Plant Automation Services, Inc.

16055 Space Center Blvd, Suite 600

Houston, Texas 77062
(281) 286-6565
(281) 286-6767

NOX Control

 2001 Plant Automation Services

 NOX Control
Abstract
This document provides an overview for control of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions for fired process heaters or boilers utilizing
External Flue Gas Recirculation (EFGR), Induced Flue Gas Recirculation (IFGR), Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) or
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) technology. There are several configuration options for each technology that provide adequate
NOx reduction. The equipment design and control philosophy is based on the requirements for NOx control, equipment limitations,
and operational aspects. While this document can not encompass every possible design, it is intended to provide basic information for
control of NOx emissions from fired process heaters and boilers that use EFGR, IFGR, SNCR, or SCR technologies.

NOx emission reduction is required by government regulations, therefore NOx control is essential for maintaining compliance. As a
competing industry it is also important that NOx reduction is cost effective in terms of implementation and operational costs.
Automation to control NOx emissions serves both of these criteria by ensuring NOx emissions meet regulations and the system is
optimized to reduce operating costs.

Background
NOx emission reduction is an issue for industry because both state and federal government regulate the emissions from industrial
plants. The federal governing body that is driving state agencies to bring air quality to a designated level is the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Each state is given authority by the EPA to develop and implement plans to reach and maintain a minimum
air quality standard. In Texas, this state body is the Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission (TNRCC). In Louisiana, the
state body is the Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ). The state is given the authority to prosecute individuals and companies
that do not follow the regulations in Title 40 in the Code of Federal Regulations (40 CFR).

Two federal documents affect industry for NOx and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions, the Clean Air Act (CAA) and the New Source
Performance Standards (NSPS). These regulations are forcing industry to reduce NOx emissions for both existing and new
installations of fired process heaters and boilers.

As the result of the Clean Air Act, the EPA initiated the Acid Rain Program to reduce emissions of NOx and SO2. The Acid Rain
Program sets targeted emission limits for NOx and SO2 in terms of pounds per year and pounds per Btu fired. The program provides
for trading of emission credits and a tracking system. Phase I began in 1995 which impacted 263 plants, 110 were coal burning electric
utility plants. An additional 182 plants joined Phase I of the program as substitution or compensating units. Phase II of the program
began in the year 2000, and tightens the annual emission limits on large, high emitting plants, and sets restrictions on smaller plants
that use coal, oil, and gas for fuel. Phase II encompasses over 2,000 units.

Although heater or boiler operations can be adjusted to reduce NOx formation, to reach the new emission standards consistently
additional technology is required. There are two basic approaches to reduce NOx emissions: prevention of NOx formation in the
firebox, or removal of NOx in the flue gas. Generally, a combined approach is necessary to meet regulations.

NOx Control 2 © 2000 Plant Automation Services

 NOx Generation and Emission Reduction
NOx Emissions from combustion sources are caused primarily by the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen in the reaction shown in
Equation 1.

Equation 1: NOx Formation Reaction

2N2 + 3O2 Æ 2NO + 2NO2

This reaction takes place during the combustion of fuel in the presence of air. The kinetics of the reaction yields about 80 percent NO,
and the remaining NOx is mostly NO2.

There are two broad categories of technology used to reduce NOx emissions. The first approach implemented in industry is to prevent
the formation of NOx during combustion. The second and more expensive approach eliminates NOx after it has been formed. A
summary of the basic technologies is below.

• NOx Prevention – Prevents formation of NOx during the combustion process.

• Low-NOx Burners – 40 to 60 percent reduction to about 75 ppm - Stages in the burner have a zone of gas rich
combustion to prevent NOx formation and another zone to complete combustion.
• External Flue Gas Recirculation – 50 to 75 percent reduction to approximately 50 ppm - Reinjection of the flue gas
into the flame reduces the concentration of oxygen and reduces NOx formation.
• Induced Flue Gas Recirculation – 70 to 80 percent reduction to about 20 ppm - Injection of flue gas with air into a
Low-NOx burner.
• Water/Steam Injection – 80 percent reduction possible – Reduces flame temperature to reduce NOx formation kenetcs.
Expensive due to energy loss.
• NOx Removal – Removes NOx from the flue gas after it is formed.
• SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction) – 90 percent ammonia injection over titanium and vanadium honeycomb shape
catalyst.
• SNCR (Selective Non-catalytic Reduction) – 70 percent reduction – Ammonia (NH3) or urea ((NH2)2CO) injection in
the flue gas.

NOx Prevention
Prevention of NOx formation during the combustion process is the most economical form of NOx emission reduction. The basic
approach is to lower the flame temperature and reduce excess air to prevent NOx formation. Low NOx burners are the most common
application of NOx prevention in industry. Low NOx burner technology stages the introduction of air or fuel in the burner to reduce
the flame temperature. The design for staging the air or fuel has historically been a self-regulating process that is not automated. The
outside operator uses air registers and fuel registers on the burner to tune combustion between the stages.

