were coloured by addition of
2. 1-3 colouring agents like metal oxides. Copper metallurgy in India dates back to the
beginning of chalcolithic cultures in the subcontinent. There are much archeological
evidences to support the view that technologies for extraction of copper and iron
were developed indigenously. According to Rigveda, tanning of leather and dying of
cotton were practised during 1000–400 BCE. The golden gloss of the black polished
ware of northen India could not be replicated and is still a chemical mystery. These
wares indicate the mastery with which kiln temperatures could be controlled.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra describes the production of salt from sea. A vast number of
statements and material described in the ancient Vedic literature can be shown to
agree with modern scientic ndings. Copper utensils, iron, gold, silver ornaments
and terracotta discs and painted grey pottery have been found in many archaeological
sites in north India. Sushruta Samhita explains the importance of Alkalies. The Charaka
Samhita mentions ancient indians who knew how to prepare sulphuric acid, nitric acid
and oxides of copper, tin and zinc; the sulphates of copper, zinc and iron and the
carbonates of lead and iron. Rasopanishada describes the preparation of gunpowder
mixture. Tamil texts also describe the preparation of reworks using sulphur,
charcoal, saltpetre (i.e., potassium nitrate), mercury, camphor, etc. Nagarjuna was a
great Indian scientist. He was a reputed chemist, an alchemist and a metallurgist. His
work Rasratnakar deals with the formulation of mercury compounds. He has also
discussed methods for the extraction of metals, like gold, silver, tin and copper. A
book, Rsarnavam, appeared around 800 CE. It discusses the uses of various furnaces,
ovens and crucibles for different purposes. It describes methods by which metals
could be identied by ame colour. Chakrapani discovered mercury sulphide. The credit
for inventing soap also goes to him. He used mustard oil and some alkalies as
ingredients for making soap. Indians began making soaps in the 18th century CE. Oil of
Eranda and seeds of Mahua plant and calcium carbonate were used for making soap.
The paintings found on the walls of Ajanta and Ellora, which look fresh even after ages,
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2. 1-3
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY
Science can be viewed as a continuing human effort to systematize knowledge for
describing and understanding nature. For the sake of convenience science is sub-
divided into various disciplines: chemistry, physics, biology, geology etc. Chemistry is
the branch of science that studies the composition, properties and interaction of
matter. Chemists are interested in knowing how chemical transformations occur.
Chemistry plays a central role in science and is often intertwined with other branches
of science like physics, biology, geology etc. Chemistry also plays an important role in
daily life. Chemical principles are important in diverse areas, such as: weather
patterns, functioning of brain and operation of a computer. Chemical industries
manufacturing fertilizers, alkalis, acids, salts, dyes, polymers, drugs, soaps,
detergents, metals, alloys and other inorganic and organic chemicals, including new
materials, contribute in a big way to the national economy. Chemistry plays an
important role in meeting human needs for food, health care products and other
3. 4 1.1 materials aimed at improving the quality of life. This is exemplied by the large scale
production of a variety of fertilizers, improved varieties of pesticides and insecticides.
Similarly many life saving drugs such as cisplatin and taxol, are effective in cancer
therapy and AZT (Azidothymidine) used for helping AIDS victims, have been isolated
from plant and animal sources or prepared by synthetic methods.
With a better understanding of chemical principles it has now become possible to
design and synthesize new materials having specic magnetic, electric and optical
properties. This has lead to the production of superconducting ceramics, conducting
polymers, optical bres and large scale miniaturization of solid state devices. In recent
years chemistry has tackled with a fair degree of success some of the pressing
aspects of environmental degradation. Safer alternatives to environmentally
hazardous refrigerants like CFCs (chlorouorocarbons), responsible for ozone
depletion in the stratosphere, have been successfully synthesised. However, many big
environmental problems continue to be matters of grave concern to the chemists.
Updated Content
testify to a high level of science achieved in ancient India. Varähmihir’s Brihat Samhita
is a sort of encyclopaedia, which was composed in the sixth century CE. It informs
about thepreparation of glutinous material to be applied on walls and roofs of houses
and temples. It was prepared entirely from extracts of various plants, fruits, seeds
and barks, which were concentrated by boiling, and then, treated with various resins.
It will be interesting to test such materials scientically and assess them for use. A
number of classical texts, like Atharvaveda (1000 BCE) mention some dye stuff, the
material used were turmeric, madder, sunower, orpiment, cochineal and lac. Some
other substances having tinting property were kamplcica, pattanga and jatuka.
Varähmihir’s Brihat Samhita gives references to perfumes and cosmetics. Recipes for
hair dying were made from plants, like indigo and minerals like iron power, black iron or
steel and acidic extracts of sour rice gruel. Gandhayukli describes recipes for making
scents, mouth perfumes, bath powders, incense and talcum power. Paper was known
to India in the 17th century as account of Chinese traveller I-tsing describes.
Excavations at Taxila indicate that ink was used in India from the fourth century.
Colours of ink were made from chalk, red lead and minimum. It seems that the process
of fermentation was well-known to Indians. Vedas and Kautilya’s Arthashastra
mention about many types of liquors. Charaka Samhita also mentions ingredients,
such as barks of plants, stem, owers, leaves, woods, cereals, fruits and sugarcane
for making Asavas. The concept that matter is ultimately made of indivisible building
blocks, appeared in India a few centuries BCE as a part of philosophical speculations.
Acharya Kanda, born in 600 BCE, originally known by the name Kashyap, was the rst
proponent of the ‘atomic theory’. He formulated the theory of very small indivisible
particles, which he named ‘Paramãnu’ (comparable to atoms). He authored the text
