The affect of cultural context to student’s learning performance by

international lecturers: A case of Vietnam international school.

Contents

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1

SECTION 2: BACKGROUND OF RELEVANT CONCEPTS.............................................................. 2
SECTION 3: METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 4
3.1. Scoping .............................................................................................................................................. 5
3.2. Planning ............................................................................................................................................. 6
3.3. Searching .......................................................................................................................................... 7
3.4. Screening......................................................................................................................................... 12
3.5. Eligibility......................................................................................................................................... 14
3.6.Limitation ........................................................................................................................................ 17
SECTION 4: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. 18
4.1. Definition of academic profession ................................................................................................. 18
4.2. Academic mobility ......................................................................................................................... 19
4.3. Culture differentiation................................................................................................................... 20
4.4. Model teacher ................................................................................................................................. 23
4.5. Cultural concepts ........................................................................................................................... 23
SECTION 5: DISCUSSION OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................ 25
SECTION 6: CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 27
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 29
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION

The rapid development of the internationalisation in education has been at record high (Hsieh,
2012). Through a global survey implemented by International Association of Universities
(2010), there were 87% of universities in 115 countries include internationalisation on their
comparative strategic plan. The internationalisation has been considered in a wide range of
areas: the mobility of academic, international cooperating in education, brand campus oversea
and the transnational of academic staffs (Caruana, 2009). The more dynamic in international
education results in a huge number of people moving between countries for education purpose.
Highlighted as the fast growing in economic and recognising as the comparative edge of
owning talented individuals, ‘brain drain’ (Lee and Kim, 2010), Asia is seen as a new home
for international education. It has attracted not only student but also a significant level of
visiting academic professors (Yonezawa et al, 2016).

Vietnam where it is considered as a new economic dragon of Asia has not been out of the
trend. Under the supports of the Training and Education Ministry, from 2008, the government
has approved many universities run advanced programs, which is a combination of advanced
curriculum imported from foreign partner in the top 200 developed education systems and
requirement modules as academic regulation to Vietnamese student for the purpose of
supplying high quality human resources for Vietnam labour market (government information,
2008). The program is taught in English with participating of foreign partners in term of
providing curriculum and academic professors. As the mean to reach the target of building an
intercultural learning environment in Vietnam universities, the government encourages the
increase of the power of internationalisation in the program by supplying scholarship for
international students and recruiting foreign lecturers from all over the world. The program has
been successful applied thus far. Until 2017, there were seventeen agreements in international
academic cooperation signed by Vietnam Training and Education Ministry and twenty more
advanced programs running (Vy, 2018). According to the statistic information from
universities, it has been recorded a continuous growing in the number of international
academic staffs come to Vietnam for businesses which included visiting professors and

1
researchers. In the year between 2016 – 2017, there were 3124 of academic professionals who
participated in the Vietnam education system. The high level of professional travelled to
Vietnam presents the more mobility in Vietnam academic but also raises an issue of conflict in
culture. As a non-English-speaking country, learning in English seem to be the most
challenging to Vietnamese students in understanding lecturers. The problem of language
barrier and cultural differences might affect students abilities to engage in lectures, which
might lead to a lack of understanding of lectures materials and ultimately results in poor
performance of their grades. This paper aims to identify the affect of cultural context to the
relationship between lecturers and students, the work is designed to explore the following
objectives:

To identify what culture dimension has the most impact in the learning relationship between
Vietnamese students and international lecturers.

To clarify what action should be taken to reduce ineffectiveness of intercultural and improve
the culture adaption of Vietnamese students and lecturers.

In the next sections, background of relevant concepts would introduce the definitions of
international education concept which are mentioned in the research, the theory of culture
dimension – Hall (1976) and Hofstede (1983). The paper is based on the analysis and finding
of previous researches, the scope of the research, research method and limitations that met
while searching data will be explained in detail in methodology part. In term of literature
review, the work provides a full explanation about the development of academic mobility,
applying Kim and Locke’s (2010) framework to identify academic movement type, Hall and
Hofstede’s model for the influence of culture in communication. The recommendation will be
suggested in the discussion of literature review part. At the finally chapter, it would summarize
the significant content of the paper, highlight key issues and provide area for further research.

SECTION 2: BACKGROUND OF RELEVANT CONCEPTS

2
With a dramatic growth of international institutions worldwide, there were nearly 1000
international school in existence since estimated in 1989 by Matthews and it was agreed by
others scholars for the rapid development of international institutions in the present. As stated
by Willis and Enloe (1990, p175), students who graduated from international schools would be
highly source after by universities and employers. The view predicted a rapid growth of
international school all over the world. In the earliest researches, international schools have
been defined as a place where it was established for the learning purposes of children whose
parent worked for multinational companies or international organization and movement
between countries was a part of their job (Murphy, 1991, p.1). Later, the school extended their
international characteristic to both students and staffs (Chesworth and Dawe, 2000). Presently,
the international school expanded their capacity to serve both international students and local
students (Leach, 1969 and Terwilliger, 1972). Despite many changes occured in international
school, generally, international education or international institution are set up for promoting
“internationally-minded value” (Hayden, 2006) and intercultural learning environment for
students. Supporting for this idea, Hill (2006) divided international school into four types
based on the cultural experiences of students and the learning programs of the school, they
included: “national school abroad and national programme of home country; national school in
home country and international programme; international school and international programme;
international school and national programme of one or more countries” (Hayden, 2006). This
research paper would focus on the second and the last school types that are most popular in
Vietnam.

