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CHAPTER 1

INSTRUMENTATION
FUNDAMENTALS
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Chapter 01
Instrumentation Fundamentals

Objectives
The objective of this chapter is;

 Identify the need for instrumentation in

industrial processes.
 Understand the terms related with
instruments and process control.
 Components of Instruments and additional
units obligatory in digital systems.
 Basic parameters and characteristics of
Instruments.
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1.1 INTRODUCTION;
_____________________________________

The overall objective of any material processing plants is to convert the raw
materials into desired products using available sources of energy and utilities
in the most economical manner. The technology is usually closed loop and
processing is carried out behind metallic walls of pipes and vessels. The
invisible nature of the processes together with high temperature, high pressure,
high flow rates, toxic, acidic/basic nature etc demands extraordinary facilities
for seeking the process information to achieve the goals in a safe and
professional manner. Truly the instruments act as our eyes inside the vessels,
pipes and machines to convey outside on the control panel or controllers
directly.

In terms of engineering objectives one may describe the goals as to match the
production specifications under the operational constraints. Of course the
country, environmental and company regulations are to be observed in letter
and spirit. In order to achieve these sophisticated targets the equipment has to
be provided with instruments to report the internal conditions to the
engineer/operator on line, round the clock. Today, this information is usually
fed to computers for further processing and presentation, enabling the
supervisors to make best use of the information and address sophisticated
objectives.

The ability of instruments to measure the process conditions depend on

various features like working principle, cost, installation and maintenance. The
engineer of any domain like chemical, mechanical, metallurgical, petroleum,
mineral processing etc needs to be aware of the above parameters. This
knowledge is essential at the design and operation level. The instrument
technology is ever growing and is a lucrative business as well. Hence the
engineer needs to refresh his knowledge of the available state of the art
machine and their capabilities regularly.

The term process refers to the operation which must be carried out to create
the desired end product. Control is necessary to carry out the process safely
and produce product of high quality and required quantity. Thus, process
control is the automatic control of an output variable by sensing the parameter
under observation from the process and comparing it to the desired or set level
and feeding an error signal back to control an input variable. A control loop is
established to achieve the purpose of process control. It is basically an
electrical circuit provided with a power supply, actuators and controllers. The
main element however remains the instrument that measures and indicates the
values of the variable to be monitored, and this measuring element includes
the sensor, transducer and transmitter.
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Load
A typical feedback control is shown in Figure 1.1

Controller Final Control Process

Element
Set Point Control
Variable
Feedback path

Instruments

Figure 1.1 Typical Feedback

Loop
1.2 COMPONENTS OF INSTRUMENTS;
_____________________________________

The ISA (The International Society of Automation) defines instrumentation as

“a collection of instruments or their application for the purpose of observation,
measurement or control”. The components of a generalized measurement
system is shown in figure 1.2.

Figure1.2 Generalized Measurement Systems

Instruments are based on various natural phenomena of observations.

Measurements are a set of observations that reduce uncertainty where the
results are expressed as a quantity. So, measurement involves the process of
gaining relevant information about a system and interpreting it in a way that
can be used beneficially. It is estimating or determining the magnitude of a
parameter. This is made possible by developing physical assemblies to
observe or sense the system variables. The system variables measured by a
sensor are known as measurands.

Sensors are the devices inspired by the concept of human’s senses like seeing,
feeling or hearing that detect changes and make human act accordingly. Man
made sensors have a wide and growing range of varieties with fewer
limitations as the technology progresses. The sensors along with the means to
process data gained by them and translated into meaningful knowledge can be
used to provide process information to control systems.
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Sensors are the primary sensing element in an instrument which detect

physical variables like temperature, pressure etc. Other parts of the instrument
assembly may involve the “conversion element” to convert output of sensor to
a more useful form. The conversion element is also called as transducer. It
manipulates the variable of intent and converts it from one form of energy into
another for convenience of measurement process.

The final part of the instrument is display, transmission or record. The

measured variable is either translated into a readable form of indication or
transmitted to the next element of the control loop to act accordingly and/or
record it on paper or in memory.

1.3 INSTRUMENT CHARACTERISTICS;

___________________________________
The behavior of instruments over extended periods of time may be described
as

 Static characteristics
 Dynamic characteristics

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:

The relationship between the output and the input when the input does not
change, or the input is changing with a slow rate so that it can be taken as
constant are termed as static characteristics. The static behavior of instruments
is expressed in terms of accuracy, precision, repeatability, range, span,
linearity, sensitivity etc. A brief description of these parameters is given in
Annexure-A.

DYNAMIC CHARATERISTICS:

The dynamic characteristics are obtained by observing performance of an

instrument with different inputs like impulse input, step input, ramp input and
sinusoidal input. Instrument behavior in terms of fidelity, drift, hysteresis,
offset, damping, speed of response, response time, overshoot etc are of
interest. A brief description of these terms is given in Annexure-B.

1.4 ANCILLARY COMPONENTS OF INSTRUMENTS ;

_____________________________________
Signal Processors apply mathematical operations in form of algorithms to
perform functions like filtering, smoothing amplification or modulation to
produce more compatible signals. The incoming signals are conditioned and
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converted to a form that can be easily manipulated by the various circuits and
components within the instrument itself and within other components of
control loops.

Signal processors can be divided based on two forms of signals: Analog and
Digital. Analog signal processors carry out processes on continuous signals
like filtering, amplification, attenuation and compensation etc. Digital signal
processors process binary signals from one form of digital signals to another
like series to parallel conversion, digital filtering or digital multiplexing.

Analog/Digital (A/D) and Digital/Analog (D/A) convertors are signal

conversion devices that are provided where transmitting and receiving
equipment operate on different kind of signals. Analog signals are mostly
created by the sensors by converting some property detected by the system
into an electric or voltage signal to convey the information, when the receiving
equipment are designed to give discrete digital output like in visual display

ADC

IN OUT

Figure 1.3 Electrical symbol for analog to digital converter

Output unit or further manipulation of the signal by a control algorithm in a

control device, then they accept signal only in digital form and thus a
converter has to be provided within. An analog-to-digital converter changes
electronically an input analog signal of voltage or current in an interface
module to digital signal i.e., quantitative form proportional to magnitude of the
analog signal. In control loop the signal from a control device is received by
final control elements which are usually analog and thus digital signal has to
be converted back to the analog signal. For this purpose digital-to-analog
converter are utilized and they work in the reverse order.

Amplifiers as the name suggest generally enhance the power/magnitude or

amplitude of a signal. In realistic instrument systems it is not feasible to
convert one form of signal to another or to transmit it to next piece of
equipment without conditioning it in an amplifier to get required impedance
and gain. Amplifiers are highly useful as in modern electronic equipments;
they are configured to accomplish most of signal conditioning in an integrated
circuit. They are not only employed for amplification but attenuation
(weakening) of signals. Other uses include impedance matching, isolation,
common mode rejection and DC shifting etc.
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Hookup wires are electric connections provided between the instruments and
other electronic devices. They are small to medium sized and are used for low
current and voltage applications and are insulated to avoid leakage of current.

Serial/ Parallel ports and

Universal Serial ports are
means of communication
through physical
interface. Ports are used
for digital signal
transmission. They play a
vital role in computer
control in establishing
communication between
devices and computers.
They are means to
transfer data within
ancillary devices and Figure 1.4
drives. A port is an
integrated circuit provided with several output pins with each pin serving a
different function and assisting in data transmission as shown in figure 1.4.

Serial port transfer data single bit at a time

whereas parallel ports have been configured to
be bi-directional and can send and receive bits
simultaneously. Universal Serial Ports are more
advanced, high speed data transmitting ports and
have largely replaced the serial and parallel ports
specially in computer electronics but since
serial/parallel ports are cheap and simple with
standardized consoles and lesser software
requirement; thus they are still in use in Figure 1.5 (a) Universal Serial
industrial Automation systems. Port, (b) Parallel Port, (c) Serial
Port.
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CHAPTER 2

TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
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Chapter 02
Temperature Measurement

Objectives
The objective of this chapter is;

 Identify the vocabulary associated with

temperature/temperature measurements
through the precise definition of basic
concepts.
 Types / classification and working
principles of temperature measuring
instruments.
 Selection criteria of temperature
measuring devices to suit an application.
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2.1 INTRODUCTION;
_____________________________________
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Although we are familiar with temperature as a measure of

“hotness” or “coldness,” it is not easy to give an exact definition for it. Based
on our physiological sensations, we express the level of temperature
qualitatively with words like freezing cold, cold, warm, hot, and red-hot.
However, we cannot assign numerical values to temperatures based on our
sensations alone. Furthermore, our senses may be misleading. A metal chair,
for example, will feel much colder than a wooden one even when both are at
the same Temperature.

The temperature is a thermal state of a body

which distinguishes a hot body from a cold
body. The temperature of a body is DO YOU KNOW!!
proportional to the stored molecular energy
i.e., the average molecular kinetic energy of
the molecules in the system. Galileo developed the first
instrument to measure
temperature;

Fortunately, several properties of materials

change with temperature in a repeatable and
predictable way, and this forms the basis for
accurate temperature measurement. The
commonly used mercury-in-glass
thermometer, for example, is based on the
expansion of mercury with temperature.
Temperature is also measured by using
several other temperature-dependent
properties.
Figure 2.1 Galileo Thermameter
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If we look around, we will find lots of different devices in daily life whose
goal is to either detect or measure changes in temperature. For example:

 The thermometer in the backyard tells you how hot or cold it is outside.
 The meat and candy thermometers in the kitchen
measure food temperatures
 The thermometer in the furnace tells it when to turn on and off.
 The thermometer in the oven lets it keep a set temperature (hot).
 The thermometer in the refrigerator lets it keep a set temperature (cold).
 The clinical thermometer in the medicine cabinet measures body
temperature accurately.

2.2 IMPORTANCE OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

AND CONTROL;
______________________________________

The importance of temperature measurement in chemical industries lies in the

fact that all chemical reactions and processes are temperature dependent and
slight variation in temperature can cause major deviations. Thus all industries
need temperature measurement instrument for effective control of processes.

For chemical process industry, temperature can affect in following manners;

 All physical properties are directly related with temperature, changing of

which produces variations in these properties, e.g. density, viscosity, surface
tension etc.
 With variation in temperature, pressure shifts, so in order to control process
conditions, temperature control is of most pressing need.
 For specified temperature, system achieves equilibrium. Shifting
temperature, shifts equilibrium, as in endothermic/exothermic reversible
reactions.
 In chemical reactor design, temp is leading parameter.
 Change in temperature deteriorates large scale production.

Temperature control is important for separation and reaction processes, and

temperature must be maintained within limits to ensure safe and reliable
operation of process equipment.
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2.3 TEMPERATURE SCALES;

___________________________________

Long ago it was recognized that uniformity in the measurement of

temperature is essential. It would be unwise to rely on such subjective
judgments of temperature as cool, cooler, coolest; therefore arbitrary scales
were devised for it. Scales are developed to define measurements by
thermometer in a standard calibration*(iStandard temperature scales were
developed on basis of some reproducible fixed points such as freezing point,
boiling point of water, also called ice point and steam point respectively.
Since pressure varies these points; pressure is assumed as standardized
typically 1atm.

Water is deliberately selected as standard of calibration, fixing two point; ice

point a 00C and steam point, 1000C. The interval between ice point of water
and steam point is known as fundamental interval. To graduate thermometer
between these point, scale is divided into equal number of parts; for
example, in 0C, considering ice and steam point,100 equal parts of each as
10C is calibrated as measure of temperature, while it is 1.8 degree for
Fahrenheit scale ranging from 32 to 212; 212-32 = 180; so interval would be
1.8 scale reading on graduation.

What is Absolute & relative scales of measurements?

Absolute temperature = 273.150C + thermometer reading in 0C

It has been found that gas will not occupy any volume at certain
temperature. This temperature is known as absolute zero temperature.
Stated in degree centigrade, point of absolute zero is found to be 273.15ºC
below freezing point of water. A temperature in reproducible and repeatable
reference according to which temperature measurement is recorded,
calibrating that reference as zero scale reading is known as reference
temperature.
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2.4 TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS;

______________________________________

Temperature cannot be measured directly, although its effect can be.

Therefore all temperature-measuring instruments use some change in a
material to indicate temperature.
Some of the effects that are used to indicate temperature are changes
in physical properties like electrical resistance, state and altered physical
dimensions.

Temperature measuring instruments can be classified broadly in different

ways:

 MECHANICAL Temperature Measuring Instruments

 ELECTRICAL Temperature Measuring Instruments
Or,
“Instruments used to measure ordinary temperature are known

as thermometers, while that for measuring high temperatures are

The approach to measure temperature through various devices is discussed
known as pyrometers.”
in the next section.

Classification Temperature Range

Thermometry < 650ºC
Pyrometery >650ºC
Cryogenics 0 to -273ºC

2.5 EXPANDABLE ELEMENT THERMOMETERS;

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They are the simplest form of thermometers and translate the change of
temperature by directly showing the mechanical motion and are based on
the material’s property to expand with temperature. The mechanical motion
is read on a physical scale to indicate temperature.

Convincing points:

Thermometers based on property that whenever material (fluid, gas, solid)

are heated, the molecules gradually becomes wild on collisions. On increasing
temperature there collisions increases, and if it is a constant volume vessel
pressure rise takes place along with temperature. Hence material on
application of heat expands or tries to expand on some fixed magnitude
(descried later on bi-metallic thermometer). While a fluid on heating expands
with specific expansion co-efficient.

2.5.1 LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER:

The most common and widely used method of temperature measurement is

by liquid in glass thermometer. The liquid expands as the temperature
increases and is directly measured by visual detection.