Vaiseshika Sutras. According to him, all substances are aggregated form of smaller
units called atoms (Paramãnu), which are eternal, indestructible, spherical,
suprasensible and in motion in the original state. He explained that this individual
entity cannot be sensed through any human organ. Kanda added that there are
varieties of atoms that are as different as the different classes of substances. He said
these (Paramãnu) could form pairs or triplets, among other combinations and unseen
forces cause interaction between them. He conceptualised this theory around 2500
years before John Dalton (1766-1844).
Charaka Samhita is the oldest Ayurvedic epic of India. It describes the treatment of
diseases. The concept of reduction of particle size of metals is clearly discussed in
Charaka Samhita. Extreme reduction of particle size is termed as nanotechnology.
Charaka Samhita describes the use of bhasma of metals in the treatment of ailments.
Now-a-days, it has been proved that bhasmas have nanoparticles of metals. After the
decline of alchemy, Iatrochemistry reached a steady state, but it too declined due to
the introduction and practise of western medicinal system in the 20th century. During
this period of stagnation, pharmaceutical industry based on Ayurveda continued to
exist, but it too declined gradually. It took about 100-150 years for Indians to learn
and adopt new techniques. During this time, foreign products poured in. As a result,
indigenous traditional techniques gradually declined. Modern science appeared in
Indian scene in the later part of the nineteenth century. By the mid-nineteenth
century, European scientists started coming to India and modern chemistry started
growing. From the above discussion, you have learnt that chemistry deals with the
composition, structure, properties and interection of matter and is of much use to
human beings in daily life. These aspects can be best described and understood in
terms of basic constituents of matter that are atoms and molecules. That is why,
chemistry is also called the science of atoms and molecules. Can we see, weigh and
perceive these entities (atoms and molecules)? Is it possible to count the number of
atoms and molecules in a given mass of matter and have a quantitative relationship
between the mass and the number of these particles? We will get the answer of some
of these questions in this Unit. We will further describe how physical properties of
matter can be quantitatively described using numerical values with suitable units.
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry plays a central role in science and is often intertwined with other
branches of science. Principles of chemistry are applicable in diverse areas,
such as weather patterns, functioning of brain and operation of a computer,
production in chemical industries, manufacturing fertilisers, alkalis, acids,
salts, dyes, polymers, drugs, soaps, detergents, metals, alloys, etc., including
new material. Chemistry contributes in a big way to the national economy. It
also plays an important role in meeting human needs for food, healthcare
products and other material aimed at improving the quality of life. This is
exemplied by the large-scale production of a variety of fertilisers, improved
variety of pesticides and insecticides. Chemistry provides methods for the
isolation of lifesaving drugs from natural sources and makes possible synthesis
of such drugs. Some of these drugs are cisplatin and taxol, which are effective in
cancer therapy. The drug AZT (Azidothymidine) is used for helping AIDS
patients. Chemistry contributes to a large extent in the development and growth
of a nation. With a better understanding of chemical principles it has now become
possible to design and synthesise new material having specic magnetic, electric and
optical properties. This has lead to the production of superconducting ceramics,
conducting polymers, optical bres, etc. Chemistry has helped in establishing
industries which manufacture utility goods, like acids, alkalies, dyes, polymesr metals,
etc. These industries contribute in a big way to the economy of a nation and generate
employment. In recent years, chemistry has helped in dealing with some of the
pressing aspects of environmental degradation with a fair degree of success. Safer
alter natives to envir onmentally hazar dous r efrigerants, like CFCs
(chlorouorocarbons), responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere, have been
successfully synthesised. However, many big environmental problems continue to be
matters of grave concern to the chemists. One such problem is the management of
the Green House gases, like methane, carbon dioxide, etc. Understanding of
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One such problem is the management of the Green House gases like methane, carbon
dioxide etc. Understanding of bio-chemical processes, use of enzymes for large-scale
3. 4 1.1 production of chemicals and synthesis of new exotic materials are some of the
intellectual challenges for the future generation of chemists. A developing country like
India needs talented and creative chemists for accepting such challenges.
1.2 NATURE OF MATTER
You are already familiar with the term matter from your earlier classes. Anything
which has mass and occupies space is called matter. Everything around us, for
4. 4 1.1 example, book, pen, pencil, water, air, all living beings, etc., are composed of matter.
You know that they have mass and they occupy space.
You are aware that matter can exist in three physical states viz. solid, liquid and gas.
5. 4 1.2 The constituent particles of matter in these three states can be represented as
shown in Fig. 1.1.
6. 5 1.2.2
Every substance has unique or characteristic properties. These properties can be
classied into two categories – physical properties and chemical properties. Physical
properties are those properties which can be measured or observed without changing
the identity or the composition of the substance. Some examples of physical
properties are colour, odour, melting point, boiling point, density etc. The
measurement or observation of chemical properties require a chemical change to
occur. The examples of chemical properties are characteristic reactions of different
7. 5 1.3.1 substances; these include acidity or basicity, combustibility etc. Many properties of
matter such as length, area, volume, etc., are quantitative in nature.
Any quantitative observation or measurement is represented by a number followed by
units in which it is measured. For example length of a room can be represented as 6 m;
here 6 is the number and m denotes metre – the unit in which the length is measured.