The more international schools, the more mobility in academic. Due to the high demand of
international cooperation in response to global problems after the Second World War (Hayden
and Thompson, 1995), and encouraged by Scanlon (1960) about developing the concept of
‘the promotion of mutual understanding among nations, education assistance to undeveloped
regions, cross-culture education, and international communications’ which was first founded
in 1942, academic mobility was described the exchange program of teachers and student to
undeveloped countries for supporting their education systems (Fraser & Brickman, 1968, p.1).
In 2003, the definition of academic mobility was considered with migrant (Hoffman, 2005). It
was defined as moving geographically between countries of an individual or group of people
for personal interesting of settling short-term or long-term in a new country rather than their

3
own (The International Organization for Migration, 2003, p8). Based on this definition,
international students were considered as the main focus of academic mobility but the rapid
increase of international schools in South East Asia (Yonezawa et. al., 2016), academic staffs
also contributed significantly to the mobile of education. It has made a change in academic
profession concept which would be explained in the literature. Consolidate for the
development of ‘internationally mobile academics’ (Scott, 2015, p.57), Kim and Locked
(2010) provided a category of international study which researched on both students and
teachers.

Providing a learning environment for international students, natural, international schools offer
a mixture culture, a sharing culture values within students and between students and teacher.
Besides benefits of achieving culture experiences, the differentiation in cultural background
could be a barrier in communication, especially in the relationship of students and lecturers.
Popov et al (2012) noted that people could not always gain advantages from culturally
divergent values caused by the differences in rules, norms or the role of clarity. Gudykunst
(1998) mentioned the only effective way to interpret a message was through communication.
But culture influences communication rules which could lead to different expectations within
individuals in conversation. To explain how culture could affect to people behavior in
communicating, the concept of high-, low-context system and time perspective (Hall, 1976)
and cultural dimension (Hofstede, 1983) has been applied in this paper.

SECTION 3: METHODOLOGY

This research paper will concentrate on culture factors which influence the learning process
between local students and international lecturers. To achieve the research objective, it could
be said that research methodology got an important part of this paper. Research methodology
focuses on the way researcher search, organize and conduct information to solve the question
which is raised in the work.

4
According to Gough et al (2017), beside undertake a new research, it is importance to
understand existing researches to discover of ‘what is known’ and how they develop in present
day. The way of finding primary research and analysis them is called systematic review which
is defined “a review of existing research using explicit, accountable rigorous research
methods” (Gough et al, 2017, p2). In the real, there are many excellent researches as well as
health literatures published but on the other hands, there appears of various studies that are
limited in concept or methodological or old with the time. Doing a systematic review helps
scholars to identify the relevant research, check the reliable of the information, eliminate
studies that are unsuitable with the research problem and set up systematically a range of
researches which could support them to address research issues.

Staring at the view of culture diversity, the research would go further to study the influence of
culture into relationship between foreign lecturers and students.

3.1. Scoping

With purpose of identity the connection between cultural factor to learning process of students
and international lecturers, all content of this dissertation is for answering the following
questions:

1. How does culture affect local students in learning with international lecturers?

2. What actions could be taken by international lecturers to improve student’s learning

performance in international schools?

This dissertation will look up information, theories and frameworks in the scope of culture
diversity, academic mobility and transnational academic mobility which are followed the
conceptual below

Academic mobility
5
 Culture exchange

Intercultural
learning
environment

Local students
and
3.2. Planning international
lecturers

Related to the research questions that are set up, the information would focus on four objects
as followings:

Academic mobility: in most of previous researches, the concept of academic mobility tends to
work on the mobile of international students, study aboard activity. However, in the term of
this dissertation, I would like to expand the research area in academic staffs, exchanging of
lecturer in short-term movement, the change of academic professional definition. The research
would identify concepts, moving trend of transnational academic mobility.

Culture change: In a globalization world, the word of multicultural is being popular more than
ever. It could be found in many fields of life but in the topic of this dissertation, the culture
change will be discussed in the scale of international education, in more detail, the work would
look for the effectiveness of culture to studying.

Students: student’s learning performance is usually used as a measure to evaluate the effective
of a program as well as teaching quality of teacher (Jahr, Schomburg, and Teichler, 2002). In
the concept of intercultural, it should be counted culture as a factor which influenced the
evaluation. This research would not do search on the adaption of student to culture change but
focus on how different in adjusting student’s assessment and communication with
international lecturers caused by the differentiation in culture perspective.

6
International lecturers: As one of the object who is driven by intercultural environment, I
would like to study how academic professor could adapt the culture differentiation, what
barriers could occur, especially in the relationship with local students.

This research paper is based on the secondary data from previous researches. The study uses
existing theories as an initial framework then applying it in the reality to find out the potential
problems.