As the need for further NOx reductions has been imposed, technologies for External Flue Gas Recirculation (EFGR) and Induced Flue
Gas Recirculation (IFIR) have been used to supplement low NOx burners. These technologies take a portion of the flue gas and
recirculate it with the combustion air to reduce flame temperature by lowering the excess air during combustion. The control strategies
for both designs are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

NOx Control 3 © 2000 Plant Automation Services

Figure 1: External Flue Gas Recirculation Control Scheme

AS
O2

AC
NOx

FC
1

PS
1

TC
1

FC
2

In EFGR, a portion of the flue gas is withdrawn and circulated through a separate fan and injected into the burner. A damper is used to
control the amount of recirculation flow. The maximum NOx removal is limited by the amount of recirculation, which is further
limited by flame stability. The amount of excess oxygen or heater draft may also limit the amount of recirculation.

In IFGR a portion of the flue gas is mixed with the air from the forced draft fan. The flue gas is recirculated from the induced draft fan
and mixed with the combustion air prior to entering the burner. The amount of recirculation is controlled by a damper, and the
recirculated flow is limited by flame stability and combined air/flue gas temperature.

NOx Control 4 © 2000 Plant Automation Services

Figure 2: Induced Flue Gas Recirculation Control Scheme

AC
O2

AC
NOx

PC
1

FC
10

TC
1

FI
TI
10
20

FC
2

The flue gas is typically withdrawn prior to the air preheater to keep the mixture of the combustion air and flue gas above the dew
point of acids in the flue gas.

Some designs for flue gas recirculation use a combination of flue gas injection into the burner and the combustion air. The control
scheme for this combination is equivalent to combining the control schemes above.

NOx Removal
The NOx removal strategies that have been effectively used by industry are SCR and SNCR technologies. These technologies can
produce extremely low NOx emission levels, but at a high implementation and raw material cost. The fundamental approach to this
technology is to inject ammonia or urea into the flue gas to convert NOx to nitrogen and water. Urea is selected over ammonia in
some applications because ammonia is poisonous and difficult to handle. The reactions for the conversion are shown in Equations 2, 3
and 4.

NOx Control 5 © 2000 Plant Automation Services

Equation 2: Urea Decomposition
(NH2)2CO + H2O+ HEATÆ 2NH3 + CO2.

Equation 3: NO Conversion
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 Æ 4N2 + 6H2O

Equation 4: NO2 Conversion

2NO2 + 4NH3 + O2 Æ 3N2 + 6H2O

SCR technology uses a catalyst to improve the reaction rate, and SNCR does not use a catalyst. Both technologies mix ammonia or
urea with air and inject the gaseous mixture into the stack. Turbulent flue gas flow in the stack is required to ensure proper mixing of
the reactants. The gaseous mixture is heated prior to injection to ensure the temperature is maintained in the stack to provide activation
energy for the reaction. The basic flow diagram for the process is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Basic SCR and SNCR Process Flow Diagram

FC
Aqueous Ammonia 30

Catalyst for SNCR only

FC
31

Heater

Compressed Air

The presence of oxygen as a reactant is important because NOx conversion kinetics are a function of oxygen concentration. The keys
to optimum performance of these systems are proper temperature, mixing, inlet NOx concentration, ammonia or urea concentration,
and oxygen concentration. Other factors that affect the reaction, particularly with the SCR technology, include the gas volume, amount
of SO2, amount of dust, gas composition, rate of ammonia slip, and water content.

Flue gas volume is important because turbulent flow of the flue gas is required for proper mixing of ammonia or urea. SO2 reacts with
ammonia and urea to decrease NOx conversion. SO2 can generate components that decrease catalyst activity. Dust also decreases
catalyst activity and contributes to plugging.

NOx Control 6 © 2000 Plant Automation Services

These systems are designed for a specific NOx inlet concentration; if the inlet NOx concentration exceeds design, the amount of
conversion will decrease. Other components in flue gas may also decrease conversion by reacting with ammonia or oxygen. Carbon
monoxide (CO) in the flue gas will react to form carbon dioxide (CO2), which consumes the oxygen that is used in the NOx
conversion reactions. The amount of ammonia slip is important because excess ammonia can form ammonia chloride particles in the
stack. Water content is a factor on conversion for some catalysts.