Many properties of matter, such as length, area, volume, etc., are quantitative in
nature. Any quantitative observation or measurement is represented by a number
followed by units in which it is measured. For example, length of a room can be
represented as 6 m; here, 6 is the number and m denotes metre, the unit in which the
length is measured.
Two different systems of measurement, i.e., the English System and the Metric
8. 7 1.3.2 System were being used in different parts of the world. The metric system, which
originated in France in late eighteenth century, was more convenient as it was based
on the decimal system. Late, need of a common standard system was felt by the
scientic community. Such a system was established in 1960 and is discussed in
detail.
9. 10 1.3.6
Now, for performing mathematical operations on numbers expressed in scientic
10. 11 1.4.1 notations, the following points are to be kept in mind.
1.4.2 Signicant Figures
Every experimental measurement has some amount of uncertainty associated with it.
However, one would always like the results to be precise and accurate. Precision and
accuracy are often referred to while we talk about the measurement.
11. 12. 1.4.2
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biochemical processes, use of enzymes for large-scale production of chemicals and
synthesis of new exotic material are some of the intellectual challenges for the future
generation of chemists. A developing country, like India, needs talented and creative
chemists for accepting such challenges. To be a good chemist and to accept such
challanges, one needs to understand the basic concepts of chemistry, which
begin with the concept of matter. Let us start with the nature of matter.
1.2 NATURE OF MATTER
You are already familiar with the term matter from your earlier classes. Anything
which has mass and occupies space is called matter. Everything around us, for
example, book, pen, pencil, water, air, all living beings, etc., are composed of matter.
You know that they have mass and they occupy space. Let us recall the
characteristics of the states of matter, which you learnt in your previous
classes.
1.2.1 States of Matter
You are aware that matter can exist in three physical states viz. solid, liquid and gas.
The constituent particles of matter in these three states can be represented as
shown in Fig. 1.1.
1.2.2. Classication of Matter
In class IX (Chapter 2), you have learnt that at the macroscopic or bulk level,
matter can be classied as mixture or pure substance. These can be further sub-
divided as shown in Fig. 1.2. When all constituent particles of a substance are
same in chemical nature, it is said to be a pure substance. A mixture contains
many types of particles.
A mixture contains particles of two or more pure substances which may be
present in it in any ratio. Hence, their composition is variable. Pure sustances
forming mixture are called its components.
1.3.1 Physical and chemical properties
Every substance has unique or characteristic properties. These properties can be
classied into two categories — physical properties, such as colour, odour, melting
point, boiling point, density, etc., and chemical properties, like composition,
combustibility, ractivity with acids and bases, etc. Physical properties can be
measured or observed without changing the identity or the composition of the
substance. The measurement or observation of chemical properties requires a
chemical change to occur. Measurement of physical properties does not require
occurance of a chemical change. The examples of chemical properties are
characteristic reactions of different substances; these include acidity or basicity,
combustibility, etc. Chemists describe, interpret and predict the behaviour of
substances on the basis of knowledge of their physical and chemical properties, which
are determined by careful measurement and experimentation. In the following
section, we will learn about the measurement of physical properties.
1.3.2 Measurement of physical properties
Quantitative measurement of properties is reaquired for scientic investigation.
Many properties of matter, such as length, area, volume, etc., are quantitative in
nature. Any quantitative observation or measurement is represented by a number
followed by units in which it is measured. For example, length of a room can be
represented as 6 m; here, 6 is the number and m denotes metre, the unit in which the
length is measured.
Earlier, two different systems of measurement, i.e., the English System and the
Metric System were being used in different parts of the world. The metric system,
which originated in France in late eighteenth century, was more convenient as it was
based on the decimal system. Late, need of a common standard system was felt by the
scientic community. Such a system was established in 1960 and is discussed in detail
below.
Density of a substance tells us about how closely its particles are packed. If
density is more, it means particles are more closely packed.
While performing mathematical operations on numbers expressed in scientic
notations, the following points are to be kept in mind.
1.4.2 Signicant Figures
Every experimental measurement has some amount of uncertainty associated
with it because of limitation of measuring instrument
and the skill of the person making the measurement. For example, mass of an
object is obtained using a platform balance and it comes out to be 9.4g. On
measuring the mass of this object on an analytical balance, the mass obtained is
9.4213g. The mass obtained by an analytical balance is slightly higher than the
mass obtained by using a platform balance. Therefore, digit 4 placed after
decimal in the measurement by platform balance is uncertain.
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Precision refers to the closeness of variousmeasurements for the same quantity.
However, accuracy is the agreement of a particular value to the true value of the
result. For example, if the true value for a result is 2.00 g and student ‘A’ takes two
measurements and reports the results as 1.95 g and 1.93 g. These values are precise
as they are close to each other but are not accurate. Another student ‘B’ repeats the
12. 13 1.4.2 Pereviously it was before the rules for determining singnicant gures
experiment and obtains 1.94 g and 2.05 g as the results for two measurements.
These observations are neither precise nor accurate. When the third student ‘C’
repeats these measurements and reports 2.01 g and 1.99 g as the result, these
values are both precise and accurate. This can be more clearly understood from the
data given in Table 1.4.

