Use Exercise 10 to prove that if f is holomorphic in the open set O, then the

real and imaginary parts of f are harmonic; that is, their Laplacian is zero.
12. Consider the function defined by
f(x + iy) =

|x||y|, whenever x, y ? R.
28 Chapter 1. PRELIMINARIES TO COMPLEX ANALYSIS
Show that f satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations at the origin, yet f is not
holomorphic at 0.
13. Suppose that f is holomorphic in an open set O. Prove that in any one of the
following cases:
(a) Re(f) is constant;
(b) Im(f) is constant;
(c) |f| is constant;
one can conclude that f is constant.
14. Suppose {an}N
n=1 and {bn}N
n=1 are two finite sequences of complex numbers.
Let Bk =
#k
n=1 bn denote the partial sums of the series
#
bn with the convention
B0 = 0. Prove the summation by parts formula
#N
n=M
anbn = aNBN - aMBM-1 -
N#-1
n=M
(an+1 - an)Bn.
15. Abel�s theorem. Suppose
#8
n=1 an converges. Prove that
lim
r?1, r<1
8#
n=1
rnan =
8#
n=1
an.
[Hint: Sum by parts.] In other words, if a series converges, then it is Abel
summable
with the same limit. For the precise definition of these terms, and more
information
on summability methods, we refer the reader to Book I, Chapter 2.
16. Determine the radius of convergence of the series
#8
n=1 anzn when:
(a) an = (logn)2
(b) an = n!
(c) an = n2
4n+3n
(d) an = (n!)3/(3n)! [Hint: Use Stirling�s formula, which says that
n! ~ cnn+12
e
-n for some c > 0..]
(e) Find the radius of convergence of the hypergeometric series
F(a, �, ?; z) = 1+
8#
n=1
a(a + 1) � � � (a + n - 1)�(� + 1) � � � (� + n - 1)
n!?(? +1) � � � (? + n - 1)
zn.
Here a, � ? C and ?
= 0,-1,-2, . . ..
4. Exercises 29
(f) Find the radius of convergence of the Bessel function of order r:
Jr(z) =

z
2
#r
8#
n=0
(-1)n
n!(n + r)!