Research design: The study is researched by qualitative research method which investigates
deeply the meaning of cultural factor in an intercultural academic environment and its relation
to learning process between local students and international lecturers.

Electronic database: The information and previous studies are collected by searching journals
and academic articles on Summon and Google scholar.

Key words: For the aim of the research paper related to international education and culture, the
key words used include international education, managing culture different in international
school, adapting culture, academic mobility.

Time frame: Academic mobility concept has been researched since 1969 by Perkin but it has
just been developed in the twenty-first century, therefore, time frame will be from 2000 to
present.

3.3. Searching

The information has been searched following the research areas which are listed in the
scooping section

Research result
No. Research area
Book Journal Report Web source

7
 Academic
1 2 32 2 2
mobility

2 Culture exchange - 7 - -

Intercultural
3 learning - 8 - -
environment
Local students and
4 International - 1 - -
lecturers

Relationship between students

and international lecturers
Intercultural learning
Academic mobility

Culture change
Development

environment
Application
Original

Study

Adler, N.J. (2002) x x

Akiyoshi Yonezawa, Hugo Horta and Aki

x x x x
Osawa (2016)

Atwater, M., & Riley, J. P. (1993) x x

Balasooriya, C., Asante, A., Jayasinha, R.,

x x x
& Razee, H. (2014)

8
Benavot, A., Erbes-Seguin, S. and Gross,
x x
S. (2005)

Berry, J. W. (2005) x x

Carmo. M, Goncalves. A. C, Cruz. R,

x x x
Martins. J. M . (2018)

Carroll, J. (2015) x x x x

Carroll, J., Carroll, J., & Ryan, J.

x x x x
(2005:2007)

Caruana, V. (2009) x x

CEC. (2007) x x

Chen, Q (2017:2016) x x x x

Chesworth, N. and Dawe, A. (2000) x x

Chu. H-N. R, Lee. W. S, and Obrien. P.W.

x x
(2017)

Cummings, W. (1996) x x x

Dervin, F., Dervin, F., & Dervin, F. (2011) x x

Djursaa, M. (1994) x x x

Fahey, J., & Kenway, J. (2010). x x

Fraser, S.E. & Brickman, W.W. (1968) x x x

9
Green, W., & Myatt, P. (2011) x x x

Gu, Q, & Schweisfurth, M. (2006) x x x x

Gudykunst, W. B. (1998) x x

Hall ET. (1976) x x

Hassard, J. (2000) x x

Hayden, M. (2006) x x x x x

Hayden, M.C, & Thompson, J.J. (1995) x x

He. L and Wilkins. S (2017) x x x

Henkel, M. (2005) x x

Hill, I. (2006) x x x x

Hoffman, D. (2005) x x

Hoffman. M. D. (2009) x x

Hofstede, G. (1980) x x

Hofstede, G. (2001) x x

Holtbrugge. D, Weldon. A and Rogers. H.

x x
(2012)

10
Hsieh, H. (2012) x x x

Hutchison, C. B., & Bailey, L. M.

x x x
(2006:2007)
International Organization for Migration.
x x
(2003)
Jahr, V., Schomburg, H., and Teichler. U.
x x
(2002)

Jons. H. (2015) x x

Kim, T. (2010) x x

Kim, T., & Locke, W. (2010) x x x

Kirpitchenko, L. (2014) x x

Kreber, C., & Hounsell, J. (2014) x x x

Luxon, T., & Peelo, M. (2009) x x x

Nilemar, K, & Brown, L. (2017) x x x

Otten. M. (2009) x x x

Paige, R. M., & Mestenhauser, J. (1999) x x x

Petzold, K., & Bucher, H. (2018) x x

Scott. P. (2015) x x

11
Shakirova, A. A., & Alexeevna, V. R.
x x
(2016)

Shattock (2014) x x x

Slough-Kuss, Y. (2014) x x x

Toyoda, E., & Chia, K. (2013). x x x

Ward. C, Kus. L (2012) x x

Xu, Y., Fu, H., Ma, J., & Trussell, H. J.

x x x
(2015)
3.4. Screening

During searching researches and literature using keywords noted in the plaining section, there
are studies not related to the topic of this research. The table below recorded the elimination
works based on their title or abstract which did not focus on the objective of this research
paper.

No. Author Title Abstract

It suggests the way to balance

Berry, J. W. Acculturation: living work and life of international
1
(2005) successfully in two cultures academic staffs when living in a
new country.

12

Tools for Teaching in an
2 Carroll, J. (2015)
Educationally Mobile World
It introduces the changes of
teaching method in academic
mobility, suggest new methods
to adapt the development of the
world

Globalization and
Chen, Q transnational academic
3
(2017:2016) mobility: The experiences of
chinese academic returnees

The research provide the view

Dervin, F., Analysisng the consequences
of disadvantages caused by the
4 Dervin, F., & of academic mobility and
migration of academic mobility
Dervin, F. (2011) migration
trend.
Telling tales: a narrative
The work present the
research study of the
Green, W., & experiences of new academic
5 experiences of new
Myatt, P. (2011) staffs in general in a different
international academic staff
cultural working environment
at an Australian university

Talent Mobility and the

6 Jons. H. (2015) Shifting geographies of
Latourian Knowledge Hubs

The study describes the trend of

transnational academic
Transnational academic
mobility. The changes of
7 Kim, T. (2010) mobility, knowledge and
government policies in term of
identity capital
encouraging international
education.