1.5.1 Law of Conservation of Mass

This law was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789. He performed careful
1.5.1 Law of Conservation of Mass
experimental studies for combustion reactions and reached to the conclusion that in
It states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. This law was put forth by
all physical and chemical changes, there is no net change in mass duting the
Antoine Lavoisier in 1789. He performed careful experimental studies for combustion
process. Hence, he reached to the conclusion that matter can neither be created
13. 14 1.5.1 reactions for reaching to the above conclusion. This law formed the basis for several
nor destroyed. This is called ‘Law of Conservation of Mass’. This law formed the
later developments in chemistry. Infact, this was the result of exact measurement of
basis for several later developments in chemistry. Infact, this was the result of exact
masses of reactants and products, and carefully planned experiments performed by
measurement of masses of reactants and products, and carefully planned
Lavoisier.
experiments performed by Lavoisier.

Dalton’s theory could explain the laws of chemical combination. However, it could not
14. 16 1.6 Dalton’s theory could explain the laws of chemical combination. explain the laws of gaseous volumes. It could not provide the reason for
combining of atoms, which was answered later by other scientists.

Summary :- Chemistry, as we understand it today is not a very old discipline.

15. 24 Summary People in ancient India, already had the knowledge of many scientic
phenomenon much before the advent of modern science. They applied the
knowledge in various walks of life.

CHAPTER 2 - STRUCTURE OF ATOM

The atomic theory of matter was rst proposed on a rm scientic basis by John
Dalton, a British school teacher in 1808. His theory, called Dalton’s atomic theory,
regarded the atom as the ultimate particle of matter (Unit 1). Dalton’s atomic
The atomic theory of matter was rst proposed on a rm scientic basis by John
theory was able to explain the law of conservation of mass, law of constant
16. 29 Introduction Dalton, a British school teacher in 1808. His theory, called Dalton’s atomic theory,
composition and law of multiple proportion very successfully. However, it failed
regarded the atom as the ultimate particle of matter (Unit 1).
to explain the results of many experiments, for example, it was known that
substances like glass or ebonite when rubbed with silk or fur get electrically
charged.

In this unit we start with the experimental observations made by scientists towards
the end of nineteenth and beginning of twentieth century. These established that
atoms can be further divided into subatomic particles, i.e., electrons, protons and
neutrons— a concept very different from that of Dalton. The major problems before
the scientists at that time were: In this unit we start with the experimental observations made by scientists towards
• to account for the stability of atom after the discovery of sub-atomic particles, the end of nineteenth and beginning of twentieth century. These established that
17. 29 Introduction • to compare the behaviour of one element from other in terms of both physical and atoms are made of sub-atomic particles, i.e., electrons, protons and neutrons — a
chemical properties, concept very different from that of Dalton.
• to explain the formation of different kinds of molecules by the combination of
different atoms and,
• to understand the origin and nature of the characteristics of electromagnetic
radiation absorbed or emitted by atoms.

2.1 SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES

Dalton’s atomic theory was able to explain the law of conservation of mass, law of
2.1 DISCOVERY OF SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
constant composition and law of multiple proportion very successfully. However, it
An insight into the structure of atom was obtained from the experiments on electrical
failed to explain the results of many experiments, for example, it was known that
18. 30 2.1 discharge through gases. Before we discuss these results we need to keep in mind a
substances like glass or ebonite when rubbed with silk or fur generate electricity.
basic rule regarding the behaviour of charged particles : “Like charges repel each
Many different kinds of sub-atomic particles were discovered in the twentieth
other and unlike charges attract each other”.
century. However, in this section we will talk about only two particles, namely electron
and proton.

An insight into the structure of atom was obtained from the experiments on electrical
discharge through gases. Before we discuss these results we need to keep in mind a
19. 30 2.1.1 basic rule regarding the behaviour of charged particles : “Like charges repel each
other and unlike charges attract each other”.

The major problems before the scientists after the discovery of sub-atomic particles
were:
• to account for the stability of atom,
• to compare the behaviour of elements in terms of both physical and chemical
20. 32 2.2 Previously it was under the introduction properties,
• to explain the formation of different kinds of molecules by the combination of
different atoms and,
• to understand the origin and nature of the characteristics of electromagnetic
radiation absorbed or emitted by atoms.