Working Principle and Construction:

A simple liquid in glass thermometer comprises of a bulb, a stem and a

temperature scale. Also a contraction chamber and an expansion chamber
are necessary for correct working of the thermometer. The main purpose of
the parts of the thermometer is:
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 Bulb is the reservoir for containing the thermometric liquid.

 Stem is a glass capillary tube through which the mercury or organic liquid
fluctuates with changes in temperature.
 The scale is graduated in degrees, fractions or multiples of degrees.
 Contraction Chamber is an enlarged capillary bore which serves to reduce a
long length of capillary, or prevent contraction of the entire liquid column
into the bulb.
 Expansion Chamber is an enlargement of the capillary bore at the top of the
thermometer to prevent build up of excessive pressures in thermometer.

When heat is supplied, it is transferred to the bulb of the thermometer; the

expansion of the liquid in the bulb causes liquid to rise in the column. The rise
in temperature is indicated by scale calibrated along the stem of the
thermometer. The
Working Temperature
liquid used is mostly
LiquidWorking Range (ºC)Working
mercury because of
liquid
its good temperature
range, freezing and non-
wetting
Figure 2.3 Construction of liquid in glass thermometer
propert
ies. The
coefficient of expansion of mercury is several times higher than glass but its
toxicity limits its use
nowadays. For higher
temperature the
mercury can be filled
with some inert gas at
high pressure or
alcohol can be used.
But glass is fragile for
very high
temperatures and
thus the temperature
range is limited to
600ºC. Table 2.1
shows the working
range of fluid used in

filled thermometers.
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Mercury -38 to 650

Toluene -90 to 100
Ethyl alcohol -110 to 100
Pentane -200 to 20

Table 2.1 Working range of fluids used in filled thermometer;

Advantages:

 Low cost.
 Portable.
 Low maintenance.
 Small errors in full immersion type thermometers.

Disadvantages:

 Fragile.
 Remote indication is not possible.
 Very large errors in partial immersion type thermometers.
 Great time lag between actual & indicated temperature on account of
thermal
 Capability of bulb.

2.5.2 FILLED THERMAL SYSTEM:

Filled thermal systems are more practical than simple thermometers in the
way that they can indicate temperature reading at remote distances from the
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point of measurement. Also called as Pressure Spring thermometers, they are

simple in construction and are considered as most inexpensive way to
monitor temperature in process control. They have use in wide range of
industries like food, paper and textile industry and availability of choice of
different fluids adds to the popularity.

Basic Construction:

The basic components comprising all filled systems are same i.e. a metal bulb
connected by a capillary tube to an expansion element like Bourdon tube,
diaphragm or bellows. The filling fluid of the system is temperature sensitive
that changes in volume or pressure with temperature. This system can be
connected to a chart recorder, actuator or pointer to get the temperature
reading.

The response of the thermometer is dependent mainly on the material and

size of the bulb. The response of the thermometer gets sluggish as the size of
the bulb and the thickness of the bulb walls increases. Stainless steel is the
most commonly used material for the bulb and capillary tube. Bulbs can be
connected to the capillary tube via flexible extension, where the insertion in
the target point is difficult directly or the bulb can continue directly into the
tube. A well is sometimes provided with the bulb to protect it from high
pressure fluids and other damages possible from corrosive process fluids. The
space between bulb and well should be minimum or filled with some material
so that it does not hinder the thermal conductivity and delays the response.

Working:

The bulb of the thermometer is inserted inside the process fluid. The
change in temperature of the process fluid results in the change of pressure
or volume of the system fluid in the bulb. This change is communicated
through the capillary tube to the expansion element. Thus decrease or
increase in the temperature, coils or uncoils the expansion elements and
cause the movement of the final element i.e. a pointer or a pen.
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Classification:

The Scientific Apparatus Makers Association (SAMA) classifies the filled

systems on the basis of the fluid employed as follows:

Class Ι Liquid-filled thermometers (volume change)

Class II Vapors Pressure thermometers (Pressure change)

Class III Gas thermometers (Pressure change)

Class V Mercury-filled thermometers (volume change)

2.5.2.1 LIQUID FILLED THERMOMETERS:

This type of thermometer employs liquids other than mercury. The whole
system is completely filled with liquid. Change in temperature causes the
change in volume and the expansion element expands or contracts in return.
Bourdon tube is mostly used as expansion element for medium and high
range thermometers. Alcohol and some other hydrocarbons like benzene,
ether and xylene are preferred choice of liquid for this kind of thermometers.
The upper limit of the thermometer is defined by the boiling point of the
liquid filled in the system because of the chance of vapor formation within
the system. To deal with this the liquid in the system is filled at a higher
pressure and thus increases the range of the thermometer. The temperature
range for this kind of system can vary from -300 to 1200ºF, depending on
the liquid used. The scale is linear and is evenly divided.

The length of the capillary tube can be used to give the temperature
indication at a distance of, as far as 100m but then the system should be
properly calibrated and should be compensated for ambient temperature
effect.

2.5.2.2 VAPOR PRESSURE THERMOMETERS:

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In these thermometers a volatile liquid is used so the system is filled with

both liquid and vapors. The bulb contains the liquid but is partially filled and
the capillary tube contains the vapor and pressure is transmitted to the
expansion element by the vapors. The principle of this kind of thermometer is
that vapor pressure is a function of temperature but the relationship is not a
linear one and thus the scale is not evenly divided resulting in spaces that
gradually increase with temperature.

The most common liquid used in this type of thermometers are ethyl
alcohol, methyl chloride, ether and toluene etc. the choice of the liquid is
dependent on the critical pressure and boiling point of the liquid so that
enough vapor pressure is developed to move the pointer with the help of
expansion element.

The ambient temperature effect does not affect the temperature reading in
these thermometers but the level of the bulb with respect to instrument
causes the head effect and hence instrument response and accuracy is
affected. For these problems a little non volatile liquid is filled before the
volatile liquid. They are extensively used because of the fast response, low
cost and ease of repair.
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Figure 2.4 Filled Thermal System

2.5.2.3 GAS FILLED THERMOMETERS:

These thermometers are based on the basic gas law and show that when the
volume is constant, the pressure becomes direct function of temperature. So
in this system some inert gas is present in the bulb, capillary tube and
bourdon tube and the pressure the gas communicates with the help of
expansion of elements to the scale is the indication of the temperature
change. Although no gas obeys gas laws perfectly but these thermometers
show very little deviation and are considered very accurate way of measuring
temperature.

The gas employed should be inert with good coefficient of expansion and
low specific heats. Helium and nitrogen are most commonly used gases.

The construction is same as for the liquid filled thermometer and the
ambient temperature effect problem and the temperature compensation
used for the capillary tube is also same. Because of these issues the bulb of
the gas thermometers is relatively large, much larger than the liquid filled
thermometers.

They are used for temperatures upto 1000ºF and are used for wide
measuring spans. When the bulb size is large the response is delayed but with
the negligible capillary length, the size of the bulb can be comparatively
reduced and they become the fastest response thermometers.

Advantages:

 The gas in the bulb has a lower thermal capacity than similar quantity of the
liquid so that the response of thermometer to the temperature change will
be more than that for a liquid filled system with a bulb of a same size and
shape.
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 It act like a perfect gas at extremely low temperature

Disadvantages:

 Leakage is one of the problems.

 They are used for temperatures up to 1000ºF maximum.
 When the bulb size is large the response is delayed, so cannot be used in
compact space.

2.5.2.4 MERCURY FILLED THERMOMETERS:

These thermometers are like liquid filled thermometer except for the fact
that the liquid employed is only mercury or some alloy of mercury and hence
differ in the constraints that are limitations of using mercury.

The need to classify mercury filled thermometers as separate type of

thermometers lies in the suitable properties of mercury as a filling fluid for
measuring temperature. It gives a fast and accurate response but can only be
used with stainless steel system and thus in a process where stainless steel
system is not desirable in the process, some other class of thermometer is
employed. Also their use should be avoided when mercury leakage can
contaminate the system.

The temperature range can be expanded up to 1200ºF but for temperature

lower than -40ºF mercury alloys are utilized.

2.5.3 BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS:

This type of thermometer is based on the property of solid expansion. When

metals are heated they expand at different rates proportional to the
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temperature change, the square of the length, and inversely as the thickness
in the linear deformation.

Two different metallic wires are welded together in length to form the
bimetallic strip. Each metal has a different coefficient of expansion (k), the
metal with higher coefficient of expansion expands more than the metal with
lower coefficient of expansion and thus the strip bends in the direction of
metal with less expansion.

Figure 2.5. Bimetallic strip

The difference in expansion of the two metals results in twisting of bimetallic

strip. The strip is utilized in the thermometer in two configuration mainly
spiral or helix. One end is fixed and the free end is attached to some pointer
or a electrical contact. When the heat is supplied, the strip rotates and the
pointer moves over the temperature scale or complete contact with the
electrical signal to indicate temperature.

Bimetallic thermometers are usually employed where continued monitoring

of temperature is not required. It is easier to read and low cost compact
 17

rugged instrument but not used where high accuracy is required and has a
relatively slow response so mostly used in on/off applications. Their
operating range is from -180ºC to 430ºC.

Figure 2.6. Bimetallic dial thermometer

Advantages:

 Simple, robust and inexpensive.

 It has good accuracy.
 It can measure temperature in the range of (-40 to 550) in Celsius.
 It can withstand 50% overage temperature measurement.

Disadvantages:

 Not recommended for measurement of temperature above 550ºC

 The metals undergo permanent warp distortion.
 Usage is limited to local mounting.

2.5 THERMO ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS;

These instruments employ electric charge as a principle source to measure

temperature; some devices as will be explained later require voltage source
to operate while others generate potential difference to show EMF as output,
requiring an additional device to record reading like potentiometer.
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Convincing points;

Electricity like heat and pressure is a form of energy. Heat energy can affect
the production and flow of electrical energy. A thermometer can be made
which indicates temperature by indicating some change in electricity. In these
devices a change in amount of electrical energy indicate change in
temperature. All substances have a tendency to resist the flow of electricity;
however, heating and cooling substances can change its resistance to the
flow of electricity. All substances have tendency to resist the flow of
electricity. Electrical thermocouples may measure amount of electricity or
measure the amount of resistance to the flow of electricity (RTDs).

Devices classified under name of electrical thermometers are discussed next;

2.6.1 THERMOCOUPLES;

________________________________________

Theory:

A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metallic wires joined together.

When the two junctions are exposed to two different temperatures, electric
current flows through the circuit. When one end of a conductive material is
heated more than the other end, the electrons at that end become thermally
energized compared to the electrons at cooler end and redistribution of
electrons occur by the diffusion of more energetic electrons towards the
cooler end. This creates a positive charge at the hotter end and negative at
the opposite end, thus an electrostatic voltage is produced due to
redistribution of thermally energized electrons.

This thermo-electric effect was

first recognized and described by
Seeback and is known as Seeback
effect. It states that when two
dissimilar metals are joined and

Figure 2.7 Thermocouple

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exposed to temperature gradient, the voltage difference produced is directly

proportional to the temperature difference between the two junctions.

Construction:

The main component of a thermocouple comprises two dissimilar metals.

Many combination of metals are possible and any randomly chosen metals
might produce a thermal voltage when faced by a temperature gradient but
emf produced will be unpredictable and not of much use. Over the years, few
thermo elements have been developed that have proved to be very practical,
useful and easily reproducible.

The performance of the thermocouple materials is generally checked by

using it with platinum. The materials are ranked as positive or negative with
respect to platinum. In selecting a pair of thermocouples wires, one wire
should be positive and other negative for it to create maximum emf. The
larger the value of the emf produced, the greater will be the sensitivity of the
system an higher will be the accuracy with which the temperature is
measured.

Figure 2.8. Internal Construction of

a Typical Thermocouple

Figure 2.8 shows the internal

construction of a typical
thermocouple. The leads of the
thermocouple are encased in a rigid
metal sheath. The measuring junction
is normally formed at the bottom of
the thermocouple housing.
Magnesium oxide surrounds the
thermocouple wires to prevent
 20

vibration that could damage the fine wires and to enhance heat transfer
between the measuring junction and the medium surrounding the
thermocouple.

Working:

When measuring junction of the thermocouple is exposed to heat, voltage is

produced which is greater than voltage across the reference junction. The
difference of the voltage between two junctions is proportional to difference
between the temperature and it can be measured with the help of a
voltmeter (see Figure 2.9). To convert the voltage reading to temperature
reading tables, data sheets and charts are provided by the manufacturers.

Figure 2.9 Simple Thermocouple Circuit

Since output is read in voltage, it is interpreted into temperature by using

supporting material provided. These tables have a list of specific
temperatures corresponding to the voltage readings in milli volts. A sample of
one such table and graph is shown below.

Table 2.3 Pyromation Inc’s Thermocouple Table

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Figure 2.10 Graphical inter conversion EMF to

temperature for different types of thermocouples.
MILLIVOLTS
 22

Table 2.2 Operating Ranges for Thermocouples and Seeback Coefficients

The temperature of the reference junction is supposed to be kept at constant

temperature for thermocouples to indicate correct temperature. For
laboratory work and for calibrating thermocouples, the reference junction is
usually kept in an ice bath (at 0°C) or a kind of miniature oven which is
heated and kept at a constant temperature. When the cold junction is not at
0°C, the temperature of this junction must be known in order to determine
the actual hot-junction temperature. The output voltage of the thermocouple
must also be compensated to account for the voltage created by the non-
zero cold-junction temperature. The compensated output voltage must be
translated into the corresponding temperature.

In industrial applications, a circuit known as a cold junction compensation

circuit is normally used to automatically account for the temperature of the
reference junction. One method is to use a temperature sensitive
compensating resistor in the measuring circuit. This resistor is located close
to the reference junction so that both are equally affected by any change in
ambient temperature.

Thermocouples are used in series to increase the sensitivity and accuracy by

increasing the output voltage when measuring low temperature differences.
This arrangement is known as thermopile.

