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Anahtar Kelimeler Özet: Tüneller, yeraltı kazıları kaya şevleri gibi jeoteknik projelere
Makaslama ait stabilite ve deformasyon analizleri, süreksizliklerin (eklemler,
deneyi
çatlaklar, tabakalanma düzlemleri vb.) davranışları hakkında
Makaslama
dayanımı
güvenilir verilere ihtiyaç duymaktadır. Bu nedenle makaslama
Dinamik test kutusu deneyleri, kaya mekaniği uygulamalarında yaygın bir
Akma bantı şekilde kullanılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, İzmir Körfezi kuzeyinde
Andezit geniş alanlar kaplayan andezitlerdeki akma bantları üzerinde
statik ve dinamik koşullarda makaslama kutusu deneyleri
524
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
al., 2008; Buzzi et al., 2008; Barla et al., surfaces can be smooth or rough; in
2007, 2010; Konietzky et al., 2012b). good contact or poor contact; filled or
The shear behaviour of rock joints has not. Rock mass behaviour under low
been investigated by many researchers stress conditions is mostly controlled by
under both constant normal load sliding along existing discontinuities
(Barton, 1976; Gentier, et al., 2000; rather than failure of the intact rock
Grasselli and Egger, 2003; Belem, et al., mass (Hoek, 2007). This means that the
2004; Jiang, et al., 2006; Kim and Lee, shear strength of a discontinuity in rock
2007; Asadi and Rasouli, 2012) and mass may have a strong impact on the
constant normal stiffness (Ohnishi and mechanical behaviour of rock joints in
Dharmaratne, 1990; Kodikara and engineering structures (slopes,
Johnston, 1994; Haberfield and Seidel, foundations, tunnels, etc.). The
1999; Haque, 1999; Jiang, et al., 2004). behaviour of rock discontinuities is still
not very well investigated and
2. Geology of the Study Area understood in general and especially
The Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene aged under dynamic loads. Large-size
Bornova Melange rocks exposed in underground structures such as storage
Izmir Metropolitan area mainly consist caverns and radioactive waste
of conglomerate, micritic limestone, repositories or dams require a high
Bornova Flysch and limestone standard of resistance against blasting
olistolithes in the flysch matrix. Bornova and earthquake loads. Therefore, the
Melange is highly folded and fractured dynamic shear behaviour of rock joints
by the effect of tectonic activities. becomes more important for engineers
Neogene sedimentary rocks, consisting (Nguyen, 2013). The most popular
of conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, method currently used to determine the
mudstone, and limestone, discordantly joint shear strength is a direct shear test
overlie the melange (Fig.1) Miocene which can be performed in the field and
volcanics mainly consisted of dasitic in the laboratory using a direct shear
tuff, dasitic lava, and andesitic lava apparatus. The shear behaviour of flow
subunits, were identified and mapped. bands is studied in laboratory under
Modern faults and shear zones are CNL (Constant Normal Load) and
developed from the cooling joints in the dynamic boundary conditions.
andesitic and dasitic lavas. Shear zones
which are parallel to the cooling joints Rock masses comprise rock material as
strike in NE-SW direction, are especially well as discontinuities and the effects of
wide spread in south of the bay (Koca, the discontinuities on rock mass must
1995). The similar shear zones in north be determined for engineering
of the bay can be seen in abandoned applications. Therefore, scan-line works
stone quarries. The major cooling joints have been done to determine the
in the andesitic and dacitic lavas strike properties of flow band structures by
NE-SW and NW-SE directions were Koca and Kıncal (2004) and Koca et al.
affected by the tectonic activities. (2006) according to ISRM (1981).