2.2.5 Drawbacks of Rutherford Model 2.2.5 Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

Rutherford nuclear model of an atom is like a small scale solar system with the nucleus As you have learnt above, Rutherford nuclear model of an atom is like a small scale
21. 36 2.5 playing the role of the massive sun and the electrons being similar to the lighter solar system with the nucleus playing the role of the massive sun and the electrons
planets. being similar to the lighter planets.
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(ii) Experimental results regarding atomic spectra which can be explained only by
22. 37 2.3 assuming quantized (Section 2.4) electronic energy levels in atoms.
23. 37 2.3.1
It is noteworthy that the rst concrete explanation for the phenomenon of the black
body radiation was given by Max Planck in 1900. This phenomenon is given below:
When solids are heated they emit radiation over a wide range of wavelengths. For
example, when an iron rod is heated in a furnace, it rst turns to dull red and then
progressively becomes more and more red as the temperature increases. As this is
heated further, the radiation emitted becomes white and then becomes blue as the
temperature becomes very high. In terms of frequency, it means that the radiation
emitted goes from a lower frequency to a higher frequency as the temperature
increases. The red colour lies in the lower frequency region while blue colour belongs
to the higher frequency region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The ideal body, which
emits and absorbs all frequencies, is called a black body and the radiation emitted by
such a body is called black body radiation. The exact frequency distribution of the
24. 40 2.3.2
emitted radiation (i.e., intensity versus frequency curve of the radiation) from a black
body depends only on its temperature. At a given temperature, intensity of radiation
emitted increases with decrease of wavelength, reaches a maximum value at a given
wavelength and then starts decreasing with further decrease of wavelength, as
shown in Fig. 2.8. The above experimental results cannot be explained satisfactorily on
the basis of the wave theory of light. Planck suggested that atoms and molecules
could emit (or absorb) energy only in discrete quantities and not in a continuous
manner, a belief popular at that time. Planck gave the name quantum to the smallest
quantity of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. The energy (E ) of a quantum of radiation is proportional to its frequency (v )
and is expressed by
equation (2.6). E = hv (2.6)
25. 40 Fig 2.8
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(ii) Experimental results regarding atomic spectra. First, we will discuss about the
duel nature of electromagnetic radiations. Experimental results regarding
atomic spectra will be discussed in Section 2.4.
2.3.1 Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
In the mid-nineteenth century, physicists actively studied absorption and emission of
radiation by heated objects. These are called thermal radiations. They tried to nd out
of what the thermal radiation is made. It is now a well-known fact that thermal
radiations consist of electromagnetic waves of various frequencies or wavelengths. It
is based on a number of modern concepts, which were unknown in the mid-nineteenth
century. First active study of thermal radiation laws occured in the 1850’s and the
theory of electromagnetic waves and the emission of such waves by accelerating
charged particles was developed in the early 1870’s by James Clerk Maxwell, which
was experimentally conrmed later by einrich Hertz. Here, we will learn some facts
about electromagnetic radiations.
These phenomena indicate that the system can take energy only in discrete amounts.
All possible energies cannot be taken up or radiated. It is noteworthy that the rst
concrete explanation for the phenomenon of the black body radiation mentioned above
was given by Max Planck in 1900. Let us rst try to understand this phenomenon,
which is given below:
Hot objects emit electromagnetic radiations over a wide range of wavelengths. At high
temperatures, an appreciable proportion of radiation is in the visible region of the
spectrum. As the temperature is raised, a higher proportion of short wavelength
(blue light) is generated. For example, when an iron rod is heated in a furnace, it rst
turns to dull red and then progressively becomes more and more red as the
temperature increases. As this is heated further, the radiation emitted becomes
white and then becomes blue as the temperature becomes very high. This means that
red radiation is most intense at a particular temperature and the blue radiation is
more intense at another temperature. This means intensities of radiations of different
wavelengths emitted by hot body depend upon its temperature. By late 1850’s it was
known that objects made of different material and kept at different temperatures emit
different amount of radiation. Also, when the surface of an object is irradiated with
light (electromagnetic radiation), a part of radiant energy is generally reected as
such, a part is absorbed and a part of it is transmitted. The reason for incomplete
absorption is that ordinary objects are as a rule imperfect absorbers of radiation. An
ideal body, which emits and absorbs radiations of all frequencies uniformly, is called a
black body and the radiation emitted by such a body is called black body radiation. In
practice, no such body exists. Carbon black approximates fairly closely to black body. A
good physical approximation to a black body is a cavity with a tiny hole, which has no
other opening. Any ray entering the hole will be reected by the cavity walls and will be
eventually absorbed by the walls. A black body is also a perfect radiator of radiant
energy. Furthermore, a black body is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. It
radiates same amount of energy per unit area as it absorbs from its surrounding in any
given time. The amount of light emitted (intensity of radiation) from a black body and
its spectral distribution depends only on its temperature. At a given temperature,
intensity of radiation emitted increases with the increase of wavelength, reaches a
maximum value at a given wavelength and then starts decreasing with further
increase of wavelength, as shown in Fig. 2.8. Also, as the temperature increases,
maxima of the curve shifts to short wavelength. Several attempts were made to
predict the intensity of radiation as a function of wavelength. But the results of the
above experiment could not be explained satisfactorily on the basis of the wave theory
of light. Max Planck arrived at a satisfactory relationship by making an assumption
that absorption and emmission of radiation arises from oscillator i.e., atoms in the wall
of black body. Their frequency of oscillation is changed by interaction with oscilators of
electromagnetic radiation. Planck assumed that radiation could be sub-divided into
discrete chunks of energy. He suggested that atoms and molecules could emit or
absorb energy only in discrete quantities and not in a continuous manner. He gave the
name quantum to the smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in
the form of electromagnetic radiation. The energy (E ) of a quantum of radiation is
proportional to its frequency (n ) and is expressed by equation (2.6). E = hn (2.6)
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Quantisation has been compared to standing on a staircase. A person can stand on
any step of a staircase, but it is not possible for him/her to stand in between the two
26. 41 2.3.2
steps. The energy can take any one of the values from the following set, but cannot
take on any values between them. E = 0, hn, 2hn, 3hn....nhn.....