13
 Being an international
The paper discuss the migrant
academic: a
Kreber, C., & flow of academic in Scotland,
phenomenological study of
8 Hounsell, J. suggest solution for students of
academic migrants adjusting
(2014) how to balance the working life
to working and living in
and living
Scotland

Paige, R. M., & The paper focus on the role of

Internationalising
9 Mestenhauser, J. globalization in administration
educational administration.
(1999) staff at international education

Shakirova, A. A.,
Linguistic barriers to
10 & Alexeevna, V.
academic mobility
R. (2016)

3.5. Eligibility

No. Researcher Journal Reasons for excluding

1 Balasooriya, C., Academic mobility and The journal analysis the

Asante, A., migration: Reflections of experiences of academic staffs
Jayasinha, R., & international academics who are migrated in Australia.
Razee, H. (2014) in Australia. However, this research paper
would like to focus on academic
mobility in short-term under the
form of guest lecturer rather than

14
 long-term employee.

2 Chu. H-N. R., Lee. Student satisfaction in an It focused on the satisfaction of

W. S., and Obrien. Undergraduate local and international student in
P. W. (2017) International Business learning English medium program,
EMI program: A Case in the communication and cultural
Southern Taiwan. adaption between student. But the
work has not evaluated the effect
of cultural in relation of
international lecturer, it tend to
research students ability which is
not the objective of this research
paper.
3 Fahey, J., & International academic It explained the definition of ‘brain
Kenway, J. (2010). mobility: Problematic drain’, ‘talent wars’, the
and possible paradigms attractiveness of gaining high skill
employee. It pointed out the
problems of academic mobility in
national level rather than in an
organisation which this paper
supposed to work on. Futhermore,
the article considered the effect of
government on international
education through migration
policy which are out the area that
we would like to toward.
4 He. L. and Achieving Legitimacy in The study pointed out of the view
Wilkins. S. (2017) Cross-Border Higher of brand campus cross national.

15
 Education: Institutional
influences on Chinese
International Branch
campuses in South East
Aisa.
5 Kirpitchenko, L. Locating
(2014) cosmopolitanism within
academic mobility.
6 Petzold, K., & The academic mobility
Bucher, H. (2018) regime: Analysing
perceptions of students
and academic staff
7 Toyoda, E., & Turning a disparate
Chia, K. (2013). Asian language
classroom into a
desirable environment for
intercultural learning
beneficial to all students.
But in this research paper, we
would like to discuss about
international school in their own
country, the conflict of national
culture and intercultural
environment.
The work address the flow of
academic mobility nowadays. The
successful of sharing knowledge
by the mobile of scholars but not
mentioned the side impact of
culture in providing knowledge
process
The research investigated the
impact of the concept mobility
regime on international students
and academic staff. The journal
counted the influent of several
factor included technology, school
facility lecturer not in term of
culture context only.
The article described the
communication of Asian students
and non-Asian students in term of
learning Chinese and Japanese
which are not main language
discussed in the form international
school that mentioned in this
research paper.
16
8 Ward. C, Kus. L Back to beyond Berry’s
(2012) basics: The
conceptualization,
operationalization and
classification of
acculturation.
The research paper discusses the
original Berrys concept and its
development. It considers the
cultural context in term of
acculturation and adaption of New
Zealand immigration who are not
the subject of this research.
Moreover, this study investigates
of relationship between
international lecturers and students
rather than the relationship
between cultural differences and
immigration academic groups.

3.6.Limitation

Object: During searching for information, it was released there is a limited research focus on
international lecturers, most of studies take concern about international students and culture
factor effect to their life while study aboard. These works concern for the migrant of talent
individual for a long time, at least one year rather than a short-term exchange.

Research level: At the education level of the research, authors intend to higher education
rather than undergraduate level that this dissertation supposes to investigate.

Research area: With a long history of education and having an advanced learning system,
western countries are the idea destination for movement of academic. It is also the reason that
there are a lot of studies for the west and there are just few journals taken in South Asia,
especially Vietnam. Contributing a thousand international students for western universities,
China is concerned the second place for scholars to do research. Fortunately, with a similarly
in culture, China case could be used as a relevant example for Vietnam case study.