526
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
Figure 1. Simplified geological map of the Izmir metropolitan area and locations of the andesite
quarries (Koca, 1995)
Attitudes of the flow band structures works and detailed properties of the
obtained with the help of scan-line flow bands were given in Table 1
Table 1. Flow bands properties obtained from scanlines (Koca and Kıncal 2004)
Flow bands
Bedding plane and joint spacing 1-3 cm (moderately narrow) generally closely spaced
joints
Width of apertures Generally closed joints
Persistence 1.5– 3.5 m low persistence
527
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
Table 2. The values of the first and second order asperity angles measured on the profiles for
the flow band surfaces
The number of Mean second Mean first
measurements order order
Discontinuity asperity asperity
Location For the first For the
type angle angle
order second order
(degree) (degree)
asperity asperity
(i2) (i1)
Osmangazi
Flow bands 38 338 20.979.55 14.403.28
quarries
528
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
529
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
Table 5. Triaxial compression test results. Stresses at peak strength are given.
Internal Friction Elasticity Poisson’s
(3) (1) (1 - 3 ) Cohesion
Lithology Angle Modulus Ratio
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (c) (MPa)
() () (GPa) ()
5.0 38.40 33.40 16.55 -
Andesite 10.0 74.14 64.14 35.20 8.00 20.48 -
20.0 92.02 72.02 27.83 0.36
(3) (1stat. max) (1dyn min) (1dyn max) (dyn) fdyn tdyn
Lithology ndyn
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (Hz) (sn)
5.00 - - - - - - -
Andesite 10.00 49.4 - - - - - -
20.00 - 65.0 85.4 2.55 2.00 300 8
530
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
of testing rock joints under both static shear direction is 100 kN and the
and dynamic conditions. Loading maximum shear displacement is 18 mm.
capacity of this apparatus in dynamic Ferrero et al. (2010) developed a new
condition is 10 kN, and the frequency apparatus based on MTS 810 to
range covers 0.01 ÷ 3.5 Hz. Kana et al. investigate the behaviour of a rock
(1996), Ahola et al. (1996) and Fox et al. discontinuity under monotonic and
(1998) developed direct shear testing cyclic loads (Nguyen, 2013). A new
devices with higher load capacity up to direct shear device (GS 1000) was
222 kN and frequencies up to 1.4 Hz. developed and installed at the rock
Lee et al. (2001) have designed a servo- mechanics laboratory at the
controlled direct shear testing machine Geotechnical Institute of the TU
and attached it to a MTS 815 loading Bergakademie Freiberg to perform
frame. The loading capacity of the direct shear tests under static, dynamic
testing system is 250 kN and allows and hydro-mechanical coupled
cyclic shear motion of up to ± 60 mm conditions with extreme high loads (up
displacement. Jafari et al. (2003) used to 1000 kN), big shear box dimensions
the shear apparatus BCR-3D developed (up to 400 x 200 mm2) and dynamic
by Boulon (1995) to investigate the loads up to 40 Hz with force amplitudes
effect of cyclic displacements on shear of up to ± 500 kN in both normal and
strength of rock joints. Barla et al. shear directions (Fig. 4). The main
(2010) have designed and developed a technical data of the new direct shear
new direct shear testing apparatus for box device GS-1000 are summarized in
either soil or soft rock. The maximum Table 8.
loading capacity in the axial and in the
531
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
5.1. Direct Shear Box Testing shearing process. Shear testing under
Methods CNL boundary condition is suitable for
There are two main methods usually cases such as non-reinforced rock
used in the laboratory to investigate the slopes, where the surrounding rock
shear behaviour of rock joints. They are mass freely allows the joint to shear
called constant normal load (CNL) and without restricting the dilation,
constant normal stiffness (CNS) tests. therefore, the normal load on the shear
CNL means that the normal load is plane is constant during shear process
maintained constant during the as shown in Figure 5a.