2.6.2 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DEVICE (RTD);

 23

When temperature of wire changes, the resistance offered to the flow of

current through wire also changes. We know how much resistance a metal,
such as platinum, has to flow of electricity if we know the temperature. We
can figure out how much resistance platinum will exert on the flow of current
300F, and vice versa.

Working Principle;

Metals usually increase in resistance with rise in temperature. An electric

current passes through a platinum wire .As temperature changes the amount
of current flow through the wire changes. a source of EMF is provided to
circuit. The wire gets hotter and its resistance increases .thus at high
temperature lesser current flows through circuit. This change is recorded,
and temperature can be found on calibrated scale.

Wire wound elements contain a length of very small diameter wire which is
either wound into a coil and packaged inside a ceramic mandrel, or wound
around the outside of a ceramic housing and coated with an insulating
material (see Figure 2.11) . Larger lead wires are provided which allow the
larger extension wires to be connected to the very small element wire.
 24

Figure 2.11 Constructional feature of Wire woumd element RTD

Do you know?

The ultra high accurate version of RTD is known as Standard Platinum

Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) having accuracy at ±0.0001°C.

Film type sensing elements are made from a metal coated substrate which
has a resistance pattern cut into it. This pattern acts as a long, flat, skinny
conductor, which provides the electrical resistance. Lead wires are bonded to
the metal coated substrate and are held in place using a bead of epoxy or
glass (see Figure 2.12).
 25

Figure 2.12 Constructional feature of Wire woumd element RTD (source:

pyromation inc.)

The resistance thermometer is a Wheatstone bridge arrangement (see Figure

2.13) where the potentiometer adjusts for any unbalance. A change of
resistance in any one of the four legs will be indicated by a current flow. The
change in resistance is measured and after proper calibration temperature
reading is obtained.

Figure 2.13 Wheat stone bridge circuit with RTD

Unbalanced and balanced are the two types of bridge circuits that are used in
resistance thermometer temperature detection circuits. The unbalanced
bridge circuit uses a milli-voltmeter that is calibrated in units of temperature
that correspond to the RTD resistance. The balanced bridge circuit uses a
galvanometer to compare the RTD resistance with that of a fixed resistor. The
galvanometer uses a pointer that deflects on either side of zero when the
resistance of the arms is not equal. The resistance of the slide wire is
adjusted until the galvanometer indicates zero. The value of the slide
resistance is then used to determine the temperature of the system being
monitored.
 26

Effect of temperature changes on resistances:

As temperature changes , resistance is changed . Now let us account how to

find magnitude of resistance at different temperatures.

“It is our desire that resistance scale with temperature must be

linear for a good RTD instrument”

Platinum Scale (0 to 100 °C)

RT = resistance in ohms at temperature T (ºC)

R0 = resistance at 0ºC (the ice point)

α = mean temperature coefficient of resistance of Pt between 0 & 100ºC

where,

Platinum scale (0 to 650. 30 °C)

 27

The coefficient K1 is obtained from the measurement of the resistance of the

platinum wire at 444.60ºC, which is the boiling point of sulfur (sulfur point);
or at 419.505ºC, the freezing point of zinc is recommended value to use.

Platinum scale (Below 0 °C)

The coefficient K2 is obtained from the measurement of the resistance of the

platinum wire at -182.97ºC, which is the boiling point of oxygen. That value of
T will be negative and all other coefficients will be same as before.

Compensation for losses:

In industrial scale, RTD is located at remote location from circuit. Therefore in

order to accommodate losses as result of resistance, since resistance is
directly proportional to length, so some factor must be added into total
resistance to result actual variable output.

Cu = 0.0302 Ω per ft.

This means for copper 0.0302 ohm losses are produced as resistant increases
with length, per feet. This is to be added into actual resistance to calculate
actual figure of resistance.
 28

2.6.3 THERMISTORS;

___________________________________________

Some types of materials conduct electricity more easily at high temperature

than at low temperature. These materials have decreased resistance at
increase temperature. This effect is opposite from that what happens in
platinum and other metals. Resistance element thermometers that decrease
its resistance on increasing temperature are called thermistors. As
temperature increases, it is easier for charge to flow through thermistor. It is
the most sensitive temperature measuring device.

Types of Thermistors;
 Negative temperature coefficient
 Positive temperature coefficient

Negative Temperature Coefficient;

An NTC thermistor is one in which the zero-power resistance decreases with
an increase in body temperature.

Positive Temperature Coefficient;

A PTC thermistor is one in which the zero-power resistance increases with an
increase in body temperature.

Working Principle;

To measure temperature with a thermistor, it is placed in the environment

whose temperature is to be measured. As the temperature of environment
changes, the resistance changes as well. Increase temperature, decreases the
resistance and vice versa. This change in thermistor resistance can be
detected which will be the measure of the temperature of the substance.
Generally the thermistor is placed as one leg of a wheatstone bridge circuit,
as in figure 2.14.

At balanced condition , when there is no change in temperature the

galvanometer indicates zero, as temperature increases or decreases, the
resistance of thermistor also decreases or increases due to which the
 29

wheatstone circuit becomes unbalanced. Thus , an electric current flows

through the galvanometer, which indicates temperature on calibrated scale.

Figure 2.14 Wheatstone circuit for Thermistor with

inverting amplifier.

Temperature coefficient of a thermistor, is not a constant but itself varies as

temperature changes. The resistance is related to temperature in real as

Where Tr is reference temperature and is generally 298K.

Thus thermistors are highly non linear devices, depending on process

parameters. Manufacturers have not standardized thermistor curves to the
extent of RTDs and individual curves can be approximated through use of the
Steinhart-Hart equation.

Construction:
 30

Thermistors are manufactured by a mixture of two or more metal oxide

powders combined with suitable binders, are formed to a desired geometry,
dried, and sintered at an elevated temperature. By varying the types of
oxides used, their relative proportions, the sintering atmosphere, and the
sintering temperature, a wide range of resistivities and temperature
coefficient characteristics can be obtained. Oxides of nickel, manganese, iron,
cobalt, magnesium, titanium and other metals are generally used. They are
epoxy encapsulated and color coded, with two leads. Thermistors can be
used from temperatures of –80°C to 300°C. Mostly thermistors are limited to
a maximum temperature of 150°C. Some of the higher temperature
thermistors, which are glass coated, can be used up to 300°C. Because they
are semiconductors, thermistors are more susceptible to permanent de-
calibration at high temperatures. There are two types of thermistors bead
type thermistors and metalized surface coating. Different types of
thermistors are shown in figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15 possible forms of thermistors

The thermistor has been used primarily for high-resolution measurements

over limited temperature ranges (-55° to 150°C). The classic example of this
would be a medical application where the user is only concerned with body
temperature. However, widespread improvements in thermistor stability,
accuracy, and interchangeability have prompted increased usage of
thermistors in all types of industries.
 31

Disadvantages:

 More susceptible to permanent de-calibration at high temperatures.

 Use is limited to a few hundred degrees Celsius.
 Respond quickly to temperature changes, thus, especially susceptible to self-
heating errors.
 Very fragile

2.7 PYROMETERS;

___________________________________________

Pyrometers are non-contact type radiation thermometers based on the fact that
all hot bodies radiate some energy. Radiation is just energy carried by photons,
packets of light of various wavelengths. Each photon carries a fixed amount of
energy:

Where h is Planck’s Constant = 6.63 x 10-34 J s and f is the frequency of the

light.

The theoretical concept behind the design of pyrometers is that all bodies
radiate the same color and amount of light at the same temperature. This
attribute of bodies is known as Radiation and the process is known as
emissivity. Emissivity is the radiation efficiency of a body and only ideal
radiating body has an emissivity of one, all other bodies have less than one
emissivity. The radiation is actually energy emitted from a hot body through a
wide spectrum of wavelength i.e., ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions.

The fundamental equation describing emission of radiation from Stefan-

Boltzmann equation,
Where, E is the emissivity power radiated per unit area and ε is the
emissivity, defined as the fraction of blackbody radiation emitted by an actual
surface. Emissivity lies between 0 and 1, and is dimensionless. Its value
depends greatly on the type of surface. A blackbody has an emissivity of
exactly 1. σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann equation.

A pyrometer can be sensitive to the whole spectrum or to only a part of it.

The classification of pyrometers has not yet been strictly stated and many
names of different pyrometers but based basically on same working principle
creates confusion. There are three types of pyrometer (or radiation
thermometer) based on spectrum. In chronological order of development
they are
 32

 the brightness pyrometers (single color)

 the ratio pyrometers (two or more color)
 the automatic pyrometers (total radiation)

2.7.1 BRIGHTNESS PYROMETERS;

In these instruments, color of an object or brightness is indication of its

temperature. The amount of light is translated directly into the temperature:
the more light, the higher the temperature. They measure the temperature
by determining the brightness of the surface that is to be measured. The
color and brightness are related phenomena as when brightness changes the
color changes. Some common types of this specific kind of pyrometers are
optical pyrometer and disappearing filament pyrometers.

These pyrometers compare the intensity of incoming radiation with that of

lamp at particular wavelength. The process includes matching of the
intensities of the two light subjects by viewing through the pyrometer. One of
the subjects is the hot body whose temperature measurement is required the
other is a reference filament of a calibrated electric lamp with varying
resistance available.

The measurement of the temperature is done by matching the brightness

and color and for this the manipulation of the reference filament
temperature is required. This can be done by using the filament after
calibrating its temperature as a function of supplied current. The brightness
of the filament is changed by a rheostat to match the subject and the current
supplied is measured. Another design maintains a constant current to the
filament and changes the brightness of the target by means of a rotatable
energy-absorbing optical wedge. The object temperature is related to the
amount of energy absorbed by the wedge, which is a function of its annular
position.
 33

Figure 2.16 Brightness Pyrometer

Photometric Match for Temperature Indication:

View through Telescope Correct Too High Too Low

The light viewed in this instrument is monochromatic and is not affected by

difference in individual judgment of color and sensation. The target
material’s emissivity controls the detected brightness, the emissivity must be
known for the measured temperature to be accurate. However, emissivity
depends on texture, wavelength, composition, and temperature, which
means it’s almost always unknown and is one of the main disadvantages of
this type of pyrometers. They are usually used for temperature of 1400C with
tungsten filament but the range can be increased upto 3500C in different
instruments.

2.7.2 RATIO PYROMETERS;

___________________________________________
 34

This type of pyrometer is also known as Ratio pyrometer as in this, the ratio
of the two radiant intensities of the body is considered to measure its
temperature. The error of unknown and changing emissivity present in one
color pyrometer is tried to be eliminated in this type of pyrometers by using
two different wavelengths from same radiation source. These instruments
include two detectors sensitive at different colors or wavelengths.

Mathematically, the division of the amount of light measured by each

detector, or the ratio, can be solved for the temperature electronically. In
ideal cases, the emissivity is the same at both colors and cancels out in this
division.

Emissivity of all materials does not change equally at different wavelengths.

Materials for which emissivity does change equally at different wavelengths
are called gray bodies. Materials for which this is not true are called non-gray
bodies or black bodies. In real emissivity usually changes with wavelength or
color and thus relative emissivity is to be utilized. And this relative emissivity
is not known with accuracy and changes with the processing so any change in
emissivity or obstruction in the path does not cause error in the reading and
makes this ratio pyrometer a good choice in the processes where the cancelling
out of emissivity of grey bodies is valid and give a true temperature reading.
They are also considered a good option for the processes where accuracy is
required and covers a wide range of temperature.

Figure 2.17 Ratio Pyrometers

The issues of one and two color pyrometers are solved in expert system of
Multi-wavelength pyrometer. When more than two wavelengths are used to
measure temperature it is known as a Multi-wavelength pyrometer. They are
like virtually a lot of pyrometers at one place. They use mathematical
 35

algorithms to handle all the wavelength data and thus give a very accurate
reading at that point with tolerance indicating the deviation of the
temperature reading and strength indicating the change in emissivity during
the measurement. They are also referred to as Spectro Pyrometer.

2.7.3 TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETERS;

___________________________________________

These pyrometers are sensitive to the total energy emission of the hot body.
To increase the precision of the temperature reading instrument, almost all
radiation is focused on to the detector with the help of the optical system
including lenses and mirrors. These are the automatic pyrometers in which
the detector converts the energy collected into electrical signal which drives
a temperature display or a controller unit.

Figure 2.18 Total Radiation Pyrometer

At low temperatures when lenses are not required, mirrors were used. In
case of fiberoptic pyrometers light guides are used. The detectors used can
be of variant types like thermocouple or photoelectric detectors.
Photoelectric detectors include photoconductors, photo diodes, photo voltaic
cells and vacuum photocells.
 36

The thermocouple in pyrometer does not need to come in direct contact

because radiation is focused on the sensing element and hence very high
temperatures can be measured. The amount of radiant heat absorbed is
supposed to be sufficiently large to produce a large emf which is measurable.
This is done by connecting several thermocouples in series known as

Thermopile.

The radiation pyrometers are used for non-ideal non-black body conditions
by means of either correction factor for reduced emissivity or by reading
temperatures rather for comparison than for their absolute value.

Advantages:

 It can measure very high temperatures without any contact with medium and
process materials. Accordingly it is free from any physical or chemical attack
that can cause other measuring devices to deteriorate in use.
 There is no practical higher limit to the temperature that a pyrometer can
measure.
 Very fast rate of change of temperature can be followed by pyrometers.