17
SECTION 4: LITERATURE REVIEW

4.1. Definition of academic profession

Following globalisation and “globalised knowledge societies” strategy (Yonezawa et. al., p.44,
2016) which achieving talented individuals have been seen as a comparative advantage, there
are more and more countries are concerned with investing in human resources. First of all,
education is the objective of investment. It has been approved by a lot of studies which
indicated that many Asian values evaluated education with a high perspective, willing to
enhance learning to higher education and support the expansion of education institutions; Asia
human capital is considered at high level in both quantity and quality (Cumming, 1996).
According to Yonezawa et. al. (2016), the development in education cooperation has created a
new concept of academic profession (Shattock 2014; Teichler, Arimoto, and Cummings 2013).
Looking back into history, there were many scholars who conducted researches to define the
word ‘academic profession’. The most popular work belongs to Perkin (1969) and has been
argued by Shattock (2014), these authors stated that the academic professions related to a
common responsible professional tasks, they were defined by the characteristics of the
organisation that employed them, “a membership-led organisation” (Yonezawa et. al., p.46,
2016). This idea suggested that the academic profession is set up by the concept of traditions
and practices of the differentiation between higher education systems (Yonezawa et. al., 2016).
The definition of the academic profession is mentioned in their duties and limited in a single
institution rather than the mobility of academic. The terms of transnational academic mobility
are not discussed in history (Kim and Locke, 2010). Later, due to the development of
acknowledge economy, there is an increasing of “the external governance of higher education”
(Shattock, 2014). Considered as a part of international institution, and based on the nature of
international schools, the definition of academic profession could not be viewed in a single
organisation, Slough-Kuss (2014) claimed it is impossible for international school to operate
in isolation. Furthermore, because of the extension of academic role, it was re-examined by
18
Williams (2008). The new definition is concerned in mix social processes within the
communities rather than a single one as in the past (Henkel, 2005). It has been noted that
academics identity has considered in term of ‘the centre of scholarly mobility dynamics’
(Welsh and Hao, 2015). Teichler, Airmoto and Cummings (2013) separated the academic
profession into two main trends: the inherent language and the traditional in culture of national
higher education but other authors such as Marmolejo-Leyva, Perez-Angon, and Russell
(2015) took a further look. They accounted that the academic profession has been affected
along many pathways and might be influenced by “geopolitical structural changes”
(Yonezawa et. al., 2016). The academic now is considered in the mobility and the connections
with others institutions.

4.2. Academic mobility

The mobility characteristic of academic has been recognised since late of 20th or earlier 21st
century, scholars and scientists are objectives that are always mobile and more developed
today (Scott, 2015). Nowadays, the transnational academic mobility not only includes
international students but it also looked at wider on academic professional (Kim and Locke,
2010) and academic staffs (Scott, 2015). The modern trend of the academic staff mobility
move toward the dynamic of education through exchange talents staff or short-term contract,
there are more and more recruitment of mobile ‘stars’; or the establishment of brand campus,
building partnership between universities (Scott, 2015). Follow these researchers – Kim and
Locke (2010), the study of mobility is divided into three categories: self-contained which
concerns the movement of academic staff from learning to employing within a national higher
education, study aboard means movement of an individual to external environment for
upgrading education level before re-entering institution. The last type is magnetic, which
defined the moving flow of academic to another national higher education system with the
purpose of studying, working or both. If the United State and UK represent for self-contained
concept which provide a developed higher education system attracting various individuals to
learn and work, Korean and Mexican are examples of overseas learners; meanwhile, Hong

19
Kong and South East Asia depict a magnetic type (Kim and Locke, 2010). As a result of the
academic mobility, teaching is no longer limited by countries borders, instead of using only
local lecturers, governments are encouraging exchanging in knowledge through inviting
foreign professors or hiring international academic staffs to work for international schools.
Recognising the importance of ‘brain drain’ and the influence of transnational academic
mobility to European Research, the European Research Council’s Green Papar, The European
Research Area: New Perspective (CEC, 2007) highlighted that “a key challenge for Europe is
to train, retain and attract more competent researchers” (CEC, 2007, p.10-11). Furthermore,
the European Strategic Forum on Research Infrastructures (ESFRI) suggests that it should be
made a ‘network of excellence’ by co-orperating between businesses and other stake holders
inside and outside nationally which exchange specialists beyond the national boundaries of
academic interests (Benevot et al, 2005). Kim and Locke (2010) assert that political and
economic forces are factors that drive transnational academic mobility, decide the boundaries
and direction of the movement flows. The new policy brought advantages for the adaption new
knowledge of countries but the gap in the culture caused side effects.

4.3. Culture differentiation

Kim and Locke (2010) noted that cultural factors could be considered as one of the issues that
might be ‘beyond the control’ of organisations. It is noted that student could get a culture
dilemma when misunderstanding things explained by a lecturer (Cortazzi and Jun, 1997).
Carroll et al (2005) expressed the reason of misunderstanding each other could be from
different expectations which are driven by cultural contexts. Globalisation in academic
mobility of international schools would be relevant to hybrid cultures that are concerned in
unstable combinations (Scott, 2015). Furthermore, Roth (1993) stated that learning was a
combination of ‘language, behavior and other culturally determined patterns of
communication’. The Western supposes talking is the way to connect people thinking which is
not agreed in the East (Carroll, 2005). The term of interaction between teacher and learner is
influenced by a wide range of interrelated values and awareness which are shaped by cultural