Where me is the mass of electron, v is the velocity and r is the radius of the orbit in
27. 47 2.4 which electron is moving.

Thus an electron can move only in those orbits for which its angular momentum is
integral multiple of h/2p. That means angular momentum is quantised. Radiation is
Thus an electron can move only in those orbits for which its angular momentum is emitted or obsorbed only when transition of electron takes place from one quantised
28. 47 2.4 integral multiple of h/2p. why only certain xed orbits are allowed. value of angular momentum to another. Therefore, Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory
does not apply here that is why only certain xed orbits are allowed.

CHAPTER 3- CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

No Changes No Changes

CHAPTER 4- CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

No Changes No Changes

CHAPTER 5 - STATES OF MATTER

5.7 KINETIC ENERGY AND MOLECULAR SPEEDS
Molecules of gases remain in continuous motion. While moving they collide with each
other and with the walls of the container. This results in change of their speed and
redistribution of energy. So the speed and energy of all the molecules of the gas at any
instant are not the same. Thus, we can obtain only average value of speed of
molecules. If there are n number of molecules in a sample and their individual speeds
are u1, u2,…….un, then average speed of molecules uav can be calculated as
follows:

Maxwell and Boltzmann have shown that actual distribution of molecular speeds
depends on temperature and molecular mass of a gas. Maxwell derived a formula for
calculating the number of molecules possessing a particular speed. Fig. 5.8 shows
schematic plot of number of molecules vs. molecular speed at two different
temperatures T1 and T2 (T2 is higher than T1). The distribution of speeds shown in the
plot is called Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of speeds.

29. 147-149 5.7

The graph shows that number of molecules possessing very high and very low speed is
very small. The maximum in the curve represents speed possessed by maximum
number of molecules. This speed is called most probable speed, ump. This is very close
to the average speed of the molecules. On increasing the temperature most probable
speed increases. Also, speed distribution curve broadens at higher temperature.
Broadening of the curve shows that number of molecules moving at higher speed
increases. Speed distribution also depends upon mass of molecules. At the same
temperature, gas molecules with heavier mass have slower speed than lighter gas
molecules. For example, at the same temperature lighter nitrogen molecules move
faster than heavier chlorine molecules. Hence, at any given temperature, nitrogen
molecules have higher value of most probable speed than the chlorine molecules. Look
at the molecular speed distribution curve of chlorine and nitrogen given in Fig. 5.9.
Though at a particular temperature the individual speed of molecules keeps changing,
the distribution of speeds remains same.
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29. 147-149 5.7

CHAPTER 6 - THERMODYNAMICS
By conventions of IUPAC in chemical thermodynamics. The q is positive, when heat is
transferred from the surroundings to the system and the internal energy of the
system increases and q is negative when heat is transferred from system to the
The q is positive, when heat is transferred from the surroundings to the system and q surroundings resulting in decrease of the internal energy of the system..
30. 163 6.1.4 (b) is negative when heat is transferred from system to the surroundings.

31. 166 Problem 6.4

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32. 172 Problem 6.7

The q is positive, when heat is transferred from the surroundings to the system and q
is negative when heat is transferred from system to the surroundings.

33. 172 Problem 6.8

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(f) Enthalpy of Dilution It is known that enthalpy of solution is the enthalpy change
associated with the addition of a specied amount of solute to the specied amount of
solvent at a constant temperature and pressure. This argument can be applied to any
solvent with slight modication. Enthalpy change for dissolving one mole of gaseous
hydrogen chloride in 10 mol of water can be represented by the following equation.
For convenience we will use the symbol aq. for water

34. 180-181 6.5 (f)

The values of DH show general dependence of the enthalpy of solution on amount of

solvent. As more and more solvent is used, the enthalpy of solution approaches a
limiting value, i.e, the value in innitely dilute solution. For hydrochloric acid this value
of DH is given above in equation (S-3). If we subtract the rst equation (equation S-1)
from the second equation (equation S-2) in the above set of equations, we obtain
– HCl.25 aq. + 15 aq. ® HCl.40 aq.
DH = [ –72.79 – (–72.03)] kJ / mol
= – 0.76 kJ / mol
This value (–0.76kJ/mol) of DH is enthalpy of dilution. It is the heat withdrawn from
the surroundings when additional solvent is
added to the solution. The enthalpy of dilution of a solution is dependent on the original
concentration of the solution and the amount of solvent added.