Disadvantages:

 A pyrometer is a more expensive device as compared to other temperature

measuring devices.
 For every new situation pyrometer needs to be recalibrated.
 Temperature of the surroundings effect the reading of the pyrometer such
errors are very difficult to eliminate

2.8 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR TEMPERATURE

SENSORS;

___________________________________________

Range (ºC) Accuracy Applications/

Instrument & Remarks
Material
 37

Liquid-in-glass thermometers
Mercury -40 to 750 0.01 ºC Good for conventional
use.
Alcohol/Toluene -100 to 50 0.1 ºC Best for low
temperatures
Bimetallic Thermometers
-185 to 450 1% Reliable, low cost;
mostly used in
thermostats, circuit
breakers.
Filled Thermal Systems
liquid -50 to 300 1% Sluggish response
Vapor/gas -240 to 535 1% Sluggish respose,
unequal divisions
Resistance Thermometers
Platinum -250 to 1000 0.01 ºC Highly accurate,
expensive, stable
Nickel -150 to 300 0.50 ºC
copper -200 to 120 0.10 ºC Stable, inexpensive
Thermocouples
Platinum- 0 to 1450 0.10 ºC High accuracy
rhodium
Iron-Constantan -200 to 750 0.50 ºC Low cost, good response
Copper- -200 to 350 0.20 ºC with small diameter.
Constantan
Pyrometers
Optical 500 to 4500 0.5 % Measures temperature
where conventional
instruments fail(
measures without
Radiation -50 to 5500 0.5 %
contact and of moving
objects), Expensive.
 38

2.9 CALIBRATION;

___________________________________________

Calibration of instruments is a mandatory check to ensure accuracy and

proper working of instruments. Temperature measuring instruments are
generally all calibrated by establishing some fixed points for example triple
point of water, boiling point of oxygen and zinc point, and checking accuracy
of the instruments at them. Three temperature measuring instruments are
used as primary standards namely Platinum resistance thermometer,
platinum-rhodium thermocouple and optical pyrometer. They are constructed
as specified by the National Bureau of Standard Calibration and are calibrated
accordingly at fixed points. When instruments are calibrated against primary
standards then it is called secondary calibration. Some basic calibration
techniques of temperature measuring instruments are as follows:

a. For Expandable thermometers the calibration is mostly done by immersing

them in ice water and boiling water bath to check upper and lower fixed
points. Equilibrium mixtures of solid, liquid and gas indicating triple point are
also used as calibrating material bath. The type of bath and its composition is
mainly dependent on the type and range of thermometer to be calibrated.
Constant temperature baths are also very popular because of the excellent
thermal contact, stability and flexibility for calibrating a variety of
temperature.

b. The resistance thermometers are calibrated by comparison with another

standard temperature instrument’s readings. For resistance thermometer,
the simplest method is to calibrate it against a triple point cell or ice bath. In
resistance thermometer an additional fixed point may be employed to check
the change in the ratio R100 to R0 with change in temperature, where R100 is
resistance of metal at 100ºC and R0 is resistance at 0ºC.

c. In case of thermocouples, the instruments such as base metal standards,

fixed point cells, platinum resistance thermometers and liquid-in-glass
thermometers can all be used to accurately calibrate thermocouples if the
proper calibration procedures are followed. The controlled temperature
source is set at the specified temperature. The test assembly is immersed
into the test temperature medium. The EMF generated between the test
specimen and the reference standard is recorded. A sequence of readings
from low temperature to high temperature can be obtained this way.
 39

d. The instrument manufacturer calibrates a pyrometer by aiming it a

blackbody source, which is designed specifically for testing and calibrating
pyrometer. Blackbody sources resemble a furnace with an opening to view a
surface or cavity heated and controlled to a selected temperature.
Pyrometers are aimed at that furnace opening and their readings are
compared to that of a master pyrometer.

2.10 ACCESSORIES WITH TEMPERATURE SENSORS;

___________________________________________

Temperature measuring instruments are provided with several accessories

for industrial applications in order to ensure their protection and durability
and to make them more compatible with the process and hostile
environment. A few of them are mentioned here;

2.10.1 PROTECTIVE
COVERING;

___________________
___________________
_____

The thermometers and

thermocouples are often provided
with protective covering to protect
them from pressure, corrosion,
abrasion or vibration in process.
They are used for providing
isolation between a temperature
 40

sensor and the environment to measure the temperature. This protects the
sensor from getting damaged when inserted into the hazardous fluid or
slurry. Another main benefit is that it allows the temperature sensor to be
removed and replaced without compromising either the ambient region or
the process.

There are generally three types of protective covering that are used namely:

 Thermowells
 Metal Protection Sheath
 Ceramic Protection Sheath

2.10.2 CONNECTIONS;

___________________________________________

As the name suggests they connect two parts of the assembly. They provide
connection between the sensors and the remote instrumentation. They are
available in different forms by manufacturers according to the buyer’s
requirement. Some types of connections are:

Connection heads, Extension wires, unions, couplings.

CHAPTER 3

PRESSURE
 41

MEASUREMENT
 42

Chapter 03
Pressure Measurement

Objectives
The objective of this chapter is;

 Study of pressure measuring instruments

of latest technologies.
 Types / classification and working
principles of pressure measuring
instruments.
 Selection criteria of pressure measuring
devices to suit an application.
 43

3.1 INTRODUCTION;
________________________________________

Pressure is the force exerted per unit area and it is in perpendicular direction
to the surface it contacts. The significance of understanding pressure
measurement instruments is enhanced as it may be used inferentially to
measure other variables like flow, temperature and level.

The standard SI unit for pressure measurement is the Pascal (Pa) which is
equivalent to one Newton per square meter (N/m2) or the Kilopascal (kPa)
where 1 kPa = 1000 Pa. In the English system, pressure is usually expressed in
pounds per square inch (psi) and in psig ‘g’ is indication of the gauge pressure.
Pressure can be expressed in many different units including in terms of a
height of a column of liquid.

Table 3.1:

3.2 TYPES OF PRESSURE MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS;
___________________________________

The process pressure measurement instruments can be categorized in different

generalized ways like direct reading and indirect reading or mechanical and
electrical sensors. A more particularized classification has been opted here
dividing pressure sensors into liquid column type, elastic, electrical and
vacuum pressure measuring instruments.

Liquid column pressure measuring instruments are very simple in operation.

They work similar to manometers; their types and working principles have
been discussed in Annexure ‘C’.

3.3 ELASTIC ELEMENT PRESSURE GAUGES;

___________________________________

Elastic deformation is a phenomenon where a material when subjected to

some force, it will distort or deform and will return to its original form when
the force is removed provided that the force is within the elastic limit of the
 44

material. Elastic elements employed in this type of pressure gauges show

elastic deformation. The magnitude of deformation is measure of the force,
which is indication of the pressure that caused the force. The most dynamic
feature of elastic elements is that they are not only utilized for pressure
measurement but also for flow measurement and level detection.

Different shapes of elastic elements have been devised to cover different type
of pressure ranges. From low to high pressure range, the elastic element
pressure gauges can be described in following order:

1. Bellow type
2. Diaphragm type
3. Bourdon type

3.3.1 BELLOW TYPE:

These types of pressure gauges are sensitive to very low pressure and thus
make it possible to specify low pressures with the help of proper indicating
mechanism. They are sensitive and strong enough to deliver accurate readings
in any type of recording devices. They are employed in conjunction with a
spring to increase their range without damaging the elastic element.

Figure 3.1: Metallic Bellow

Construction:
A typical bellow is a metallic unit made up of small circular parts which forms
deep folds or convolutions of thin walled tubing. The main attribute of this
elastic element is that it only expands axially when pressure is applied. By
increasing the number of convolution, the axial movement of bellow can be
increased and by increasing the diameter of the bellow element force for a
given pressure can be increased.
 45

Bellows elastic elements can be made from brass, bronze, stainless steel,
beryllium- copper or any other metal alloy depending on the type of service
required. The main factors to be considered regarding the material of
construction of a bellow are mainly strength or pressure to be faced,
hysteresis, fatigue (cycles constituting normal life) and corrosion resistance or
corrosion protection.

Bellow is connected by linkages to either direct pressure indication through

pointer or electrical signal system as in transducer. Mostly bellows assembly
comprises a spring which does not let bellow expand completely and helps
avoid permanent damage. They are present as a single element and also as
dual bellow assembly.

Working:
In the simplest case, pressure is applied to the internal side of the bellow
and through a proper mechanical linkage it is communicated to a pointer
indicating reading on a scale. A bellow’s elastic behavior resembles that of a
helical coiled compression spring and within the elastic limits of the bellow
material. The relationship between the deformation and the force applied is a
linear one. Most bellows assemblies are spring loaded and the pressure
indication is result of the force acting on the bellow and the opposing force of
the spring.

A bellow can be used to measure absolute pressure by liberating it from the

effect of atmospheric pressure. This is done by using bellow in a enclosed
vacuum case. Pressure is applied inside of the bellow and only this pressure is
responsible for the reading on the pressure scale.

The more common practice for pressure measuring is a dual bellow assembly
used to measure differential pressure. Two bellows are mechanically joined in
a single case in such a way that when pressure is applied they act opposing
each other. One bellow is already maintained at some specific reference
pressure and thus a greater pressure than that would be required to indicate a
reading after balancing the force. The reference pressure can be atmospheric
pressure for gauge pressure measurement. Bellows can be configured as
electrical pressure transducer to indicate pressure as an electrical signal.
 46

Figure 3.2: Differential Pressure

bellow Gauge

3.3.2 DIAPHRAGM TYPE:

Construction:
Diaphragm element is basically a membrane capable of elastic deformation. It
is a thin film of elastic material having circular shaped convoluted flat or
corrugated structure. The membrane can be of various types of material
depending on the pressure range. For low pressure operations rubber, leather
and plastic sort of materials are employed, for moderate pressures material like
silicon and for high pressure stainless steel or other iron alloys. The diaphragm
pressure gauge has rest of the arrangement same as in case of bellows. The
expansion of diaphragm element together with the spring attached can be
coupled by a mechanical linkage to indicating devices such as strain gauge,
piezoelectric or capacitive devices.

Capsules are formed when two diaphragms are joined back to back together by
soldering, brazing or welding. Metals like brass, bronze, beryllium and copper
are commonly used for making capsules. They are more suitable option for
gaseous media and relatively low pressures.

Figure 3.3
Working:
In simple diaphragm pressure gauges one side of the diaphragm is subjected to
atmospheric or reference pressure and the other side to the external pressure
 47

that is to be measured. The movement of the diaphragm is communicated

mechanically further. When pressure is applied to only one side of the
diaphragm, it gives the gauge pressure. Both sides of a diaphragm are
subjected to different pressure in case of measuring absolute or differential
pressure. In capsules the pressure is applied in the space between the
diaphragms and they are forced apart to expand.

Figure 3.4: Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

3.3.3 BOURDON TYPE:

Construction:
For high pressure measurement, Bourdon type pressure gauges are more
advantageous because of high mechanical strength with a reduced area for
pressure to work against and high spring rate. Bourdon tubes are circular
shaped tubes with oval cross section and are mainly found in following three
shapes:
 C-shaped
 Helical
 Spiral

The shape and material of construction of bourdon tube used depends on the
pressure range for which it is required. The most commonly employed
materials are phosphor bronze, beryllium, copper, or stainless steel. High
tensile strength material is essential for high pressure operations.

Bourdon tubes have hollow circular cross sectional structure. The C shaped
bourdon tube as name suggests is a C-shaped thin walled tube but the
transversal section of the tube is not circular. Along the diameter it has two
opposite flattened sides and two round sides making an elliptical sort of shape.
Spiral and helical bourdon tubes were devised to enhance the movement of the
pointer scale than that obtained from a single turn tube. They have flattened
cross sectional designed to be more sensitive and cover more range.
 48

Figure 3.5(a): Spiral Bourdon tube Figure 3.5(b): C-shaped Bourdon

tube

Figure 3.5(c): Helical

Bourdon tube

Working:
Bourdon tubes have one end fixed and one free end. When pressure is applied
within the tube the surface area of the tube tends to change. The distension
caused in the tube ultimately straightens the tube slightly and gradually until
the pressure is balance by the elasticity of the element. The end that is fastened
to a fixed position remains static, the free end thus moves when the pressure
develops inside the tube and the movement of the free end can be transmitted
through a pointer to indicate reading on a scale or it can be connected to any
other electrical transducers or recording device through mechanical linkage.

The bourdon pressure gages are used with the proper configuration and
calibration to indicate vacuum pressure, gauge pressure, combination
pressures and even negative gauge pressure. Depending on whether the gauges
measure one pressure or two pressures they are also classified as simplex or
duplex respectively. Duplex gauges employ two bourdon tubes with two
pointers to give simultaneously two pressure readings. Differential pressure
indication involves a single pointer with two bourdon tubes, the configuration
is done in a way to give pressure difference rather than point pressures.
 49

3.3.4 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE CELLS:

A DP cell is a differential pressure cell which is utilized to convert pressure

signal into another signal (electric, pneumatic etc). It is used to measure the
differential pressure between two input points. It consists of a sensor, a
transducer and a transmitter combined in a single device. It is a very versatile
instrument and based on how and where it is installed it can be used to
measure differential pressure, absolute pressure, vacuum, level, density and
flow.

Figure 3.6: Typical DP cell

Construction and Working:

In DP cell the sensor is generally composed of two measurement chambers
that are separated by a membrane. The deviation of the membrane due to the
pressure shows the measurement of the differential pressure. The above
mentioned elastic elements bellows and diaphragms are usually used in a DP
cell sensor.
When Bellow is used it is called motion balance cell. The bellow DP cell is
used where electric or pneumatic transmission is not feasible and the signal is
indicated as a rotary motion of indicator utilizing mechanical linkage. The
applied pressure contracts the bellow and the pressure is communicated
through mechanical assembly.
 50

The Diaphragm DP cells

are more popular and are
known as force balance DP
cell. A diaphragm is
present which remains in
actual condition when the
forces on both sides of
diaphragm are equal. The
unequal forces (pressure
difference) create
deformation in the
diaphragm. By the extent of

deformation, the differential

Figure 3.7: Differential Capacitance
pressure is calculated. A typical
Transducer
DP cell is an electrical
capacitance device which includes a capacitive-type measuring chamber
having a relatively rigid diaphragm and an auxiliary chamber having a
relatively flexible diaphragm. It works by applying a differential pressure to
either side of a metal diaphragm submerged in dielectric oil. The diaphragm
forms one plate of a capacitor, and either side of the cell body form the
stationary plates. The movement of the diaphragm produced by the differential
pressure alters the separation between the plates, and alters the electrical
capacitance of the cell, which in turn results in a change in the electrical
output signal.