20
mind concept of the teaching and learning environment (Gu and Schweisfurth, 2006).
Agreeing with this idea, Wenger (1999) confirmed the social and culture structure will drive
participation and commitment of learning. An educational system covers the pure cultural
values of its own national through teaching language, curriculum or evaluation system (Otten,
2009). Educational organisations and individuals in their organisations have to negotiate with
“heterogeneous identities and cultural order” (William, 2005). Additionally, according to Hall
(1976), the researcher defined Vietnam as well as other Asian countries as high context level,
polychromic cultures (P-time) that contrast to Western cultures. This differentiation would
make conflict and misunderstanding between foreign lecturers and students. Moreover, on the
side of international lecturers, culture diversity makes them have to balance between their own
native culture and the scientific culture. In reality, it is difficult to adapt their cultural
perspective to the local teaching context (Hutchinson & Bailey, 2006). In the context of
intercultural, culture shock is a normal phenomenon. It is described as a process of adjustment
in an unfamiliar environment where individuals move in but unsure about what should be
expected from people surrounding and, in reverse (Pedersen, 1995, p.1). The idea has been
done by many scholars about the culture effect to international students, however, in reality,
academic staffs should be considered as another objective who has been affected (Luxon and
Peelo, 2009). Specially in the case of Vietnam where the education system is completely
opposite with the ‘West’, the impact of culture appears in the both sides – students and
lecturers, this content would be explained in more details the next part – model teacher in
Vietnam education system. As the matter of fact, Gu and Schweisfurth (2006) showed an
example of the cultural adaption of British specialist in China universities and Chinese
students in UK environment. These authors have confirmed culture as an issue which directly
effect to the way of accommodate knowledge. While British teachers feel that they are using
the wrong teaching method and find it difficult to communicate with local colleagues or
students, Chinese students in the UK are finding it difficult to follow lessons given by British
teacher. ‘Learning shock’, ‘language difficulty’, ‘not sure about the learning tradition in the
UK’ are common comments when Chinese students are asked about studying aboard in the
UK (Gu and Schweisfurth, 2006). Because of sharing the same cultural context, Vietnamese
students also get similar pressure when learning with international lecturers, as finding a
common voice is quite challenging. “Cultural blindness causes problems by confusing the

21
recognition of culturally based differences with the judging of those differences” (Adler, 2002,
p.107). Therefore, it is necessary to underline the differentiation caused by the difference in
sociocultural context, possess ‘way of knowing’ between groups, which in this case means
teachers and learners (Reagan, 2000, p.2). Digging deeper in researching of the influence of
culture diversity in international education, Otten (2009) suggested a “typology model of
intercultural orientation international higher education”, the framework divided the
effectiveness of intercultural into four types: stagnation, modification, representation and
transformation. Related to the case of Vietnam international schools where most of programs
are imported from foreign partners, intercultural factors are presented by participating of
international professors, the term of modification is identified as the phenomena for this case.
There appears an individual cultural context but it is governed by the organisation’s culture
and could not change the whole group (Otten, 2009), besides academic lecturers are
considered as people who are ‘deeply conservative’ (Marginson, 2000) and they might be
‘thinking as not usual’ (Yershova, Delaegere, and Mesternhauser, 2000). As a consequent, the
conflict is unavoidable, especially in learning relationship.

On the other hand, the religion mind concept – national cultural thinking affects to learning
organising method of education system. The idea is supported by Roth (1993) stated that in the
range of classroom, learning is a “process of enculturation similar to growing up in a particular
society and learning its sign systems such as language, behaviors, and other culturally
determined patterns of communication”. Moreover, in term of learning, it mentioned the
measurement of evaluation learning process through assessment. Hassard (2000) claimed,
there are a variety of assessment types, and they are decided by the observation and judgment
of teachers while teaching student. In addition, Carroll et al (2005) noted that culture also
informed particular academic writing style of each nation which could not perceived by other
culture background. It raised a concern that cross-cultural elements could be a potential issue.
It is recognized that there is a close relation in the quality, evaluation, and the way that
assessments are set up to the field of a country education, economic and social (Raijbhandari
and Wilmut, 2000). Furthermore, the cultural diversity in the term of education makes an issue
of evaluating student work (Hutchison and Bailey, 2006). Sebatane (2000) noted though
globalisation motivated making standard of grading system in education, intend to

22
homogenisation, assessment has excluded this phenomenon because the technical
measurement of assessment is not operated wider as other factors of education.

4.4. Model teacher

The cultural perspective is regards as an importance factor to build up an image of a model

teacher (Hsieh, 2012). Similar to China, Vietnamese society portray the role of teacher as not
only a knowledge provider but also play the part of a parent, friend, guider, advisor (Gao and
Watkins 2002, Watkins and Biggs 2001). Class is formed in the model of “teacher-centred
classroom” (Carroll et al, 2005) which means Vietnamese teachers take an important role in
the learning process of students at school and get the most power in the class. The idea of
model teacher causes the using of a teaching method of “teacher-centred classroom” (Carroll
et al, 2005) which is the most popular in Asian countries in reverse to Western countries, the
learning is doing by one-way from lecturer to student. That means teachers are provider and
student just adapt them. Because of this method, there is a lack of communication between
teacher and student in building lectures. Vietnam education system intends to focus on
developing memorable ability of student, knowledge is fixed, there is always an answer for
each question and the teachers are answerers. Students may feel frustrated from “independent
learning” rather than being directed by lecturer (Carroll et al, 2005). Meanwhile, Western
culture, especially, the UK higher education encourage students to take up independent
learning, the answer is not always answer conclusive to their own finding, teacher will give
guidance and students have to discover by ourselves to find the answer, knowledge is flexible,
it could be right in some situations and wrong in others (Gu and Schweisfurth, 2006). The
model suggests it is might be one of the reason which called a gap when Vietnamese students
study with international lecturers, while students are looking for the answer, teacher are
expecting them to find ideas.

