Classification Image PDF

Classification
and Information
Extraction
Natural Resources Ressources naturelles

CanadaCanada
Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada
Canada
Classification and Information
Extraction (Image Exploitation)
- Outline -
Classification Techniques
Supervised and Unsupervised Classification
Classification Algorithms
Accuracy Assessment
Maximum Likelihood Classification Example
New Classification Approaches
Change Detection
Difference Image
Ratio Image
Classification Comparison
Change Vector Analysis
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Classification and Information
Extraction (Image Exploitation)
- Outline -
Data Integration
RGB Colour Space
IHS Colour Space
Principal Component Analysis

Introduction
Currently the majority of operational classification and

information extraction is performed using manual
interpretation approaches.
Manual approaches tend to be very time consuming
and expensive.
Several successful automated approaches are
operational, such as flood mapping.
Emerging techniques will increase the use of
automated approaches in the future.
This section reports on the automated quantitative
approaches using calibrated data.

Introduction - Classification
Image classification categorizes image pixels into
classes producing a thematic representation.
Classification performed on single or multiple image
channels to separate areas according to their different
scattering or spectral characteristics.
Classified data can be used in thematic maps, imported
into a GIS or can be further incorporated into digital
analysis.
Thematic maps provide an interpretable summary of
classes enabling analysts to associate detection
capabilities of SAR imagery with terrain features.
Digital image classification procedures are differentiated
as being either supervised or unsupervised (clustering).

Supervised Classification
Requires image analyst to “train” the computer to

recognize a set of pixels with similar signatures.
Encompasses three components:
- training area selection
- classification
- post-classification analysis and accuracy assessment
Analyst determines the best classification scheme to

meet objectives and applies knowledge of the site
during the training process.
Figure 7.1 illustrates examples of supervised
classification.

Figure 7.1 - Examples of Classifications

Training Area Selection
Training areas are small samples of homogeneous

areas selected by the image analyst prior to
classification.
Appropriate training areas are determined from maps,
ground data, interpreted stereo airphoto or other
information.
Training areas should be:
Free of anomalies
Large enough to provide good statistical class
representation
Sufficient in number to account for small local variations

Training Area Selection
(cont'd)
Training areas should avoid:
Edge pixels containing the combined backscatter of multiple
targets
Inconsistencies within the area such as roadways, powerlines,

intermittent cover, etc.
Once defined, training areas are used to generate

signature statistics for each defined class.
Class signatures include class means and a class

covariance matrix.

Supervised Classification
Figure 7.2 illustrates the problem with supervised

classification using linear boundaries for classes.
The separation of the major classes with a minimum
of error is possible with an n-dimensional decision
boundary.
The graph uses 1 band and 2 classes to illustrate how
the overlapping areas of both class 1 and class 2
distributions have erroneously classified pixels.

Figure 7.2 - Supervised Classification
One dimensional
decision boundary
Number of pixels
Class 1 Class 2
Pixels in class 2 erroneously Pixels in class 1 erroneously

assigned to class 1 Assigned to class 2
Source: Jensen, 1996

Classification Strategies and Algorithms
During classification, each pixel is compared to
each of the class signatures.
Comparison performed by computer using a
predetermined classification algorithm.
Most commonly used classifiers in remote
sensing are:
Minimum Distance (to Means) Classifier
Parallelepiped Classifier
Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC)
Once a pixel has been assigned to a class, it is

given the class value in the corresponding cell
of the "classified" image.

Minimum Distance (to Means) Classifier
Simplest algorithm and thus low computational

time.
Determines each pixel's "distance" from class
means, and assigns them to the closest class, see
Figure 7.3.
If pixel is further than the analyst defined distance
from any category, it remains unclassified or
"unknown”.
Classifier does not evaluate differing degrees of
within class variance, therefore has lower overall
accuracy than MLC.