532
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
The sample preparation and the direct during the 760 seconds period, 10 mm
shear tests were conducted according to shear displacement was applied from
the recommendation of ISRM (1974) left to right under 3 MPa constant
and ASTM (2002). The block samples normal stress (CNL). Peak shear
were placed in the GS 1000 test strength was reached to 5.90 MPa value
apparatus and loaded with constant in the first stage and decreased from
normal stress levels of 3 MPa, 10 MPa, this peak point to 2.50 MPa residual
15 MPa and 20 MPa, respectively. shear level. In the second stage, the
During all tests shearing was applied point moved in such a manner that will
parallel to the flow bands surfaces. be opposite direction (from right to
Constant shearing displacement velocity left). In 1340 seconds, there was a shear
was applied with the help of SPS S7 displacement of 20 mm. during that
control unit while measurement values period. At this step, residual shear
for shear and normal deformation were strength increased from 2.50 MPa to 3.0
obtained directly at the specimen with MPa. In the third and final step, the
AM8 measuring system (Fig.8). shear displacement moved again from
the left to the right by 10 mm in 650
The normal load is measured by a load- seconds back to the point at which the
cell integrated into the vertical load test started. In this last step the residual
piston. The shear load is measured by shear strength of the flow band
another load-cell connected to the structures was measured as 2.30 MPa
horizontal load piston. Horizontal and (Fig. 9a, Fig. 9b; Fig. 10a, Fig. 10b).
vertical displacements are measured by During the shear box test, sample
LVDT’s (Linear Variable Differential showed elastic behavior with small
Transformer). Vertical displacement is displacements, force which resist
measured at the four corners at the shearing strength exceeded after the
upper shear frame. Horizontal linear increase in shear strength and
displacement is measured by a LVDT shear displacement, stress-
fixed to the lower shear box part as displacement relation lost its linearity
shown in Figure 8. Accuracy in and peak shear strength of flow band
displacement measurements is in the reached a value of 11.20 MPa under 10
order of 1 μm. MPa constant vertical stress. From this
point, shear stress decreased to 7.50
During the shear box test shearing MPa residual shear strength (Fig. 11a;
movement was started parallel to the Fig. 11b).
flow band surface in the first stage and
Figure 8. LVDT’s view for the normal and shear displacement measurement.
533
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
Figure 9a. Relationship between time - Figure 9b. Relationship between time -
normal displacement and shear shear stress and normal stress under the 3
displacement under the 3 MPa normal stress. MPa normal stress.
Figure 10 a. Relationship between normal Figure 10 b. Shear test: stresses and shear
stress, shear displacement and shear stress displacement versus time.
under the 3 MPa normal stress.
Shear strength increased with the increase in the normal stresses on flow band
structures and vertical displacement decreased and shear displacement became
horizontal under the 15 MPa and 20 MPa vertical stress. There is no significant
decrease observed in shear strength after the shear failure point under the 15 MPa
and 20 MPa vertical stresses (Fig. 12a, Fig. 12b; Fig. 13a, Fig.13b). The behavior of the
rock resembles ductile behavior in deformability test (-) (Fig.15).
Shearing surfaces in between upper shear frame and lower shear frame, formed after
shear box tests under the constant normal load conditions, were photographed in
detail and were given in Figure 14.
534
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
A1 A2 B1
B2 C1 C2
N = 10 MPa A1: Sheared top surface, A2: Sheared bottom surface,
N = 15 MPa B1: Sheared top surface, B2: Sheared bottom surface,
N = 20 MPa C1: Sheared top surface, C2: Sheared bottom surface,
Figure 14. A view from sheared surfaces after the shear box tests.
535
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
Figure 15. Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for peak and residual state for flow bands in
andesite
536
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
Divoux, et al., 1997; Belem, et al., 2007; The block sample (15x15x30 cm) was
Ferrero, et al., 2010; Konietzky, et al., placed in the GS 1000 test apparatus
2012). and fixed value of 3 MPa normal stress
was applied during the test. Maximum
Behaviours of the discontinuities under displacement amplitude was applied as
repetitive loads are investigated (umax) ±10.0 mm under the 3 MPa
according to their strain-deformation normal stress. Shear displacement was
and strength properties. Strain- allowed as 100 cyle in 110 seconds
deformation properties involve dynamic duration. Parameters for dynamic shear
bulk (shear) modulus and damping ratio testing are given in Table 10. The shear
values and their changes depending on displacement controlled sinusoidal
unit deformations, and strength excitation was applied horizontally to
properties involve amplitude of shear lower half of specimen as follows:
stress and number of cycles which cause
major deformations. Dynamic shear box
tests are conducted to determine the us = umax sin (2ft) (7)
behaviours of the discontinuities under
repetitive loads. Field behaviour of the where;
discontinuities can be estimated using us is the shear displacement,
empirical equations obtained from umax is the maximum amplitude of shear
laboratory tests. displacement,
f is the frequency, t is the time.