4.5. Cultural concepts

23
Hofstede (1980, p.25) stated that culture is ‘the collective programming of the mind which
distinguishes the members of one human group from another’. The differentiation in culture
makes people behave differently in the same situation. This idea raised a concern whether
culture factors effect to learning process between international lecture and local students. In
this research, the author would focus on the effective of culture into the education system of
Vietnam international school.

In the work of finding the effectiveness of culture to people’s reaction, anthropologist Edward
Hall (1976) has noted there have been differentiations in the meaning of words which have
been used in conversations. The author provided a system of context meaning in
communication which was called high- and low-context system. Culture perspective defines
communication rules (Nilemar and Brown, 2017), therefore, it would be different in term of
politeness or etiquette in expectations of social behavior related to cultural norms (Matsumoto
and Hwang, 2015). Besides, culture also impacts people time perspective, the concept of M-
time/P-time explained culture affected to the people definition of working time. While people
from monochronic cultures consider time as valuable asset and it should be used effectively,
polychromic cultures see time just a measurement (Hall, 1976). International lecturers who are
most in M-time culture take teaching time seriously and try to provide information as much as
possible, but on the other hands, Vietnamese students who are from polychromic culture prefer
to study slowly, take time to remember knowledge rather than practice it immediately. In
1983, Hofstede carried out the research about the five dimensions of culture including power
distance, individualism, and collectivism, uncertain avoidance, masculinity/femininity and
long-, short-term orientation. Put it into the education context, the research would concern the
dimension of power distance and uncertain avoidance (Carroll et al, 2005). Vietnamese
students who are in high power distance culture speak only when invited (Hofstede, 1986,
p.313), keeping silence is normal, individual contribution rarely happen which opposed to
Western lecturer’s teaching method. This widen the gap of expectation of both sides, as
lecturers expect student’s contribution and creativity; while student expect lecturer to provide
the answer. Asking questions in class put student in the middle of crown which might make
they feel they are ‘losing face’ (Carroll et al, 2005). Additionally, due to large uncertainty

24
avoidance perspective, student has an extremely high requirement of knowing to ‘correct’
answers (Carrol et al, 2005). As a result, the character of the country’s culture made a barrier
in communication between teachers and students who are from another culture background.
Moreover, Shimanoff (1980, p.57) suggested communication can be seen as ‘a followable
prescription that indicates what behavior (interaction) is obligated, preferred or prohibited in
certain context’. Therefore, in the communication, the way people react and the technique
which is used would establish concepts of ‘meaning, thinking, feeling and acting’ (Nilemar &
Brown, 2017). Consequently, the different in meaning has made misunderstanding in
communication. For the relationship between students and international lecturers, the
misunderstanding could affect to the learning performance of students as well as outcomes that
international school intends to create.

SECTION 5: DISCUSSION OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW

This research paper considers the effectiveness of cultural values into the relationship between
students and lecturers. Following the hidden culture model, Hall (1967) pointed out cultural
mind could affect the way people communicating, working and thinking. Therefore, it need
time for recognising cultural changes, acknowledge the cultural awareness as well as preparing
adaption of the changes (Hofstede, 2001). According to Hall (1959), despite of challenges
caused by the differentiation in culture, it also provides a chance to “critical self-reflection and
self-awareness, strategic adaption and consequently professional and personal growth”
(Schweisfurth and Gu, 2006, p.87) which are valuable skills to work in intercultural
environment. The awareness and adaption process should be done on both side of students and
lecturers.

For the term of lecturers, they should have a research in culture norm of students to understand
“the motivations and need of particular groups” (Schweisfurth and Gu, 2006, p88). More
importantly, teacher should be self-reflection, find out the differentiation and do some
modifications in their teaching method to achieve the learning objective. Agreeing with this

25
view, Atwater and Riley (1993) commented that when moving into new culture, teacher’s
approaches should be revised and conscious of changes and practices as needed (Schon, 1983)

On the side of students, learning in an unfamiliar environment like hybrid culture make
misunderstanding and conflict becoming unavoidable. To reduce the impact of culture shock,
pre-study about culture diversity is necessary.