Figure 7.3 - Classification Algorithms
Channel B
Channel B
Channel A Channel A
Minimum distance Parallelepiped
classifier Classifier
Channel B
Channel A
Maximum Likelihood
Classifier
Source: PCI, Chapter 10, 1997

Used when multi-band imagery is available.
Parallelepiped classifier is more sensitive to within
class variance.
Algorithm considers range of values within each
category of the training set, denoted as minimum and
maximum value for each image band (appears as a
rectangle in Figure 7.3).
Range limits define small decision region with clear
class segmentation compared to minimum distance
classifier.

(cont’d)
Outliers can increase the decision region
inappropriately causing errors of commission.
Problems occur when classes overlap, as in Figure
7.3.
These pixels are labelled as overlap and are caused
from class distributions exhibiting correlations poorly
described by the rectangular decision regions.
Low computational requirement with adequate
classification accuracies.

Maximum Likelihood Classifiers
Assumes that the training statistics for each class

have a normal or "Gaussian" distribution
NOTE: Radar statistics are often non-”Gaussian”
Uses training statistics to compute a probability

value of whether it belongs to a particular land cover
category class
Training statistics with bi- or tri- modal histograms
are not suitable as they indicate non-homogeneity
within classes and are non-”Gaussian”

Maximum Likelihood Classifiers
(cont'd)
Examines the probability function of a pixel for each of

the classes, and assigns the pixel to the class with the
highest probability.
Usually provides the highest classification accuracies.
Larger number of computations required to classify

each pixel, resulting in a high computational
requirement.
Can use a-priori knowledge to weight probability

function.

Unsupervised Classification
(Clustering)
Unsupervised classification does not require training areas
or analyst's knowledge of area
Creates natural groupings present in the image values
Values with similar grey levels are assumed to belong to
the same cover type
Analyst must determine the identity of the computer
derived spectral clusters
Principal clustering algorithms include
K- means clustering
ISODATA clustering
Narendra-Goldberg clustering
See figure 7.1 for an example of unsupervised

classification
Post-Classification Filtering
Resulting classification image map may be difficult to

interpret.
Classified data have a salt-and-pepper appearance
due to inherent variability of the per-pixel classifier.
Post-classification filtering removes pixels and pixel
groups not satisfying a minimum requirement.
Figure 7.4 is an example of a mode post-classification
filter, where the pixel is reassigned to the
surrounding class majority pixels.
Post-classification filtering usually enhances
interpretability and increases classification accuracy.

Figure 7.4
Post-Classification Mode Filtering
Pixel (7,4) Mode

and Filtered
Classified Image 3x3 window Result
Source: PCI, Chapter 10, 1997

Classification Accuracy Assessment
Evaluate accuracy of the classification procedure by checking against
known homogeneous areas.
Overall accuracy vs. accuracy by class.
Results of the accuracy can be displayed in a confusion matrix, such as
Figure 7.5.
Confusion matrix plots known pixels against classified pixels.
Errors of Commission
Pixels incorrectly assigned to a particular class that actually belong in other
classes, see the lower left half of confusion matrix in Figure 7.5.
Errors of Omission
Pixels incorrectly excluded from a particular class, see the upper right half of
confusion matrix in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5
Maximum Likelihood Confusion Matrix
Classification of 3 bands: C-HH, C-HV, C-VV
Bare Soy
Grains Corn Water Forest Urban
Soil beans
Grains 60.6 13.0 26.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0
Corn 1.8 70.7 25.9 0.2 0.0 1.4 0.0
Bare Soil 2.3 17.1 80.1 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.0
Soy beans 0.0 0.0 0.3 96.0 0.0 0.2 3.4
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 98.3 0.0 1.7
Forest 17.8 15.9 14.7 2.6 0.0 47.8 1.2
Urban 0.1 0.0 1.1 5.0 0.0 1.8 91.9
Average Accuracy: 77.92% Kappa Coefficient: 0.61889

Overall Accuracy: 70.09% Standard Deviation: 0.00391

Introduction
Supervised and unsupervised classifications generally

use "per-pixel" approach.
Due to radar speckle, SAR classification is often done

on a per field or polygon basis using either the
thresholding technique or polygon averages.
Newer classification methods associate pixels with

their surrounding neighbours similar to classification
performed by human visual interpretation.