(d) Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics

We know that for an isolated system the change in energy remains constant.
Therefore, increase in entropy in such systems is the natural direction of a
spontaneous change. This, in fact is the second law of thermodynamics. Like rst law
of thermodynamics, second law can also be stated in several ways. The second law of
thermodynamics explains why spontaneous exothermic reactions are so common. In
exothermic reactions heat released by the reaction increases the disorder of the
surroundings and overall entropy change is positive which makes the reaction
spontaneous.
(e) Absolute Entropy and Third Law of Thermodynamics
Molecules of a substance may move in a straight line in any direction, they may spin
like a top and the bonds in the molecules may stretch and compress. These motions of
35. 185-186 6.6 (d), (e) the molecule are called translational, rotational and vibrational motion respectively.
When temperature of the system rises, these motions become more vigorous and
entropy increases.
On the other hand when temperature is lowered, the entropy decreases. The entropy
of any pure crystalline substance approaches zero as the temperature approaches
absolute zero. This is called third law of thermodynamics. This is so because there is
perfect order in a crystal at absolute zero. The statement is conned to pure
crystalline solids because theoretical arguments and practical evidences have shown
that entropy of solutions and super cooled liquids is not zero at 0 K. The importance of
the third law lies in the fact that it permits the calculation of absolute values of
entropy of pure substance from thermal data alone. For a pure substance, this can be
done by summing qrev/T increments from 0 K to 298 K. Standard entropies can be
used to calculate standard entropy changes by a Hess’s law type of calculation.

CHAPTER 7 - EQUILIBRIUM
7.12.1 Designing Buffer Solution
Knowledge of pKa, pKb and equilibrium constant help us to prepare the buffer solution
of known pH. Let us see how we can do this.
Preparation of Acidic Buffer
36. 227-228 7.12.1 To prepare a buffer of acidic pH we use weak acid and its salt formed with strong base.
We develop the equation relating the pH, the equilibrium constant, Ka of weak acid and
ratio of concentration of weak acid and its conjugate base. For the general case where
the weak acid HA ionises in water,
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conjugate base (anion) of the acid and the acid present in the mixture. Since acid is a
weak acid, it ionises to a very little extent and concentration of [HA] is negligibly
different from concentration of acid taken to form buffer. Also, most of the conjugate
base, [A—], comes from the ionisation of salt of the acid. Therefore, the
concentration of conjugate base will be negligibly different from the concentration of
salt. Thus, equation (7.40) takes the form:

In the equation (7.39), if the concentration of [A—] is equal to the concentration of

[HA], then pH = pKa because value of log 1 is zero. Thus if we take molar
concentration of acid and salt (conjugate base) same, the pH of the buffer solution will
be equal to the pKa of the acid. So for preparing the buffer solution of the required pH
36. 227-228 7.12.1 we select that acid whose pKa is close to the required pH. For acetic acid pKa value is
4.76, therefore pH of the buffer solution formed by acetic acid and sodium acetate
taken in equal molar concentration will be around 4.76. A similar analysis of a buffer
made with a weak base and its conjugate acid leads to the result,

If molar concentration of base and its conjugate acid (cation) is same then pH of the
buffer solution will be same as pKa for the base. pKa value for ammonia is 9.25;
therefore a buffer of pH close to 9.25 can be obtained by taking ammonia solution and
ammonium chloride solution of same molar concentration. For a buffer solution formed
by ammonium chloride and ammonium hydroxide, equation (7.42) becomes:

pH of the buffer solution is not affected by dilution because ratio under the logarithmic
term remains unchanged.

CHAPTER 12 - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY-SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

II Alicyclic or closed chain or ring compounds II Cyclic or closed chain or ring compounds
Alicyclic (aliphatic cyclic) compounds contain carbon atoms joined in the form of a ring (a) Alicyclic compounds Alicyclic (aliphatic cyclic) compounds contain carbon atoms
(homocyclic). Sometimes atoms other than carbon are also present in the ring joined in the form of a ring (homocyclic).
(heterocylic). Some examples of this type of compounds are:

36. 339 12.4

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These exhibit some of the properties similar to those of aliphatic compounds.
Aromatic compounds Aromatic compounds are special types of compounds. You will
learn about these compounds in detail in Unit 13. These include benzene and other
37. 339 12.4 related ring compounds (benzenoid). Like alicyclic compounds, aromatic comounds
may also have hetero atom in the ring. Such compounds are called hetrocyclic
aromatic compounds. Some of the examples of various types of aromatic compounds
are:
Functional Group
The functional group may be dened as an atom or group of atoms joined in a specic
manner which is responsible for the characteristic chemical properties of the organic
compounds. The examples are hydroxyl group (–OH), aldehyde group (–CHO) and
carboxylic acid group (–COOH) etc.
Homologous Series
38. 340 12.4.1 A group or a series of organic compounds each containing a characteristic functional
group forms a homologous series and the members of the series are called
homologues. The members of a homologous series can be represented by general
molecular formula and the successive members differ from each other in molecular
formula by a –CH2 unit. There are a number of homologous series of organic
compounds. Some of these are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, haloalkanes, alkanols,
alkanals, alkanones, alkanoic acids, amines etc.
The heterolytic cleavage can also give a species in which carbon gets the shared pair of
electrons. For example, when group Z attached to the carbon leaves without
39. 350 12.3
electron pair, the methyl anion (H3C-:)is formed. Such a carbon species carrying a
negative charge on carbon atom is called carbanion. Carbanions are also unstable and
reactive species. The organic reactions which proceed through heterolytic bond
cleavage are called ionic or heteropolar or just polar reactions.
40. 350-351 12.7.2 12.7.2 Nucleophiles and Electrophiles
Updated Content
Sometimes atoms other than carbon are also present in the ring (heterocylic).
Tetrahydrofuran given below is an example of this type of compound:
These exhibit some of the properties similar to those of aliphatic compounds.
(b) Aromatic compounds Aromatic compounds are special types of compounds. You
will learn about these compounds in detail in Unit 13. These include benzene and other
related ring compounds (benzenoid). Like alicyclic compounds, aromatic comounds
may also have hetero atom in the ring. Such compounds are called hetrocyclic
aromatic compounds. Some of the examples of various types of aromatic compounds
are:
12.4.1 Functional Group
The functional group is an atom or a group of atoms joined to the carbon chain which is
responsible for the characteristic chemical properties of the organic compounds. The
examples are hydroxyl group (–OH), aldehyde group (–CHO) and carboxylic acid group
(–COOH) etc.
12.4.2 Homologous Series A group or a series of organic compounds each containing
a characteristic functional group forms a homologous series and the members of the
series are called homologues. The members of a homologous series can be
represented by general molecular formula and the successive members differ from
each other in molecular formula by a –CH2 unit. There are a number of homologous
series of organic compounds. Some of these are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes,
haloalkanes, alkanols, alkanals, alkanones, alkanoic acids, amines etc. It is also possible
that a compound contains two or more identical or different functional groups. This
gives rise to polyfunctional compounds.
The heterolytic cleavage can also give a species in which carbon gets the shared pair of
electrons. For example, when group Z attached to the carbon leaves without
electron pair, the methyl anion (H3C-:)is formed. Such a carbon species carrying a
negative charge on carbon atom is called carbanion. Carbon in carbanion is generally
sp3 hybridised and its structure is distorted tetrahedron as shown in Fig. 12.3(b).
12.7.2 Substrate and Reagent
Ions are generally not formed in the reactions of organic compounds. Molecules as
such participate in the reaction. It is convenient to name one reagent as substrate and
other as reagent. In general, a molecule whose carbon is involved in new bond
formation is called substrate and the other one is called reagent. When carbon-
carbon bond is formed, the choice of naming the reactants as substrate and reagent is
arbitrary and depends on molecule under observation. Example:
Nucleophiles and Electrophiles
Reagents attack the reactive site of the substrate. The reactive site may be electron
decient portion of the molecule (a positive reactive site) e.g., an atom with
incomplete electron shell or the positive end of the dipole in the molecule. If the
attacking species is electron rich, it attacks these sites. If attacking species is
electron decient, the reactive site for it is that part of the substrate molecule which
can supply electrons, e.g., p electrons in a double bond.
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You must be aware of the ‘Swachh Bharat Abhiyan’ or ‘Clean India Mission’ launched
by the Government of India.

Two programmes are being implemented under the broad umbrella of the Swachh
41. 418 14.6.1
Bharat Abhiyan. These are Swachh Bharat Mission–Urban (SBM–U) and Swachh
Bharat Mission Gramin (SBM–G). The SBM–U primarily aims at making Urban India
free from open defecation and achieving 100% scientic management of solid waste in
the country. The SBM–G targets to bring about an improvement in the general quality
of life in rural areas by promoting cleanliness and hygiene, and eliminating open
defecation. It is accelerating its efforts to achieve the goal of universal sanitation
coverage by 2 October, 2019, which is the birth aniversary of Mahatma Gandhi. If you
have participated in some event on Swachh Bharat Mission, write your experiences.

(iv) ‘Green Solution’ to Clean Turbid Water Powder of kernel of tamarind seeds has
been found to be an effective material to make municipal and industrial waste water
clean. It is non-toxic, biodegradable and costeffective material. This powder is usually
42. 420 14.7.2(iv)
discarded as agricultural waste. The present practice is to use alum to treat such
water. It has been found that alum increases toxic ions in treated water and can cause
diseases.

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