Moreover, in the ‘Model of a learning environment for international education’, Thomson

(1998) argued that cultural diversity has not been only effected to students and lecturers but
also other stakeholders of the school included: students, teachers, parent and school board.
Slough-Kuss (2014) stated that cultural diversity impacted directly to school policies such as
‘administration, recruitment, enrollment, language and professional development’. So besides
promoting international mindedness (Slough-Kuss, 2014), the administration board of the
school should take responsible to support students and lecturers to adapt. First of all, language
is seen as the first barrier in communicating with people from other culture. The meaning of
message could be different during translating, especially with people from high-context system
as Vietnamese. The truly meaning is hidden under the way of choosing word which is more
challenging when using foreign language (Hall, 1976). “Teaching-in-English is a challenge for
both lecturers and students in non-English-speaking countries” (Xu et al, 2015). Hayden
(2006) also emphasized agreed the importance of providing an English-medium education for
non-native speakers in international schools. In the case Vietnam international school, it is
essential to organise English course for student in the beginning of the program. In fact, all of
international institutions in Vietnam have designed an English module which is mandatory for
all applicants. However, each school has different chosen of English level among various
options such as TOEIC, IELTS or TOEFL and so on. As there is not a single standard of
English requirement entry level for all study programs, it makes it difficult to for student apply
for higher education in different country. Go along with language course, culture orientation
should be provided at the same time. This class acts a preparation step for student before
learning with international lecturers, which aim to minimise the level of misunderstanding
caused by language barrier. Secondly, curriculum and syllabus are another matter. As
mentioned above, culture mindedness would drive national education system, curriculum will
reflect the characteristic of culture. For further development of international education

26
exchange as well as transnational academic mobility, a same or at least similar curriculum
system is required (Xu et al, 2015). By this way, it could be easier for student in transferring
process without any gap or repeating module. Using a common curriculum helps lecturer to
avoid the impact of the education system difference. Thirdly, grading standard plays key role
in the learning process evaluation. In present, grade is considered as the only measure to
estimate how student perform. In Asian culture, where education perceive a high respect
(Cumming, 1996), grade become more important than ever, reflecting student ability and
guide direction for the future. Building a general grading system is a way to decrease the
influence of cultural values, motivate student when learning and show a equality in evaluating
student’s performance. Finally, finding a common voice for lecturer and student is the last
purpose. It is suggested that responding survey is the most effective solution. For example, as
doing at International school of Vietnam Maritime University, surveys are used to record all
student comment for each modules, it includes challenges met by student during learning and
provide recommendation for improvement. From information provided from the survey,
school board could do some improvements in learning program as well as teaching method.

Nowadays, international education is viewed as a kind of business, international school has no

longer been driven by governance faculty but also has the participation of non-governmental
organisations but government still keep orientation role (Marshall, 2007). Agreeing with this
idea, developed from the framework of Thompson (1998), Schwindt (2003) added “specially
explores the role of host country nationals…in supporting the promotion of international
mindedness” (p.67). In the strategy for global education, there is a message from UK
government which is sent to schools, suggest that it should be including global dimension in
the school curriculum, the essential of creating a cross-curricular international (Marshall,
2007).

SECTION 6: CONCLUSION

The study has shed a light on the challenges caused by culture different in learning
relationship between international lecturer and Vietnamese student. This research paper
investigated the matter by analysis scientific studies and literatures. The information has been

27
searched by using the systematic methodology which review systematically healthy literatures.
By express the topic of the research paper, the issue has been separated into particular
objectives and set up a concept of searching scope. Selection and elimination researches has
been done by a category of inclusion criteria based on addressing the study objective. The
exclusion of literature was implemented into three steps. Firstly, the information was collected
by searching in key words, used two electronic data bases which are Summon and Google
Scholar. Secondly, the found works have been eliminated by screening title or abstract. In
finally, by reading full content, the articles would be excluded if it did not match with the
objective of this research or there appeared difference research matter out of the research area
of this study.

Through the research, it highlighted the global trend of academic mobility, the movement flow
of international education and their effect to Vietnam education system. Done by the previous
researches, the object of movement has been expanded to academic staffs, the number is
increasingly equal with the number of international students and established a new type of
academic mobility – magnetic (Kim and Locke, 2010). A development in cross border
teaching revised the definition of academic profession, upgraded in global level. It also
approved for a high connection of international institutions (Slough-Kuss, 2014). Instead of
concern in a single education system, the new idea now is researched in international level.

But it is always difficult to find a common voice between teacher and student, especially under
the barrier of language and culture values. Scholars proved the influence of culture in term of
misunderstand in communication (Hall, 1976), the idea of model teacher in different national
culture perspective (Hsieh, 2011) and differently in setting student’s assessment as well as
marking (Yonezawa et al, 2016). All findings show challenges of student to adapt new
teaching method and on the side of lecturer is the adaption of ‘culture shock’ (Pedersen, 1995,
p.1).

To resolve the problem, beside opening cultural mindedness (Slough-Kuss, 2014) of teachers
and students, the actions of school keep an important role. It is essential to provide student pre-
class of language and cross-culture management. Build a standard of English requirement to
measure understanding of knowledge lecturer provided. In organization level, it is suggested
the creativity of global curriculum and grading system. These standards make easier for

28
student to transfer to higher education, fairer in evaluating student’s work, avoiding ‘authority’
(Gu and Schweisfurth, 2006).

In researching the relationship of culture to learning process of student and international

lecturer, the paper has only concerned into the connection of student and lecturer. But
following to Thompson (1998) and Schwindt (2003), it should be accounted the role of other
stake holders such school board, parent and host country’s orientation. Further, the work has
just mentioned the necessary of adaption, lacked of finding motivation for the changes.

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