SNCR NOx Control

The control of NOx conversion is based primarily on ammonia flow. Temperature is an important variable that is controlled. Special
logic is used for the control of ammonia or urea to reduce or stop flow for the following conditions:

1. Low flue gas velocity is adequate as measured by stack flow or fuel gas and air flow

2. Carrier air rate is below minimum design rate

3. Stack temperature is outside specified limits and ammonia slippage is not at an acceptable level

SCR NOx Control

The control of NOx conversion again is by the manipulation of ammonia or urea rate, and temperature is an important variable.
Special logic is supplied for the control of ammonia or urea to reduce or stop flow for the following conditions:

1. Low flue gas velocity as measured by either stack flow or fuel gas flow

2. Carrier air rate is below minimum design rate

3. Reactor section is bypassed

4. Temperature is outside specified limits and ammonia slippage is not at an acceptable level

The catalyst for SCR is usually zeolite or a mixture of titanium and vanadium. To optimize these systems NOx removal must be
controlled. NOx removal in excess of the compliance level increases ammonia and catalyst regeneration costs, and inadequate NOx
removal is against regulations. The flue gas temperature in the reaction zone is key to maximum performance. The optimum
temperature to reach maximum conversion must be determined for each SCR system.

NOx Measurement
Flue gas exiting the stack must be monitored per government regulations to ensure emission levels meet performance standards. Two
terms used for emission monitoring are Continuous Emissions Monitoring Systems (CEMS) and Predictive Emissions Monitoring
Systems (PEMS). Regulations specify testing requirements for both types of monitoring for accuracy and availability.

CEMS utilize an analyzer to measure properties of the gas that are related to the gas composition. There are a variety of analyzers that
are used to measure flue gas composition, and the list is growing continuously. The common types of analyzer technology for flue gas
are flame ionization, infrared gas, ultraviolet, paramagnetic, chemiluminescence, and gas chromatography. The technology is
expanding as industrial grade analyzers are developed and as the regulations become more stringent.

PEMS use process-operating measurements such as temperature, pressure, and flow to predict emissions. The prediction of flue gas
composition usually requires non-linear mathematical models to meet the accuracy requirements of the regulations.

Both CEMS and PEMS monitoring systems must be evaluated carefully to select the best monitoring system. PEMS have the ability
to stay on-line continuously, but are limited by the mathematical model. CEMS must be taken off-line periodically for maintenance
and have a high initial investment cost.

The ability of CEMS to monitor emissions is a function of maintenance and service factor. Some analyzers and associated sampling
systems have the capability to automatically calibrate the instrument to ensure the emissions are being monitored accurately. The

NOx Control 7 © 2000 Plant Automation Services

analyzer’s capability to measure the flue gas composition is not typically a function of process conditions. Associated with the high
accuracy, analyzer maintenance, and high service factor is a healthy price.

The ability of a PEMS model to predict emissions is valid for a specified range of operation. Capital projects and process engineers
are continuously improving the operation of process heaters and boilers to expand the capabilities of the operation. If the improvement
pushes the process outside the mathematical model, then the predictive model must be rebuilt and revalidated. Building and validating
the mathematical model requires adjusting the process throughout the entire span of operation. Most state agencies require PEMS
validation at least once per year. The business interruption cost of model maintenance and validation is often overlooked during the
economic evaluation of PEMS.

The emission measurements provided by either CEMS or PEMS can have many different engineering units. The engineering units are
generally parts per million (ppm) based on volume or mass. Adding to the confusion, suppliers of low NOx technology state emissions
in lb/MM Btu fired on a HHV basis. And compounding the confusion further, regulation agencies use the units of parts per million on
dry volume basis adjusted to 3% excess oxygen (15% excess air) and want annual emissions expressed as tons per year.

Benefits and Conclusion

Consistent implementation of NOx controls provides a platform for technology transfer between operating units as well as individual
plants. This has the advantages of cross training of engineers and operators, reduces implementation and maintenance costs, and
prevents the redevelopment of control schemes that achieve the same goal.

NOx reduction is part of the operating strategy for processing plants due to governmental regulations. Heater and boiler operations can
be adjusted to reduce NOx emissions, but to reach the low levels required by government regulations requires the use of additional
equipment and technology. The key to optimizing NOx reduction technology is to control the amount of NOx emissions at the
permitted level thereby minimizing operating costs. Operating the equipment at the desired emission level and reducing costs requires
automation. The control schemes presented in this paper are proven to control emissions to meet regulations and minimize operating
costs.

Plant Automation Services, Inc. is a leading provider of software and services for the process control
industry. Our mission is to provide solutions to the process industries that increase asset utilization
and financial returns, thus providing a competitive advantage in the global economy.

Plant Automation Services, Inc. 16055 Space Center Blvd. Suite 600, Houston, Texas 77062 USA
Phone: 281.286.6565 · Fax: 281.286.6767 · http//www.pas.com
©
2000 Plant Automation Services, Inc., All Rights Reserved.

NOx Control 8 © 2000 Plant Automation Services