NEURAL NETWORKS
Building block design algorithm imitating a "human"
decision-making process to classification.
Do not make assumptions about the underlying distribution
of the data
Uses both spectral and textural patterns in the classification
process.
Major advantage is that it can identify subtle and non-linear
patterns that traditional classifiers do not detect.
Problem of neural networks is that it can be very difficult to
train.

FUZZY LOGIC
Simulates vagueness or uncertainty encountered in nature
Categorizes data according to non-discrete class structure
CONTEXTUAL CLASSIFIERS
Classification of a pixel is influenced by the class(es)
assigned to its neighbours
Pixel is examined in "context" to surrounding pixels
Numerous other specialized classifiers available.

Change Detection
Change detection methodologies useful for
Urbanization
Agricultural Development
Forest Land Management
Ice Forecasting, etc.
Utilizes two or more scenes covering same geographic

area acquired over a temporal period
Channels of data from one pass or one instrument
Two different passes, same radar, same scene, same mode
Two different passes, different radars, same scene

Change Detection
(cont'd)
Spaceborne SAR is ideal due to high revisit
capability.
Must consider SAR properties:
Imaging geometry
Relief displacement
Image to image registration
Calibration requirements.
Must also consider:

Environmental conditions (precipitation, moisture
conditions of vegetation and soil, snow cover, etc.)
Time of year.

Change Detection
(cont'd)
Change Detection Methodologies:

Difference Image
Ratio Image
Classification Comparison
Figure 7.6 is an example of change detection using

different colors for each radar image

Figure 7.6 - Change Detection

Difference Image
This task should be done in the power domain.
This task should only be carried out on "sets of pixels"
or a "per field basis”.
Difference image is created by subtracting the mean
value of parcels of pixels in two different images of
the same area.
Results in either a positive or negative value where
change has occurred.
Zero values indicate parcels of no change.
Must consider threshold boundaries between change
and no-change.
Must consider calibration issues.

Ratio Image
Ratio image is created by dividing the mean value of parcels of
pixels in two different images of the same area.
For SAR imagery, ratios can only be constructed from multi-look
images and should be in the power domain.
Band ratios deliver the combined information content of two
image bands.
Ratios can help minimize unwanted information and/or noise.
System and processing effects must be considered when
producing ratios.
Ratio images must be scaled to produce an acceptable product
for visual interpretation.
Interpreting ratio images requires a knowledge of target
reflectance illumination and ground conditions.

Classification (Thematic) Comparison
Compare the thematic output from two or more

sources.
Identifies areas of change and the nature of change
(e.g. from agriculture to urban).
Accuracy depends upon initial classification
accuracies of input imagery; any errors are
compounded.

Uses spectral or spatial differences to detect a change

or disturbance.
SAR requires data sets acquired at separate times.
Plotted against each other on a graph, the two spectral
variables will show the magnitude and direction of
change from the 1st to the 2nd date, see “A” in Figure
7.7.
The vector describing direction and magnitude of
change from the 1st to the 2nd date is the spectral
change vector.
Decision that a “change” has occurred is made if a
threshold is exceeded, as in “C” and “D” in Figure 7.7.
Source: Jensen, 1996

Figure 7.7: Change Vector Analysis
A
SPECTRAL CHANGE
VECTOR
SPECTRAL VARIABLE Y
MAGNITUDE
OF CHANGE
ANGLE OF CHANGE
SPECTRAL VARIABLE X
C D
B
LITTLE OR CHANGE CHANGE
NOT CHANGE (e.g. CLEARED FOR (e.g. REGROWTH OF
SUBDIVISION) NATURAL VEGETATION)
YEAR 2
YEAR 2
YEAR 2
YEAR 1 YEAR 1
YEAR 1
THRESHOLD THRESHOLD DECISION