Table 10. Parameters for dynamic shear testing
Parameters
LxWxH (cm3) N (MPa) f (Hz) umax (mm) Num. of cycle
15x15x30 3.0 0.1 10.0 100
The shear displacement was measured The measured shear stress versus time
by a horizontal LVDT which is attached for flow bands is shown in Figure 17.
to the bottom part of shear box. The The measured peak shear stresses
normal displacement is also measured slightly increase with increasing time
by four vertical LVDTs which are and number of cycles, respectively, as
positioned at the four corners of the shown in Figures 17. This behaviour of
upper part of shear box. The measured the flow bands under dynamic loading is
shear displacement versus time (100 similar to the reported results by
cycles) for the one tested specimen is Homand-Etienne et al. (1999).
illustrated in Figure 16.
537
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
Experimental results show that the Figure 18 shows the measured shear
absolute peak shear stress in the stress and shear displacement versus
negative phases is higher than peak time for the dynamic test. This figure
shear stress in the positive phases for reveals a phase shift between shear
flow bands in andesites rock. However, displacement and shear stress. The
the peak shear stress in positive phases shear displacement is phase lagging in
of the flow bands is slightly higher than comparison with the shear stress. This
absolute peak shear stress in the behaviour of flow bands under dynamic
negative phases. The maximum shear loading was observed during all
stress in the positive and negative experiment. These observed results are
phases are given in Table 11. similar to the results reported by Ahola
et al. (1996). The reason for the phase
Table 11. Absolute maximum shear stress shift between shear stress and shear
Absolute maximum shear Cycle displacement is associated with chatter
stress (MPa) number of the joint surface and vibrations of the
Positive phase 2.43 71 apparatus as reported already by Ahola
Negative phase 2.70 58 et al. (1996).
Figure 18. Shear stress and shear displacement versus time of flow bands
The most important issue in many shear modulus of the flow bands is
problems of discontinuities under calculated as 237 MPa using the
dynamic loads is the relationship equation (8).
between shear strength and unit strain.
The energy loss between the shape
The relationship between shear
deformation occur under the repeated
strength and unit strain is obtained as a
loads and the discontinuity surfaces is
histerisis curve at the end of a full cyle
obtained as damping ratio. The energy
of loading. Stress-strain behavior of the
loss controls whether the damping ratio
flow bands of andesites under the 100 th
is big or small for a material. The
loading cycle in dynamic shear box test
damping ratio is estimated using Figure
in given in Figure 19. Dynamic bulk
19 (D) as:
modulus (G) can be calculated using the
inclination angle of the curve given in
Figure 19 as drawing a line connecting 1 𝐻𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
the end points of the curve and given as; D= 𝑥( 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 )
4𝜋
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
G= (8)
1 𝐴𝐿
is the repetitive shear stress, is the D = ( )𝑥( ) (9)
4𝜋 𝐴𝑇
repetitive shear deformation. Dynamic
538
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
AL is the total area in the histerisis, AT Shear strengths of the flow band
is the triangle area in the histerisis. structures are found as 2.70 MPa in 58.