Figure 3.8: Diaphragm capsule of a DP

cell

Types of DP cells:
The DP cells are generally of two types Pneumatic and Electronic. Pneumatic
transmitters require a compressed air (or nitrogen) supply. A force bar is
provided to maintain the forces acting on the diaphragm in equilibrium. In
 51

pneumatic DP cells, this is often achieved by the use of a nozzle and flapper
arrangement. The electronic DP cells using analogue electronics typically
convert the deflection of the diaphragms into a change in resistance,
inductance or capacitance which is then measured using an integrated circuit
as appropriate. With digital electronics the force is typically applied directly to
a silicon chip with embedded circuits.

Applications of DP cell:

Figure 3.9 (a): Level Figure 3.9 (b): Density

Measurement Measurement

Figure 3.9 (c): Flow rate Figure 3.9 (d): Interface

Measurement Measurement

3.4 ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS;

___________________________________
 52

The elastic pressure gauges have their limitations when it comes to

transmitting pressure signals at a distance and give high speed response.
Electrical pressure transducers can be considered a modified form of elastic
pressure gauges as they employ elastic element. Along with the pressure
sensing element, there are primary and secondary conversion elements to
convert pressure signals into readable signals. So generally, they are the
devices that convert mechanical output into electrical signals.

Figure 3.10: Pressure Detection Block Diagram

3.4.1 STRAIN GAUGE:

Theory:
When a body is subjected to some force, deformation takes place. Strain is
measure of this deformation and is defined as the fractional change in length.
The resistance of a metal conductor under constant temperature varies directly
with length and inversely with cross-sectional area.

R= K L
A
Where,
R = resistance of the wire in ohms
K = resistivity constant for the particular type of wire
L = length of wire
A = cross sectional area of wire

When a wire of such a metal is stretched or is under strain it tends to increase

in length and decrease in diameter which consequently causes change in
resistance of the metal. The change in resistance is measure of the force
applied. The device that exploits these phenomena is known as “Strain Gauge”
and is primarily used to measure the pressure of a system and since they
indicate pressure as an electrical signal they are known as pressure transducer.
 53

Figure 3.11: Strain Gauge

Construction and Working:

The metallic strain gauge consists of fine wire or, more commonly, metallic
foil arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the amount of
metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the parallel direction. Depending on
the wire arrangements and dimensions they can be divided into bonded and
unbonded types.

Bonded type gauges has several loops of wire which are bonded or attached to
some base or carrier sheet of paper or thin plastic of the elastic element. In
unbonded type gauge the strain sensitive resistive components are mounted on
parts having linkage mechanism which have relative motion with respect to
each other. When the pressure is applied the elastic element flexes and along
with it the electrical wire. The resistance in the electrical wire changes and in
order to measure this strain it must be connected to an electric circuit that can
measure minute changes in resistance with change in strain. Strain gage
transducers usually employ four strain gage elements electrically connected to
form a Wheatstone bridge circuit. Wheatstone bridge used, is initially
balanced so that the electrical output is at zero balance. When the pressure-
sensing element is stressed under pressure, the resulting strains change the
resistance of the gages and the bridge will no longer be in balance. The
amount of unbalance is represented by the electrical output, which can be read
on appropriate instrumentation. Strain-gauge pressure transducers can be used
in different configurations for measuring gauge, absolute, and differential
pressures and vacuum.
 54

Figure 3.12 (a) Figure 3.12 (b)

3.4.1.1 LOAD CELLS:

A load cell is a transducer which uses a sensing element to convert applied

force to electrical signals. They are force-balance devices in which the weight
is measured as the change in pressure and depending on the sensing element
and the output produced they can be pneumatic, hydraulic and electrical types.
But the most common type of Load cells are strain gauge based.

Strain Gauge Load Cell:

The load cell strain gauge sensing element is made up of high strength alloys
bonded onto a machined element and is referred to as beam. An assembly of
four strain gauges is usually used in a Wheatstone bridge arrangement and the
change in resistance due to applied load is converted into the electrical signal.
The beam is subjected to different moments and based on the way they detect
them divided Load cell in following main types:

Bending beam
Shear beam
Compression beam
Tension beam
 55

Applications:
 Load cells have wide range of applications in all fields of life but some
common uses are as follows:
 To fill the tanks/hopper/silo of any volume and shape can be controlled and
monitored digitally with help of load cells.
 To fill the bags moving on a conveyer by moving and halting the conveyer:
when the load cell dictates that the bag is filled to the required weight.
 In hydraulic press one load cell equivalent to few million pounds of load
capacity is used.
 The final food product packaging of the required volume is made possible by
load cells.

Advantages:
 High weighing accuracy
 Non invasive

Disadvantage:
Bridging and moisture content can interfere with reading

3.4.2 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER:

Theory:
Piezoelectric transducers have gained popularity as pressure transducers
because of their ability to measure dynamic pressure. They are used to
measure rapidly varying pressure. Their distinctive feature is the primary
sensing element a piezoelectric material such as crystals or quartz. When such
a material is subjected to some force or pressure, voltage is generated which is
proportional to the force applied. This property of piezoelectric materials was
utilized for pressure measurement when the amplification of singles was made
possible.

When a mechanical strain is applied to a piezoelectric sensor, the charge

produced is temporarily stored in inherent capacitance of piezoelectric
material but dissipates soon enough due to leakage. Basically piezoelectric
pressure transducers are electrically active systems which mean that the
piezoelectric element produces an electrical output only when they are
experiencing a force or strain. Thus they cannot be used for true static pressure
measurement. They can be modified in case of quartz with proper signal
conditioners for quasi static measurement.
 56

Piezoelectric devices are classified into different types depending on property

of the piezoelectric element that is measure. It can be material's electrostatic
charge, its resistivity, or its resonant frequency. Depending on which property
is measured, the sensors are called electrostatic, piezo-resistive, or resonant
respectively.

Construction and Working:

The most common piezoelectric
material employed are ceramic and
quartz crystal. Piezo-polymers and
composites are also being used
nowadays. Quartz is a common and
naturally occurring mineral, thus it
makes transducers inexpensive.
Ceramic elements are sensitive where
as crystal element are more stable. The
piezo-element should be selected
carefully to ensure both good linearity Figure 3.13: Piezoelectric
and reduced temperature sensitivity. Pressure Transducer
The transducer contains an elastic element
like diaphragm which senses the pressure or force and transmits it to the
piezoelectric element, which in turn generates the electric signal. The electric
signal needs an amplifier to change to an appreciable measurable quantity for
pressure indication. The piezo elements are assembled either singly or in form
of stacks. The pressure is transformed as compression force which is
communicated through the elastic element as strain on piezo element that is a
linear function of the pressure.

They do not need external excitation source only electric circuitry for
amplification and compensation circuit to account for the additional pressure
caused by vibration.

Advantages: Figure 3.14: Piezoelectric Sensing Element

 Rugged construction
 Small size
 High Speed
 Self-generated signal
 57

Figure 3.15: Piezoelectric Effect

3.4.3 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER:

Theory:
As the name indicates in capacitive type of pressure sensor exploits the
capacitive properties of a material. Capacitance is measure of amount of
electrical energy stored for a given potential and most basic form of capacitor
is nothing but two plates separated by some insulator in between. The
capacitance equation for two plates is given by
C= ε0 εr A/d
Where, C = the capacitance of a capacitor in farad
A = area of each plate in m2
d = distance between two plates in m
εr= dielectric constant ε0 = 8.854*10^-12 farad/m2
Thus, capacitance can be varied by changing distance between the plates, area
of the plate or value of the dielectric medium between the plates. Any change
in these factors cause change in capacitance. In capacitive transducers,
pressure is utilized to vary any of the above mentioned factors which will
cause change in capacitance and that is a measureable by any suitable electric
bridge circuit and is proportional to the pressure.
 58

Figure 3.16: Capacitance Pressure Transducer

Construction and Working:

The most common design in capacitive pressure transducers has a diaphragm
plate. The capacitance is varied by using a fixed plate and other diaphragm
plate. The diaphragm plate is the primary sensing element in the transducer
and is usually made of metal or metal coated quartz. Stainless steel and nickel
steel alloys are a preferred choice of material for diaphragm. For reactive or
corrosive system environment care should be taken in choosing a suitable
material diaphragm plate. The diaphragm is subjected to the process pressure
and the deflection of diaphragm is indication of the change in process
pressure. An external excitation source is provided for this type of transducers
and an oscillator is provided in the assembly. The capacitance can be
monitored by change in frequency of oscillator or a bridge circuit. The voltage
produced can be compared to the voltage provided when the bridge is
unbalanced due to pressure change. The capacitance change is also measurable
in the balanced stage by a null detector mechanism. These transducers are
stable and linear, but are sensitive to high temperatures.

Figure 3.17: Schematic Capacitive Pressure Sensor

 59

3.4.4 POTENTIOMETERIC TRANSDUCER:

A potentiometer is a variable resistor or an adjustable voltage divider. It has

one sliding contact also known as wiper which moves along the resistance
element and thus cause change in resistance. The potentiometric pressure
transducers employ the pressure force to move the sliding contact to vary the
resistance and this resistance is measurable by the help of bridge circuit. To
develop a force adequate enough to move the wiper requires an elastic element
like bellow, bourdon or diaphragm. The elastic element is mechanically
coupled with the wiper. As pressure changes the elastic element expands or
contracts causing movement of wiper on resistive element and the
displacement caused by the wiper results in resistance change and it produces
an electrical signal. The resistive element is generally a wire wound coil or
some conductive film. The potentiometer requires an external voltage supply
and thus it’s a type of passive electrical pressure transducers.

Figure 3.18: Potentiometric Pressure Transducer

3.2.2.5 INDUCTIVE/RELUCTIVE TRANSDUCER:

A number of transducers have been developed on the basis of varying

properties of different materials that can are used in arrangement with a
pressure sensing elastic element. The elastic element is used to produce
adequate force to change the value of a specific property in the material. The
variation is communicated as an electrical signal and is measurable with help
 60

of a bridge circuit or by comparing the voltage produced with the voltage

supplied.

Inductance Pressure Transducer is one such example comprising of a

pressure sensing element, a coil and a movable magnetic core. Inductance of
the coil varies when the core is moved because of the applied pressure.
Inductance is that property of an electric circuit that expresses the amount of
electromotive force (emf) induced by a given rate of change of current flow in
the circuit. The change in inductance causes change in current and voltage
produced is proportional to the pressure. An inductive transducer is active
electrical pressure transducer and operates on the principle that the relative
motion between a conductor and a magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor.

Reluctive Pressure Transducers are passive type and need a voltage

supplier. They employ two magnetic coils and utilize the change in the
reluctance of a magnetic circuit to measure pressure change. Reluctance is
resistance to magnetic flow, the opposition offered by a magnetic substance to
magnetic flux. The phenomenon involved is that in a magnetic circuit, when
space in magnetic coupling between the two coils is changed by the
displacement of conductor or magnetic core due to applied pressure the
reluctance changes. The reluctance change caused the induced voltage change
and thus is indication of pressure change.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) operates on the

inductance ratio principle. It has one primary and two secondary coils. The
movement of the magnetic core between them governs the output voltage. The
primary coil is in the centre and is supplied with the voltage. When the
magnetic core is in the centre too, the resultant voltage is zero. When process
pressure varies the position of the magnetic core varies. The moving cores as
shown in the figure vary the inductive coupling between primary and
secondary transformer. The differential in the voltages induced in the
secondary coils is proportional to the pressure causing the movement.
 61

Figure 3.19: LVDT pressure sensor

3.5 VACUUM PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS;

___________________________________

Vacuum instruments measure pressure below atmospheric pressure. It can be

measured with respect to two reference points; one is how much a pressure is
below atmospheric pressure or the other is how much it is above absolute zero
vacuum. The pressure measured from both reference points are measuring the
same pressure but it is important to know which instrument is required
depending if the vacuum desired is dependent on atmospheric pressure or not.
The typical absolute pressure range for measuring vacuum pressures is 0 to 1
bar absolute. The popular pressure sensors like bourdon and bellow etc can
measure vacuum pressure but they measure with respect to atmospheric
pressure. To measure absolute vacuum pressure some unconventional
techniques have been devised. Although they employ bridge circuits for
pressure measurement but they utilize indirect methods to sense pressure. A
few popular types of such pressure gauges are described below.

3.5.1 PIRANI GAUGE:

Theory:
The Pirani Gauge is based on the phenomenon of thermal conductivity that
heat is dissipated from a hot element and the rate of heat transfer is dependent
on the number of gas molecules per unit volume that come in contact with the
heated element. The temperature of the heated element is function of its
resistance and thus is calibrated through a bridge circuit to give pressure
reading. A Pirani Gauge does not work beyond vacuum pressure range
 62

because above this pressure the thermal conductivity of gases is not

proportional with pressure.

Construction and Working:

In this type of gauge the main sensing element is a small wire which is
electrically heated and the resistance of the wire is directly proportional to the
temperature. At atmospheric pressure the gas molecules come in contact with
the wire as a result of collision, which causes the transfer of heat to the gas
molecules and results in cooling of the wire. When atmospheric pressure is
reduced approaching vacuum fewer molecules remain and thus less thermal
dissipation through collision. The temperature of the wire rises and
consequently the electrical resistance of the wire also increases. The change in
resistance of the wire can be detected by employing a simple electrical circuit
and after proper calibration can easily relate pressure as a function of
resistance.