THRESHOLD
Source: Jensen,
Source: 1996 1996
Jensen,

Data Integration
Remotely sensed data can contribute in a variety of

ways to resource management activities involving
multiple data sets.
Multiple data sets provide
Spatial continuity and geometric flexibility
Multi-temporal coverage
Complete coverage regardless of site location and access
Digital data facilitates custom image analysis and output
Synergism between data sets

Data Integration
(cont'd)
Remotely sensed data can contribute in several
forms
Raster image providing continuous detail and an
accurate base
Polygon data extracted by classification or visual

interpretation
Vector data extracted by enhancement or visual

interpretation
Figure 7.8 is an example of multiple data sets

integration.

Figure 7.8 GIS Data Integration

Integrating Remotely Sensed Data
Synergism between remotely sensed data acquired

at different times, wavelength, resolutions, etc. can
increase the useful information content.
Multi-temporal data are often used to take advantage

of seasonal or phenological changes in vegetation
and for change detection.
Multi-sensor data can make use of the different

information as a function of wavelength, resolution
and/or scale.

Integrating Remotely Sensed Data
(cont'd)
Multi-channel data can make use of information within
different regions of the EM spectrum.
Multi-polarization data can make use of different information

in the microwave band related to target interaction with the
radar waves.
Polarimetric SAR data can make use of phase as well as

magnitude.
Multi-feature data can make use of different information

from the same scene, for example, tone and texture.
See Figure 7.9 for an example of SAR and TM integration

Figure 7.9 - Multi-Sensor Combinations

RGB Colour Spaces
Red, green, blue (RGB) colour space is based
upon the additive properties of primary colours.
System is optimised for computer video screens
but not for human vision.
Multi-channel data is displayed using RGB
technique where each channel is assigned a colour
with the intensity related to the magnitude of the
spectral data.
The RGB colour cube is shown in Figure 7.10.
The colour cube shows the interrelationships
between the colours and is defined by the
brightness levels of each of red, green and blue.

Figure 7.10 - RGB Colour Spaces
Blue Cyan
Magenta
White
e
Sc al
y
Gra
Black Green
Yellow
Red
Adapted from: Schowengerdt, 1983 RGB

IHS Colour Space
Intensity-Hue-Saturation (IHS) colour space is an

alternative way to describe colours by their RGB
components, see Figure 7.11.
IHS converts three bands into an alternative colour
space closer to what the human eye perceives them.
IHS is more adapted to human vision than the more
standard RGB colour space.
The 3 bands can be from different sensors, such as
RADARSAT and Landsat TM.

Figure 7.11 - IHS Color Space
HUE
Green Yellow
120º 60º Red
White
Cyan
180º White
Blue Magenta
300º
INTENSITY
INTENSITY
Black
Black
SATURATION
No colour Full colour
IHS
Intensity - Hue - Saturation
Adapted from: Drury, S.A. Image Interpretation in Geology, Second Edition, 1993.
Chapman & Hall, p.135.
IHS Colour Space
(cont’d)
Intensity is the colour brightness, hue is the actual
colour and saturation defines the purity or "greyness"
of the colour.
A common approach is to modulate the intensity
channel using a SAR image, with other data
(geophysics, geochemistry, visible/infra-red image)
modulating hue and a flat image replacing saturation.
IHS can improve image sharpness and edge
extraction.
The IHS image in Figure 7.12 modulates the intensity
and the hue channels using a SAR image and a
DEM.

Figure 7.12 - IHS Transform

Principal Component Analysis
Requires multi-channel data set (e.g. multi-date, multi-
polarization, multi-sensor).
Can be used to identify new axes that maximize variance
in the data set (see Figure 7.13).
Reduces the dimensionality of the multi-channel input to
the dimension of the information content.
Any features or patterns identified on a PCA should be
confirmed through interpretation of supporting image
products and other more conventional data sets.
Eigen Vectors (or principal component channels) usually
do not transfer well between data sets.