Damping ratio (D) is calculated as 0.634 cycle and 2.43 MPa in 71. cycle under
using the equation (9). Figure 19 shows the dynamic conditions (Fig. 18). As a
the shear stress versus shear result, it was found that peak shear
displacement curves (100 cycles) for strength of dynamic conditions is 45 %
flow bands. The andesites specimen is lesser than the one in static conditions.
the same and equal to 9. Hence, the
maximum shear stresses of andesites Peak internal friction angle of the flow
specimen were nearly the same, and bands and residual internal friction
reached around 2.10 MPa and -2.45 angle is calculated as 37 and 30 under
MPa, respectively, under applied normal the static conditions (N =3 MPa normal
load of 3.0 MPa. The absolute maximum stress), respectively (Fig. 15). Internal
shear stress of specimen for positive friction angle of the flow bands is
shear displacement phase is similar to calculated between the range of = 39
that for negative shear displacement – 42 under the dynamic conditions.The
phase and reached around 3 MPa. The variations in normal displacement with
peak dynamic friction angle time for andesites specimen is shown in
corresponding to specimen was Fig. 20 respectively. The normal
computed based on the ratio between displacements behave like a harmonic
peak shear and normal stresses. The function and continue to decrease with
peak dynamic friction angle averaged increasing time and number of cycles,
after 100 cycles is given in Table 12. respectively. The reason for increasing
negative displacements (settlements)
Peak and residual shear strength of the during the cyclic shearing is the ongoing
flow bands were found as 6.00 MPa and degradation of the joint surface.
3.00 MPa under the N =3 MPa normal However, the shear movement of one
stress and static conditions, cycle can be subdivided into four
respectively. different phases: forward advance,
forward return, backward advance and
Table 12. Dynamic friction angles of the backward return phase. The shear and
flow bands normal displacements for andesite
Flow Bands N (MPa) P (MPa) ()
specimens are illustrated in Figure 21
Positive phase 3 2.43 39
for one cycle.
Negative phase 3 2.70 42
Figure 19. Shear stress versus shear Figure 20. Normal displacement versus time
displacement after shearing of 100 cycles of of flow bands.
flow bands.
539
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
Figure 21. Shear and normal displacements versus time for five cycle of flow bands
The four phases can be characterized as applied for 300 seconds during the
follows: dynamic triaxial pressure tests, as a
result these tests, (1dyn min) and (1dyn
Phase I (A to B): lower block is moved max) parameters were obtained.
forward and due to slope direction
dilation is negative (compression). The shear strength characteristics of
Phase II (B to C): lower block is moving flow bands in andesites were
into the opposite direction and due to investigated considering various initial
slope direction dilation is positive normal stresses, normal stiffnesses,
(dilation). At point C the sample has shear velocities under CNL and dynamic
reached again the original position. boundary conditions. The direct shear
Phase III (C to D): lower block is still tests were performed up to 20 MPa
moving into the opposite direction and normal stress equivalent to more than
dilation is still positive (dilation). 500 m in depth.
Phase IV (D to E): direction of lower
block movement is returned and has the General results obtained from the static
same direction as in phase I, due to and dynamic shear box tests.
slope direction dilation becomes
negative (compression). Shear box tests were conducted on 400
x 200 mm sized rectangle surfaces
under the static and dynamic
7. Results conditions. Time-deformation, time-
Triaxial compression tests were stress, shear displacement-stress; shear
conducted in static conditions and not displacement -normal displacement,
only cohesion and internal friction angle shear displacement -shear stress,
values were obtained but also the values normal stress-shear stress relationships
of Elasticity Modulus and Poisson’s ratio were obtained. In addition peak and
(40-60) in interval of 0.4 1 u 0.6 1 residual shear strengths, base and
were calculated in these tests. residual friction angle values were
obtained.
4kN/min axial force, 1 MPa/min cell
pressure, 5 kN dynamic axial force
540
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
541
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
542
A.T. Arslan/ Determination of the Shear Strength Parameters of Flow Band Structures in Andesites under
Static and Dynamic Conditions
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Static and Dynamic Conditions
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Aufbau und Versuchssteuerung für
ein neuartiges dynamisches hydro-
mechanisches Felsschergerät für
extrem hohe Kräfte. Published by
Geotechnical Institute, TU
Bergakademie Freiberg.
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