Figure 3.20: Pirani Gauge

The heat dissipation is not constant as the temperature in the vacuum is a
variable quantity. So to account for this effect a reference wire as another leg
of the circuit is also provide along with the measuring wire. The pirani gauge
is basically a wheatstone bridge arrangement provided with a power supply to
electrically heat the wires. The wires also called filaments can be made of any
suitable metal or alloy having appropriate temperature resistance relationship.
The sensing or measuring filament is present in the system and the reference
filament is maintained at some fixed pressure. When the filaments are heated
they dissipate heat at different rates depending on the exposure of gases.
If the conditions available to both filaments are different they will maintain
different temperatures. The resistance increases with increase in temperature
and an unbalance is created in the bridge circuit. Thus current will flow
through the system and will depict the change in pressure. Gases have
different thermal conductivity hence the gauge should be calibrated separately
for different gauges.
 63

Thermocouple gauge follows the same principle as Pirani gauge. It

resembles in basic construction and working too as in having four filaments as
part of a bridge circuit. The only difference lies in that the filaments have
attached thermocouples to the centre. Temperature of heated filament is
detected by thermocouple instead of showing change in resistance as in Pirani
gauge. The temperature change causes thermocouples to produce sufficient
emf. The measuring and the reference thermocouple are connected in a way as
to produce opposing emf. The difference between the opposing emf is
indication of the difference in pressure between the reference area and the
system area.

3.5.2 IONIZTION GAUGE:

The ionization gauges as the name suggests utilize the ionizing property of
gases to detect the pressure of the system. These based pressure detection on
the measure of the particle density

PV=NkT n α P, if T is constant

A typical gauge comprises of three essential elements an electron producing

element, an electron attracting grid and a collector or a plate. Based on the
electron production the ionization gauge can be divided into two types, hot
cathode and cold cathode methods.

Figure 3.21: Ionization Gauge

A filament or a cathode produces electron by thermonic emission. Electrons

can also be produced by using a radioactive source. The electrons produced
are attracted by a positively charged grid.Grid is designed with large
interstices so that the fast moving electrons pass many times without
 64

contacting the grid. The electrons circulate randomly around grid until they
collide with the molecules of the gas. The gas molecules are ionized after the
collision with highly energetic electrons. This knocks out the electrons from
the gas molecules and produce positively charged particles. The collector or
the plate is negatively charged and when these positive ions are repelled by the
grid and accelerate towards the plate. This produces current in the system and
the number of ions collected in the plate is proportional to the density of the
gas and is representative of the pressure of the system.

Figure 3.22: Ionization Gauge Schematic

The above mentioned process is cold cathode method. In a hot cathode

method the difference is the presence of a magnetic field. The magnetic field
helps to deflect the electrons and enhances their chance to encounter the gas
molecules by making them follow a spiral path. The latest instrument can now
also employ modulated electron beam. One of the limitations of this
instrument is the x-ray effect or the production of photoelectron. This can
cause an increased current in the system and a larger pressure reading. The X-
ray current therefore limits the lowest pressure that the ion gauge can measure
i.e. there is a minimum reading value even though the actual pressure is less.

3.5.3 MCLEOD GAUGE:

The McLeod gauge is based on the Boyle‘s law which states that the product
of pressure and volume for a given quantity of gas remains constant for a
constant temperature. It is used to measure very low pressures. It measures
 65

pressure by compressing a gas of a known volume with a fixed pressure. The

pressure of the gas is than detected by a mercury manometer.
In this the gas with a relatively large volume but a very low pressure is
compressed to a small volume. The gauge comprises of a glass apparatus
essentially connected to a manometer. When the volume is reduced, the
pressure is increased. The pressure reaches to an extent where the fluid rises in
the column and is read. By raising the mercury in the tube of the gauge, can
isolate a volume of gas at the pressure to be measured. The change in volume
and pressure is utilized to calculate the initial gas pressure. This instrument is
not suitable for condensable gases. It gives absolute pressure readings and is
used to calibrate other pressure gauges.

Figure 3.23: McLeod Gauge (a) filling (b)

measuring

3.6 CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE SENSORS;

___________________________________

Pressure measuring instruments are usually calibrated by the manufacturers at

the time of manufacturing and occasional calibration services are provided by
them when required. But when a pressure sensor requires it can be recalibrated
by matching its pressure reading with a reference pressure indicating device.
Another instrument with greater accuracy is used as standard and the pressure
of the known same magnitude are created and compared with the device under
consideration. When the pressure scale is developed by this process, it is
called as calibration, but if the process is done to check the instrument’s
functioning then it is known as recalibration.
 66

The low pressure instruments are calibrated against a manometer. For very
low pressures inclined manometers are employed and for pressure instruments
ranging higher than that mercury manometer can be used.
For high pressure devices dead weight tester is used. In this device pressure is
caused to act on the base of a cylinder (a piston) of known area, the pressure is
created by weight on the piston. The resulting force is counterbalanced by the
gravitational force due to a known mass supported on the other end of the
piston.

Figure 3.24: Simple Schematic of Dead Weight

Tester

3.7 SELECTION OF PRESSURE SENSORS;

___________________________________

The selection of pressure is critical as to know which type of pressure sensor

will be best suited for a particular application. There are a lot of variables that
can affect the selection process. Pressure range and the type of pressure
measurement required are the most basic parameters to consider along with
the distant reading or direct reading constraints. Other important factors may
include overload requirements, accuracy, temperature operating range, line-of-
sight reading, or electrical signal, and response time. Sometimes the system or
the application can need more attention to a specific property like hysteresis or
stability etc.

In industrial applications, good repeatability is sometimes preferred then

absolute accuracy. If process pressures vary over a wide range, transducers
 67

with good linearity and low hysteresis are a more appropriate choice. It is also
important to consider which kind of output is required. The pressure sensor
used should also be protected or isolated if the fluid is corrosive or when
exposure to very high pressure fluid can be harmful.
All parameters requirement in a specific pressure sensors application can
easily be met because of the wide range of pressure sensors available. But
generally the more ideal a pressure measuring instrument will be the more
expensive it will become. Hence cost is the ultimate factor and the suitable
instrument is chosen by balancing all parameters.

Range Accura Applications/

Instrument/ cy Remarks
Types
Elastic Element Pressure Gauges
Bellow Low vacuums to 1/2 – 1% Simple and rugged;
100psi minimum maintenance
Diaphragm 0 to 120 in. H2O 1% Used for low pressure;
can withstand high
external pressure
Bourdon 0 to 40000psi 1/2 % Reliable, simple
(up to 10000 in accurate; mostly used
certain types)
Electrical Pressure Transducers
Strain Gauge unlimited 1/4% good accuracy, fast, easy
pressure indication
Piezoelectric 0.1 to 10000 psi 1% Stable, good for
dynamic pressure
Capacitive 15 to 5000 psi 0.1 % low hysteresis, good
repeatability, Highly
accurate
Potentiometeric 5 to 10000 psi 0.5-1% Small configuration,
strong output,
inexpensive
Inductive/ 0.04 to10000psi 0.5% High resolution over
Reluctive small range scale.
Vacuum Pressure Measuring Instruments
Pirani Gauge 1-2000µ High Easy to use, need
calibration for each gas.
Thermocouple 1-1000µ High Rapid response
Ionization 0.01-1µ …. Used for low absolute
pressure, unsuitable for
decomposable gas.
McLeod Gauge 0.05-50mm, 1% Primary standards for
0.05-5000µ absolute pressure in
microns;

mm = mm Hg, µ = 10-3 mm Hg
 68

3.8 ACCESSORIES WITH PRESSURE SENSORS;

___________________________________
Pressure measuring instruments are equipped with certain accessories to avoid
excessive maintenance problems and damage to the instruments. These
accessories are provided to ensure safe and reliable working of the instrument
as well as the process. Two main issues accessories with pressure sensors
address are Pressure pulsation and Aggressive fluid effect.

3.8.1 CHEMICAL SEAL;

___________________________________________
The process fluid can damage the pressure measuring instruments; hence a
physical barrier needs to be provided to avoid direct contact between the
measuring device and the fluid. A corrosive fluid is separated by corrosion
resistant seal. Poisonous and
noxious process fluids are
also sealed off to avoid
leakage and damage. Other
cases which require presence
of a seal to protect the
pressure sensor are when
slurry or fluid with solids is
present and there is a chance
of clogging. The seals are
also helpful in case of fluids
that can freeze or solidify at
ambient temperature in Figure3.25: Diaphragm seal
different cavities of instrument.

3.8.2 PULSE DAMPNER;

___________________________________________

When Process fluid is moved by a reciprocating pump

or the fluid is not flowing continuously, pulsations are
produced in the fluid. These fluctuations are
undesirable and thus need to be reduced or eliminated.
For this purpose pressure snubber or pulsation dampner
is installed between the pipeline and pressure measuring
instrument. This helps not only in dampening the
pressure fluctuations but also absorb the pressure
shocks. They are available in variant designs; most
common is the piston type. Figure3.26: Piston type
Snubbers
 69

CHAPTER 4

FLOW
MEASUREMENT
 70

Chapter 04
Flow Measurement

Objectives
The objective of this chapter is;

 Understanding of concept and need of

flow meters
 Types / classification and working
principles of flow meters and pressure
losses associated with them
 Getting acquainted with accessories
required with flow meters
 Calibration & Selection criteria of flow
meters.
 71

4.1 INTRODUCTION;
_____________________________________

The industrial sector especially the process industry deals constantly with
flowing materials in and out of the system. The smooth running of the
operation of the plants is not possible without proper measurement and
control system for fluid flow. The faulty flow measurement system does not
only affect required production but also can results in loss in terms of profit
and in some cases can be very dangerous and disastrous. The gaining
popularity of continuous processes rather than batch type has also aided in
advancing the flow meter technologies and thus evolution in flow meters
industry to introduce new concepts in flow measurement continues. The
section of flow measurement is basically concerned with liquids and gases.
The solid flow measurement is mostly confined to weighing or counting
techniques.

With most liquid flow measurement instruments, the flow rate is determined
inferentially by measuring the liquid's velocity or the change in kinetic
energy. Velocity depends on the pressure differential that is forcing the liquid
through a pipe or conduit. Because the pipe's cross-sectional area is known
and remains constant, the average velocity is an indication of the flow rate.
Other factors that affect liquid flow rate include the liquid's viscosity and
density, and the friction of the liquid in contact with the pipe.

A flow sensor can work by direct measurement or inferential measurement.

Direct measurements of liquid flows can be made with positive-displacement
flow meters. These units divide the liquid into specific increments and move
it on. The total flow is an accumulation of the measured increments, which
can be counted by mechanical or electronic techniques. Several types of flow
sensors are non-mechanical and normally work by the inferential method.
 72

The advance flow meters are based on technologies such as heat,

electromagnetic properties, ultrasonic etc.

Units of Measurement:

The flow meters measure flow rate in terms of volumetric rate or mass flow
rate. Thus the units are either liters per second or kilograms per second. The
two types of measurement are interchangeable with each other if we know
the density of the fluid. The density of a fluid is dependent on temperature,
pressure and viscosity etc. So in the cases where density cannot be assumed
to be constant, it should be pre determined whether volumetric or mass flow
rate is required and appropriate flow meters should be installed there.
 73

4.1 TYPES OF FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS;

__________________________________________

Flow meters can be classified on the basis of different operating principles for the
measurement of flow rate of fluid. The most common principles for fluid flow
metering are:
 Differential Pressure Flow meters
 Positive Displacement Flow meters
 Open Channel Flow meters
 Velocity Flow meters
 Mass Flow meters

4.2 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS;

__________________________________________

Basic Operating Principle:

Differential pressure devices are based on the principle that an obstruction in
the pipe of a flowing fluid produces a differential pressure across the restriction
element which is proportional to the square of the flow rate. The flow is
calculated by measuring the pressure drop over an obstruction inserted in the
flow. This relationship was derived from Bernoulli’s theorem.

Parts of a Differential Flow meter:

A differential flow meter basically consists of two parts:

 Primary element
 Secondary element

The part used to restrict the fluid flow in the pipeline in order to produce a
pressure difference is termed as primary element like orifice plate, pitot tube,
venture tube etc and those which measure the differential pressure produced by
the primary element and convert them to required signals for transmission are
known as secondary elements like manometer, bellow meter, force balance meter.

The common types of differential pressure flow meters are:

Orifice plate
 74

Venturi meter
Dall tube
Pitot tube
Flow nozzles
Variable area – Rotameters
Elbow taps
Target meters

4.3.1 ORIFICE PLATE:

An orifice plate is simple and inexpensive flow restriction to determine the flow
rate and is generally applicable for cleaner fluids. It is basically a thin plate with a
hole in it. The usual choice of material is stainless steel but orifice plates made
up of glass, nickel and plastic etc are also occasionally used. There are several
types of orifice plates based on the shape and position of hole present:
concentric, eccentric and the segmental are the three types of orifice plates
available. Concentric type orifice plate is most commonly used. The side of
orifice plate placed to face upstream flow is polished and sharp edged. They are
inserted between the flanges in the pipes and straight run pipes to avoid the
changes in flow pattern. The segmental plates are suitable for fluids with solid in
them.

Figure 4.1: Types of Orifice plates

 75

The orifice plate is placed in a pipe having flow of certain velocity and pressure.
The fluid on reaching the orifice converges to pass through the hole and thus
velocity and pressure changes. The fluid continues to converge until it reaches
the minimum diameter part known as Vena Contracta and has minimum
pressure. The pressure differential created across the orifice is function of flow
rate and is dependent on the diameter of the orifice. The volumetric and mass
flow rate can be determined by knowing the pressure differential and using the
Bernoulli’s equation.