Figure 7.13 - Axes Rotation Along the
Principal Component Vectors
SCATTER
PLOT FREQUENCY
B1 VS B2 HISTROGRAMS
Band 1 BAND 1
BAND 2
Band 2
FREQUENCY
Component 1
HISTROGRAMS
IDENTIFY NEW AXES WHICH
MAXIMIZE VARIANCE IN THE
DATA SET. E´´
B1 E´´
Composante 2
E´
B2 E´
Rotation of axes
Source: CCRS

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Classification

Natural Resources Ressources naturelles

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

RGB Colour Space

IHS Colour Space

Principal Component Analysis

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

 Currently the majority of operational classification and

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

 Requires image analyst to “train” the computer to

 Analyst determines the best classification scheme to

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

 Training areas are small samples of homogeneous

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

 Inconsistencies within the area such as roadways, powerlines,

 Once defined, training areas are used to generate

 Class signatures include class means and a class

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

 Figure 7.2 illustrates the problem with supervised

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Pixels in class 2 erroneously Pixels in class 1 erroneously

Source: Jensen, 1996

 Once a pixel has been assigned to a class, it is

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

 Simplest algorithm and thus low computational

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Source: PCI, Chapter 10, 1997

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

 Assumes that the training statistics for each class

 Uses training statistics to compute a probability

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

 Examines the probability function of a pixel for each of

 Usually provides the highest classification accuracies.

 Larger number of computations required to classify

 Can use a-priori knowledge to weight probability

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

 See figure 7.1 for an example of unsupervised

 Resulting classification image map may be difficult to

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Pixel (7,4) Mode

Source: PCI, Chapter 10, 1997

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Corn 1.8 70.7 25.9 0.2 0.0 1.4 0.0

Bare Soil 2.3 17.1 80.1 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.0

Soy beans 0.0 0.0 0.3 96.0 0.0 0.2 3.4

Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 98.3 0.0 1.7

Forest 17.8 15.9 14.7 2.6 0.0 47.8 1.2

Urban 0.1 0.0 1.1 5.0 0.0 1.8 91.9

Average Accuracy: 77.92% Kappa Coefficient: 0.61889

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

 Supervised and unsupervised classifications generally

 Due to radar speckle, SAR classification is often done

 Newer classification methods associate pixels with

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

 Categorizes data according to non-discrete class structure

 Numerous other specialized classifiers available.

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Currently the majority of operational classification and

Requires image analyst to “train” the computer to

Analyst determines the best classification scheme to

Training areas are small samples of homogeneous

Inconsistencies within the area such as roadways, powerlines,

Once defined, training areas are used to generate

Class signatures include class means and a class

Figure 7.2 illustrates the problem with supervised

Once a pixel has been assigned to a class, it is

Simplest algorithm and thus low computational

Assumes that the training statistics for each class

Uses training statistics to compute a probability

Examines the probability function of a pixel for each of

Usually provides the highest classification accuracies.

Larger number of computations required to classify

Can use a-priori knowledge to weight probability

See figure 7.1 for an example of unsupervised

Resulting classification image map may be difficult to

Supervised and unsupervised classifications generally

Due to radar speckle, SAR classification is often done

Newer classification methods associate pixels with

Categorizes data according to non-discrete class structure

Numerous other specialized classifiers available.

Utilizes two or more scenes covering same geographic

Must also consider:

Change Detection Methodologies:

Figure 7.6 is an example of change detection using

Compare the thematic output from two or more

Uses spectral or spatial differences to detect a change

Remotely sensed data can contribute in a variety of

Polygon data extracted by classification or visual

Vector data extracted by enhancement or visual

Figure 7.8 is an example of multiple data sets

Synergism between remotely sensed data acquired

Multi-temporal data are often used to take advantage

Multi-sensor data can make use of the different

Multi-polarization data can make use of different information

Polarimetric SAR data can make use of phase as well as

Multi-feature data can make use of different information

See Figure 7.9 for an example of SAR and TM integration

Intensity-Hue-Saturation (IHS) colour space is an