z
2
#2n
,
where r is a positive integer.
17. Show that if {an}8
n=0 is a sequence of non-zero complex numbers such that
lim
n?8
|an+1|
|an| = L,
then
lim
n?8
|an|1/n = L.
In particular, this exercise shows that when applicable, the ratio test can be used
to calculate the radius of convergence of a power series.
18. Let f be a power series centered at the origin. Prove that f has a power series
expansion around any point in its disc of convergence.
[Hint: Write z = z0 + (z - z0) and use the binomial expansion for zn.]
19. Prove the following:
(a) The power series
#
nzn does not converge on any point of the unit circle.
(b) The power series
#
zn/n2 converges at every point of the unit circle.
(c) The power series
#
zn/n converges at every point of the unit circle except
z = 1. [Hint: Sum by parts.]
20. Expand (1 - z)
-m in powers of z. Here m is a fixed positive integer. Also,
show that if
(1 - z)
-m =
8#
n=0
anzn,
then one obtains the following asymptotic relation for the coefficients:
an ~ 1
(m - 1)!
nm-1 as n?8.
21. Show that for |z| < 1, one has
z
1 - z2 +
z2
1 - z4 + � � � +
z2n
1 - z2n+1 + � � � =
z
1 - z
,
30 Chapter 1. PRELIMINARIES TO COMPLEX ANALYSIS
and
z
1 + z
+
2z2
1 + z2 + � � � +
2kz2k
1 + z2k + � � � =
z
1 - z
.
Justify any change in the order of summation.
[Hint: Use the dyadic expansion of an integer and the fact that 2k+1 - 1 = 1+
2 +22 + � � � + 2k.]
22. Let N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} denote the set of positive integers. A subset S ? N is
said to be in arithmetic progression if
S = {a, a + d, a +2d, a+ 3d, . . .}
where a, d ? N. Here d is called the step of S.
Show that N cannot be partitioned into a finite number of subsets that are in
arithmetic progression with distinct steps (except for the trivial case a = d = 1).
[Hint: Write
#
n?N zn as a sum of terms of the type za
1-zd .]
23. Consider the function f defined on R by
f(x) =
0 ifx = 0 ,
e
-1/x2
if x > 0.
Prove that f is indefinitely differentiable on R, and that f(n)(0) = 0 for all n =
1.
Conclude that f does not have a converging power series expansion
#8
n=0 anxn
for x near the origin.
24. Let ? be a smooth curve in C parametrized by z(t) : [a, b] ? C. Let ?- denote
the curve with the same image as ? but with the reverse orientation. Prove that
for any continuous function f on ?
#
?
f(z) dz = -
#
?-
f(z) dz.
25. The next three calculations provide some insight into Cauchy�s theorem, which
we treat in the next chapter.
(a) Evaluate the integrals
#
?
zn dz
for all integers n. Here ? is any circle centered at the origin with the positive
(counterclockwise) orientation.
(b) Same question as before, but with ? any circle not containing the origin.
4. Exercises 31
(c) Show that if |a| < r < |b|, then
#
?
1
(z - a)(z - b)
dz =
2pi
a - b
,
where ? denotes the circle centered at the origin, of radius r, with the
positive orientation.
26. Suppose f is continuous in a region O. Prove that any two primitives of f (if
they exist) differ by a constant.
2 Cauchy�s Theorem and Its
Applications
The solution of a large number of problems can be
reduced, in the last analysis, to the evaluation of definite
integrals; thus mathematicians have been much
occupied with this task... However, among many results
obtained, a number were initially discovered by
the aid of a type of induction based on the passage
from real to imaginary. Often passage of this kind
led directly to remarkable results. Nevertheless this
part of the theory, as has been observed by Laplace,
is subject to various difficulties...
After having reflected on this subject and brought
together various results mentioned above, I hope to
establish the passage from the real to the imaginary
based on a direct and rigorous analysis; my researches
have thus led me to the method which is the object of
this memoir...
A. L. Cauchy, 1827
In the previous chapter, we discussed several preliminary ideas in complex
analysis: open sets in C, holomorphic functions, and integration
along curves. The first remarkable result of the theory exhibits a deep
connection between these notions. Loosely stated, Cauchy�s theorem
says that if f is holomorphic in an open set O and ? ? O is a closed
curve whose interior is also contained in O then
(1)
#
?
f(z) dz = 0.
Many results that follow, and in particular the calculus of residues, are
related in one way or another to this fact.
A precise and general formulation of Cauchy�s theorem requires defining
unambiguously the �interior� of a curve, and this is not always an
easy task. At this early stage of our study, we shall make use of the
device of limiting ourselves to regions whose boundaries are curves that
are �toy contours.� As the name suggests, these are closed curves whose
visualization is so simple that the notion of their interior will be unam33
biguous, and the proof of Cauchy�s theorem in this setting will be quite
direct. For many applications, it will suffice to restrict ourselves to these
types of curves. At a later stage, we take up the questions related to
more general curves, their interiors, and the extended form of Cauchy�s
theorem.
Our initial version of Cauchy�s theorem begins with the observation
that it suffices that f have a primitive in O, by Corollary 3.3 in Chapter 1.
The existence of such a primitive for toy contours will follow from a
theorem of Goursat (which is itself a simple special case)1 that asserts
that if f is holomorphic in an open set that contains a triangle T and its
interior, then
#
T
f(z) dz = 0.
It is noteworthy that this simple case of Cauchy�s theorem suffices to
prove some of its more complicated versions. From there, we can prove
the existence of primitives in the interior of some simple regions, and
therefore prove Cauchy�s theorem in that setting. As a first application
of this viewpoint, we evaluate several real integrals by using appropriate
toy contours.
The above ideas also lead us to a central result of this chapter, the
Cauchy integral formula; this states that if f is holomorphic in an open
set containing a circle C and its interior, then for all z inside C,
f(z) =
1
2pi
#
C
f(?)
? - z
d?.
Differentiation of this identity yields other integral formulas, and in
particular we obtain the regularity of holomorphic functions. This is
remarkable, since holomorphicity assumed only the existence of the first
derivative, and yet we obtain as a consequence the existence of derivatives
of all orders. (An analogous statement is decisively false in the case of
real variables!)
The theory developed up to that point already has a number of noteworthy
consequences:
� The property at the base of �analytic continuation,� namely that a
holomorphic function is determined by its restriction to any open
subset of its domain of definition. This is a consequence of the fact
that holomorphic functions have power series expansions.
1Goursat�s result came after Cauchy�s theorem, and its interest is the technical
fact
that its proof requires only the existence of the complex derivative at each point,
and not
its continuity. For the earlier proof, see Exercise 5.
34 Chapter 2. CAUCHY�S THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATIONS
� Liouville�s theorem, which yields a quick proof of the fundamental
theorem of algebra.
� Morera�s theorem, which gives a simple integral characterization
of holomorphic functions, and shows that these functions are preserved
under uniform limits.
1 Goursat�s theorem
Corollary 3.3 in the previous chapter says that if f has a primitive in an
open set O, then
#
?
f(z) dz = 0
for any closed curve ? in O. Conversely, if we can show that the above
relation holds for some types of curves ?, then a primitive will exist. Our
starting point is Goursat�s theorem, from which in effect we shall deduce
most of the other results in this chapter.
Theorem 1.1 If O is an open set in C, and T ? O a triangle whose
interior is also contained in O, then
#
T
f(z) dz = 0
whenever f is holomorphic in O.
Proof. WecallT(0) our original triangle (with a fixed orientation
which we choose to be positive), and let d(0) and p(0) denote the diameter
and perimeter of T(0), respectively. The first step in our