Figure 4.2: Flat plate, sharp edge orifice plate

Advantages:

 Low cost
 Minimum maintenance required
 Well known and predictable characteristics
 Can be used in wide range of pipe sizes

Disadvantages:

 Relatively high permanent pressure loss

 Can clog, thus has a limited use in slurry services
 76

 Changing characteristics because of erosion, corrosion and scaling

 Have a square root relationship

4.3.2 VENTURI TUBE:

Unlike the orifice plates the venture tubes are appropriate for fluids containing
suspended solids. The venture tube is considered more favorable because of the
desirable pressure recovery characteristics. They are highly accurate and
recommended for viscous fluids when high accuracy is required although they
have a high initial cost.

The fluid path through the venture meter has no sharp bends. The body of the
venture meter comprises of three parts: a reducing cross section inlet as
converging cone where the pressure is reduced gradually, followed by a throat
section where pressure and velocity remains constant and a diverging section
where the pressure is recovered with very little loss. The pressure is measured at
these three sections.

Figure 4.3: A schematic diagram of simple venturi tube showing the pressure tap
connections.
 77

They are usually made of cast iron or steel, and are built in several forms such as
long form or classic venture tube, short form where the outlet cone is shortened,
an eccentric form to minimize the buildup of heavy materials, and a rectangular
form used in air duct work.

Advantages:

 no projections into the fluid

 no sharp corners and no sudden changes in contour
 causes low permanent pressure loss
 widely used for high flow rates
 can be used at low and high beta ratios

Disadvantages:

 high initial costs for installation

 difficulty in installation and inspection
 limitation of a lower Reynolds number

4.3.3 DALL TUBE:

The Dall tube is a modification of a Venturi tube, with a lower pressure drop than
a Venturi meter. The Dall tube is shorter than Venturi tube and even cost lesser
when the large size is Dall tubes are used. It is designed to have a short, flanged
cylindrical body with an abrupt decrease in diameter followed by a conical
restriction and a diverging outlet section. The pressure differential is induced by
the above changing cross section and is higher than the Venturi tube.
 78

The pressure is measure at two points to get the pressure differential. The
pressure differential is typically measured using diaphragm pressure transducers
with digital readout. They are used in application with higher flow rates.

Figure 4.4: Dall Tube

Advantages:

 low head loss

 short lying length
 available in numerous materials of construction
 no upper line size limit

Disadvantages:

 pressure difference is sensitive to up-stream disturbances

 cannot be used for hot feed water

4.3.4 FLOW NOZZEL:

 79

Flow nozzle is also a modification of orifice and venture tube but it combines the
better features of both flow measuring elements and is used for liquids gases
and vapors as well with greater flow capacity. They are preferable in high
temperature and high velocity applications like measuring flow rate of super
heated steam. They are cheaper to configure than the Venturi but cost more
than the orifice plates. Another main advantage they flow nozzle have over
Venturi and Orifice is that they don’t have sharp bending parts and thus are not
easily eroded and thus regular recalibration is not mandatory. This makes them
good with fluids containing suspended solids and having abrasive quality.

Figure 4.5: A typical Flow Nozzle

A flow nozzle consists of a convergent inlet and a cylindrical throat. Differential

pressure measurement taps are normally located one pipe diameter upstream
and one half diameter downstream from the inlet faces of the nozzle.

Flow nozzles can be manufactured from stainless steel or chrome-

molybdenum steel. They are available in different configurations like flange type,
holding ring type, weld-in type and throat type.

Advantages:
 80

 relative simple and cheap

 available for many applications in many materials
 The turn down rate and accuracy can be compared with the orifice plate
 Liquids with suspended solids can also be metered.

Disadvantages:

 not recommended for highly viscous liquids

 not used for liquids containing large amounts of sticky solids
 higher cost than orifice plate
 require more maintenance

Recovery of Pressure Drop in Orifices, Nozzles and Venturi

Meters:

After the pressure difference has been generated in the differential pressure
flow meter, the fluid pass through the pressure recovery exit section, where the
differential pressure generated at the constricted area is partly recovered.

Figure 4.6: Pressure recovery comparison graph

 81

As clear from the graph that the pressure drop in orifice plates are significant
higher than in the Venturi tubes.

4.3.5 PITOT TUBE:

The pitot tube is another very simple pressure measuring primary element with
practically no pressure drop. They measure impact pressure at only one point
and so can be said to have limited accuracy. They are used in wide range of
application in liquids and gases and specially measuring air flow rate in cars,
ducts, stacks etc.

A Pitot tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow

velocity by determining the stagnation pressure at the point of measurement.
Bernoulli's equation is used to calculate the dynamic pressure and hence fluid
velocity. A probe with an open tip (Pitot tube) is inserted into the flow field. The
tip is the stationary (zero velocity) point of the flow. Its pressure, compared to
the static pressure, is used to calculate the flow velocity.
 82

Figure 4.7: Different Types of Pitot Tubes

Pitot tubes sense two pressures simultaneously, impact and static. The impact
unit consists of a tube with one end bent at right angles toward the flow
direction. The static tube's end is closed, but a small slot is located in the side of
the unit. The tubes can be mounted separately in a pipe or combined in a single
casing. Pitot tubes are generally installed by welding a coupling on a pipe and
inserting the probe through the coupling. Use of most pitot tubes is limited to
single point measurements.

Advantages:
 83

 low cost
 absence of moving parts
 easy installation
 minimum pressure drop

Disadvantages:

 susceptible to plugging by foreign material in the liquid

 use is restricted to point measuring
 Sensitive upstream disturbances

Multi Hole Pressure Tube:

Multi-hole pressure probes (also called impact probes) extend the theory of pitot
tube to more than one dimension. A typical impact probe consists of three or
more holes (depending on the type of probe) on the measuring tip arranged in a
specific pattern. More holes allow the instrument to measure the direction of
the flow velocity in addition to its magnitude (after appropriate calibration).
Three holes arranged in a line allow the pressure probes to measure the velocity
vector in two dimensions. Introduction of more holes, e.g. five holes arranged in
a "plus" formation, allow measurement of the three-dimensional velocity vector.

4.3.6 VARIABLE AREA-ROTAMETER:

The rotameter is the most widely used variable area flowmeter. It is simple and
robust and is mostly used for small scale applications.

Operating Principle:

In variable area meters the size of the restriction is adjusted such that the
pressure differential remains constant when the flow rate changes and the
amount of adjustment required is proportional to the flow rate. The rotameter
 84

contains an element inside known as float and when gravity, buoyancy and drag
forces acting on the float are balanced the flow rate is indicated.

A rotameter consists of a tapered conical sort of tube, typically made of glass,

containing a float in the path of the fluid. The float is acted upon by many forces,
mainly it is pushed up by flow and pulled down by gravity. When the fluid starts
flowing through the tube, the float rises until the forces mentioned above all
balances against each other and the float is suspended in the flowing fluid at a
constant point. This point indicates the flow rate by a scale properly graduated
and calibrated in appropriate units, usually attached at the side of the tube. At a
higher flow rate more area (between the float and the tube) is needed to
accommodate the flow, so the float rises. Floats are available in many different
shapes, and are mostly made from the combination of conical section and
cylindrical section. The floats can be designed to nullify the effect of viscosity.
The float is configured so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes and remains
stable in the flow of fluid.

Figure 4.8: Variable area flow meter- Rota meter

 85

The height of the float is directly proportional to the flow rate. With liquids, the float is
raised by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the velocity head of the fluid.
With gases, buoyancy is negligible, and the float responds to the velocity head alone. The
float moves up or down in the tube in proportion to the fluid flowrate and the annular area
between the float and the tube wall. They are gravity dependent for the equilibrium to be
established between the forces acting on the float they should only be mounted in vertical
direction.

Metal Tube Flow meters:

For higher pressures and temperatures beyond the practical range of glass rotameter,
metal tubes are used. These are usually manufactured in aluminum, brass or stainless
steel. The position of the piston is determined by magnetic or mechanical followers that
can be read from the outside of the metal metering tube.

Advantages:

 requires no external power or fuel, uses only the inherent properties of

the fluid, along with gravity, to measure flow rate
 relatively simple device that can be mass manufactured out of cheap
materials, allowing for its widespread use
 relatively low cost
 low pressure drop requirement
 handles wide variety of corrosives
 has a linear scale, a relatively long measurement range

Disadvantages:

 must be mounted vertically due to its use of gravity

 not good in pulsating services
 limited to relatively low temperatures
 requires in-line mounting
 glass tube subject to breakage
 Due to its reliance on the ability of the fluid or gas to displace the float,
graduations on a given rotameter will only be accurate for a given
substance.
 86

4.3.7 ELBOW TAPS:

Elbow taps operate on the principle that when liquid travels in a circular path,
centrifugal force is exerted along the outer edges.
The pressure differential meters usually have a constraint of straight run pipes but
sometimes there are too many bends and straight runs are hard to find. In such
cases an ordinary elbow used in pipes can be used as primary element to create
pressure differential. The pressure taps are provided inside, outside curve and
between the elbows. Thus, when liquid flows through a pipe elbow, the force
exerted on the elbow’s interior surface are proportional to the density of the liquid
times the square of its velocity. In addition, the force is inversely proportional to
the elbow's radius. Pressure-sensing lines can be attached to the taps by using any
convenient method. The difference in pressure on the outside and inside walls,
caused by centrifugal force, can be measured with a differential pressure
transducer.
The Elbow type pressure measurement needs individual calibration for each
application to get reasonable accuracy.

Figure 4.9: Elbow Tap

Meter
 87

Advantages:

 no obstruction in line
 easy to add to existing installation where elbows exists
 good repeatability
 comparatively low cost

Disadvantages:

 differential pressure developed is relatively small

 poor accuracy

4.3.8 TARGET METERS:

Target meters as the name suggest employs a physical body as a target to measure
the flow rate by taking in account the forces that are acted upon the impact of
fluid with the target body. The force impinged on the body gives the indication of
the flow rate. The fluid loses its momentum on contact with the body and thus a
pressure difference across the target is created as a result of the impact.

The general form of a target meter comprises of a target (or disc) which is
attached with a force bar passed between a flexible seal, and is positioned in the
centre of and perpendicular to the flowing stream. It may be installed directly in
flow line thus eliminating the need for pressure tap connections. The force bar
constraints the target to a specific position with respect to the pipe. The deflection
of the force bar under the action of the fluid flow is proportional to the applied
force and therefore proportional to the square of the volumetric flow rate.
The relationship between force and flow rate is given as,

Q = K (F) 1/2
Where,
Q = flow rate
K = a known coefficient
F = force
 88

Figure 4.10: Target Meter

A more sophisticated version uses a precision, low-level force transducer sensing

element. The force of the target caused by the liquid flow is sensed by a strain
gage. The output signal from the gage is indicative of the flow rate. This is also
known as drag body flow meter. It uses the same principle where the force is
expressed as,

F = Cd A ‫(קּ‬V2/2g)
Where,
F = force
Cd = drag coefficient
A = area
P = fluid density
2
V /2g = velocity head

Advantages:
 useful for measuring flows of dirty or corrosive liquids
 good accuracy when calibrated for specific stream
 good for relatively high temperature and pressure
 good repeatability

Disadvantages:
 in-line mounting required
 a limited calibration data
 89

4.3 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOW METERS;

_____________________________________________

Positive Displacement (PD) flow meters operate by isolating a fixed quantity and
known volume of fluid and then displacing it, repeatedly. The indication of flow
rate is based on the number of times this process of isolation and displacing
takes place. They basically measure the total volume of the fluid passing through
them. They are highly accurate and are suitable for measuring clean liquid and
gas and are preferable with viscous liquids. The common characteristic of
positive displacement meters is that they are driven by the metered liquid hence
no motor is required.

The PD meters employ some kind of rotating mechanical parts to entrap and
displace fluids. Based on these parts the PD meters can be divided into several
types.

Some of these are as follows:

4.4.1 NUTATING DISKS:

Nutating disk flow meter utilizes a circular disk, which is the main moveable part
attached on a spindle that makes the measurement possible. It gets its name
from the characteristic wobbling or rocking movement called nutation that helps
entrap and displace fluid. The disk is provided in a spherical chamber. When the
 90

fluid enters the chamber the disk nutates, and the movement is communicated
through the spindle via magnetic contact to the transmitter. As the PD meters
displace fixed quantity of fluid every time, the movement of the spindle
transmitted is indication of the flow rate. They are mostly employed with water
transportation.

Figure 4.11: Nutating Disk

4.4.2 PISTON FLOW METERS:

There are two types of Piston flow meters i.e., reciprocating and rotating type.

The Reciprocating Piston flow meter is type of positive displacement flow meter
that entraps and displaces the fluid from a stationary chamber.
 91

Figure 4.12: Piston Flow Meters

There are meters having single or multiple pistons. They are essentially like
piston pumps but are not motor driven but rather the flow of liquid drives the
piston in contrast to the pumps.

The rotating type meter is known as Oscillating Piston flow meter. The
measuring chamber of the flow meter is cylindrical. It is provided with an inlet
and outlet opening; they are separated by a partition plate. The piston is
basically disc shape and has openings to allow fluid to move freely. There is also
a shaft or control roller provided with a rotor to help move the piston. The rotor
is configured as to turn the rotary movement into oscillations as the piston
moves only in one lane. The movement of piston is communicated by a magnetic
assembly to transmitter or other output device. The rate of oscillation is
indicative of the rate of flow of fluid.
 92

4.4.3 GEAR AND LOBE FLOW METERS:

Just like all positive displacement flow meters they have a measuring chamber of
a known volume. The chamber is provided with two toothed rotating gears of
oval shape. They are mounted in different axis; one horizontally and other
vertically. The rotors move in opposite direction to each other, in a way that the
fluid enters and pass by both gears along the chamber wall separately turn by
turn but none passing through them. Rotating lobe and other impeller type flow
meters are also type of oval gear flow meter with little variations. Two lobed
impellers in a close fitting chamber rotate with fixed gear timing. The rotational
velocity of the rotor is indicative of the flow rate of fluid. The gear is usually
magnetically connected to the transmitter.

Figure 4.13: Schematic working of an Oval Gear Meter

 93

Figure 4.14: Oval Gear Meter & Lobe Flow Meter

4.4 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW METERS;

_____________________________________________

When flow of liquid passing through a channel is free from solid boundaries on
one side, then the flow is termed as open channel flow like in rivers, lakes and
half filled pipes. The open channel flow meters are based on the technique that
an obstruction is placed in the flow path and a characteristic variable resulting
from this is measured. This restriction in flow is provided by using Weir or Flume.
The rate of flow of liquid over the weir or through the flume is determined from
the head i.e., the depth of water, at a specified distance upstream from the weir
plate or the flume neck. This can be done with the help of a pipe which connects
the channel to stilling well. The popular head measuring instruments used with
weirs are float and cable, ball float, bubble and pressure sensors. A float in the
stilling well will move up and down with the head and thus indicate the flow rate
of liquid. Another method is to use ultrasonic sensor place above the weir. The
head is accurately measure from the time it takes to send the ultrasonic waves
and receive the echo back.

4.5.1 WEIR OBSTRUCTION:

 94

The weir is type of obstruction where the liquid flows over it and we get
volumetric flow rate. The weirs are basically of two designs

Rectangular

V-notch

The rectangular weir is of three different types. The first has contractions or
extensions into the channel that produce a box like opening. The second type
completely suppresses these contractions, extending the weir across the entire
width of the channel. The third type also known as Cippoletti weir has end
contractions set at an angle rather than being perpendicular to the edge of the
weir. The rectangular weirs are suitable for larger flow.

V-notched weirs are basically plates made up of metal having a V-shaped notch.
The V can be made at different angles but formulas are generally available for
more common angles like 30, 60 and 90 degrees. They are more accurate than
rectangular weir but are generally employed for lower flow rates. The free fall of
liquid over the weir causes head loss in this type of measurement and thus
where head loss is an issue flume should be used.

Figure 4.15: Weir Obstruction

 95

Figure 4.16: Types of Weir

4.5.2 FLUME OBSTRUCTION:

Flumes are designed to avoid the problems associated with rectangular weirs
thus they reduce the head loss and also can handle more solid content like the
suspended solids and sediments in the flowing liquid. The flume obstructions
have many different types. They are available in different cross sections; the
basic purpose is to pass the liquid through a constriction. The common types are
Parshall flumes, Palmer-Bowlus Flumes, Trapezoidal Flumes and H Flumes etc.
Parshall flume is the most popular design. It is quite similar to one half of a
rectangular Venturi tube and have converging, diverging and the throat section
like venturi tube in flow meters.
 96

Figure 4.17: Venturi type Flume

4.5 VELOCITY FLOW METERS;

_____________________________________________

4.6.1 TURBINE FLOW METER:

The turbine meter as the name suggests employs a turbine rotor wheel. A set of
rotatable blades are placed axially in the path of the flowing fluid. When the fluid
flows through the path, the angle of the blades deflects fluid and imparts a force
causing the rotor to turn. The rate of angular rotation is proportional to the fluid
flow rate. A mechanical device can be used from the rotor to indicate output.
Generally output is transmitted through electrical method by employing a
magnetic pick up coil. The movement of rotor induces voltage in the coil. The
rate of pulses generated gives measure of the flow.
 97

Figure 4.18: Turbine Flow Meter

Advantages:

 Excellent accuracy
 Good range ability

Disadvantages:

 Limited to clean fluids

 Expensive
 High maintenance cost

4.6.2 VORTEX FLOW METER:

The vortex meter utilizes a bluff body or a non stream lined obstruction. The
phenomenon of vortex shedding takes place when any such body is placed in the
flowing stream of fluid. The fluid streams separate around the obstruction and
result in formation of vortices because of the fluctuation in the pressure or
velocity around the obstruction. The obstruction placed called the shedder bar
 98

can be of different shapes like square, rectangle or T shaped. Different shapes

are suitable for different fluids.

Figure 4.19: Vortex shedder Cross sections

The vortices are formed alternately on each side of the body at the low pressure
sites and the frequency of formation of the vortices is proportional to fluid flow
rate. A shear layer is formed when the high velocity fluid particles move past the
low velocity particles around the body. The shear layer is unstable and the large
velocity gradient ultimately breaks the layer into vortices. The vortex formation
cause pressure differential which is sensed and transmitted as voltage signals.
The alternating voltage pulses are generated in the frequency proportional to
the frequency of vortex shedding and hence flow rate is determined.

Figure 4.20: Vortex formations in Vortex flow meter

 99

4.6.3 MAGNETIC FLOW METER:

Magnetic meter are based on Faraday‘s law of electromagnetic induction i.e.,

The voltage induced in a conductor of length moving through a magnetic field is
proportional to the velocity of the conductor. They have no moving parts and
thus are suitable with liquids with solid contents.

Figure 4.21: Magnetic meter

The magnetic flow meters measure volume rate at the flowing temperature
independent of the effects of viscosity, density, turbulence or suspended
materials and dependent on the velocity of the liquid only. The flowing liquid is
the conductor moving through the magnetic field. The flow meter consists of
metal tube lined with a non magnetic non conducting material. The
electromagnetic coils and cores induce a magnetic field through the tube. Two
insulated metallic electrodes are mounted in the flow tube; a voltage is
developed across these electrodes that are directly proportional to the average
velocity of the liquid passing through the magnetic field. The output signal from
the electrode is an alternating voltage.
 100

Figure 4.22: Schematic of Magnetic Flow meters

Advantages:

 No obstruction to flow: no head loss

 Corrosive liquids or slurries are measured with ease.
 Very accurate

Disadvantages:

 Liquid must have some electrical conductivity

 expensive

4.6.4 ULTRASONIC FLOW METER:

The ultrasonic flow meter as the name suggests utilize an ultrasonic waves
source and receiver. The sound waves propagation through fluid is dependent on
density but when the density is constant the velocity of fluid can be determined.
 101

The ultrasonic flow meters can be divided into invasive and non-invasive. The
major two classifications of ultrasonic flow meters are

Transit time (time of flight type)

Doppler effect type

Transit Time:

This meter is the non contact type thus the ultrasonic source is mounted outside
the pipe section. In one arrangement one receiver is mounted at a given
distance upstream and another receiver downstream. When no fluid is flowing
the receivers get equal amount of ultrasonic waves and hence equal voltage
generated at both ends. But
with the fluid flowing; unequal
amount of voltages are
produced and dictates the
direction and magnitude of
flow.

Doppler Effect type:

The ultrasonic flow meter based

on measuring the velocity of
fluids by determining the velocity of entrained particles in the fluid. The
entrained particles are sound reflective known as discontinuities and hence this
type of flow meter is suitable for slurries, liquids with bubbles or gases entrained
and not suitable for clear liquids. Figure 4.23: Doppler Ultrasonic meter
Because the ultrasonic waves
need sound reflective particulates to measure the fluid flow rate. The basic
principle of operation depends on the fact that a sound wave changes its
frequency when it is reflected by moving particles in a flowing liquid. The meters
therefore employ the frequency shift (Doppler Effect) of an ultrasonic signal
when reflected back to a measuring device (an ultrasonic transducer) by either
bubbles or suspended particles in a gas or liquid.
 102

4.6 MASS FLOW METERS;

_____________________________________________

4.7.1 CORIOLIS FLOW METER:

It is used to determine the mass flow rate of the fluid. This meter uses the
Coriolis effect to measure the fluid mass through the pipe. The Coriolis Effect is
the deflection observed in moving objects when they are present in a rotating
frame of reference. This means that when the rotation is in clockwise direction,
the moving object will be deflected in anti-clock wise direction. This effect is
based on the rotation of earth and is experienced by all moving matters. This is
used to explain the phenomena related with tidal waves and weather changes.
The force experienced by the object in this frame of rotation is known as Coriolis
force.

Figure 4.24: Coriolis Flow meter

In the Coriolis meter the fluid is passed through a tube. The tubes are available in
different design like tubes of U-shape or horseshoe-shaped. The tubes can either
be curved or straight. When two tubes are used the flow is divided when
 103

entering the meter and then recombined. The flow when enters the tube
encounters oscillating excitation force that causes the tubes to vibrate at a fixed
frequency. The vibration is induced in the direction that is perpendicular to flow
of fluid. This creates the rotation frame of reference. Consider the tube during
oscillation moving up and downward, when the tube is moving upward the fluid
flowing in it tends to resist this and forces it downward. When the tube moves in
the opposite direction, so does the fluid and a twist in introduced in the tube. All
this might not be visible by directly observing. The twist at inlet of fluid and
outlet of fluid results in phase difference or time lag and that is dependent on
the fluid mass passing through the tube.

Advantages:
 Low pressure drop
 Available for variety of fluids
 Bi-directional flow possible

Disadvantages:
 Prone to clogging
 High cost
 Difficult cleaning
 Size availability limitation

4.7.2 THERMAL FLOW METER:

Thermal flow meters as the name suggests utilize heat to measure the fluid flow
rate. They were basically designed to measure gas flow rate and thus can be
termed as Anemometer when the heating element is a wire. The thermal meters
are also mass flow meters as they detect the mass of fluid that absorbs heat in a
unit time and are independent of the density, pressure and viscosity. Two main
methods of operation are followed in thermal meter designs. In one design the
heated element is placed along the fluid path and the amount of heat conducted
to the fluid gives indication of the mass flow rate. As more heat is absorbed
 104

when more fluid mass passes by. Two temperature sensors can be employed to
detect temperature at upstream and downstream and the difference indicate
the amount of heat absorbed. In other design the energy or current supplied to
keep a heated element at its specified temperature is indicated in terms of flow
rate. The heat is continuously dissipated with flow of fluid and the current supply
keeps the heated element at the required temperature. The amount of current
required is measure of the mass flow rate.

Figure 4.25: Thermal Flow meter

Usually a heater or a heated wire is provided as heat source. The heating

element can be inserted into the system or it can be kept isolated from the
process fluid. This non invasive thermal meter is suitable for corrosive or other
dangerous process fluid. They keep the heating element safe but give relatively
sluggish response. They are not suitable for fluid with varying specific heat
content but are good for process fluid involving chemical reaction.

4.7 CALIBRATION OF FLOW METERS;

_____________________________________________
 105

The flow meters can be sent with the whole installation to a authorized
laboratory but it is not always practical because in most cases in industry it is not
often an option to remove the flow meters from the process and thus inline
calibration techniques have been devised.

The flow meters are calibrated by following mainly two methods.

 By employing a highly accurate meter

 By gravimetrically measuring mass flow

The master meters against which the industry meters are calibrated needs to be
accurate and should be calibrated according to the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST). The most common types of meters that can be
used as master meters are positive displacement meters, venture meter, turbine
meter and Coriolis meter.

Calibration can also be done by gravimetrically weighing the amount of fluid that
flows out of the meter per unit time. The amount of fluid flow is weighed by a
weigh scale and device should according to NIST standard. The gravimetrically
weighing method to find flow rate is most accurate method.

The above mention calibration methods are more suitable for liquid flow meters.
The flow meters that involve moving parts are more prone to wear and tear and
thus require more maintenance and regular calibration. In positive displacement
meters recalibration can be done by prover. The PD gas flow meters are usually
recalibrated against a bell jar prover where a bell of cylindrical shape is
calibrated and liquid is sealed inside the tank. The lowering of bell causes meter
under observation to discharge a known volume of gas. This recalibration
method for gas flow meters is highly accurate.
 106

4.8 ACCESSORIES WITH FLOW METERS;

_____________________________________________

Flow meters are equipped with many accessories mainly to aid in functioning of
the meter. These accessories are provided to ensure safe and reliable working of
the instrument as well as the smooth running of the operation. Some of the
main accessories used are Air eliminators, Strainers and flow conditioners.

4.9.1 AIR ELIMINATORS;

___________________________________________

The systems that involve liquid and do not

function well if air or other gases are
present employ air eliminators. In flow
meters measure the volumetric flow rate of
fluids so presence of air or any other gas in
the liquid will affect the true reading of the
meter accounting towards the total volume.
So an air eliminator is provided upstream
before flow meter and thus only liquid flow rate is measured.

Figure 4.26: Air Eliminators

4.9.2 STRAINERS;

___________________________________________

The strainers as the name suggest screen or filter the incoming fluid to the
meter. They are used to remove particles that can jam or damage the flow
meters during operation. They are sometimes used in combination with air
 107

eliminators but are generally used separately when only occasional screening is
required from an average filter.

4.9.3 FLOW CONDITIONERS;

___________________________________________

Flow conditioners are used before flow meters to remove all distortions and
disturbances from the fluid to get accurate measurement and less pressure loss.
Many flow meters have requirement to be installed in straight run of pipe. The
flow conditioners are used to nullify the effect of elbows, valves and extension
etc and provide straight run in lesser length. Flow conditioning is done to get
flow rates of required accuracies and to minimize the wear of flow meters.

Figure 4.27: Flow Conditioning

 108

4.9 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR FLOW METERS;

_____________________________________________

Range Accurac Applications/ Remarks

Instrument & y
Material
Pressure Differential Meters
Orifice plate Wide High but Inexpensive but permanent
range variable pressure losses
Venturi tube ---- 1% Used mainly for large flow rates,
small pressure losses, can handle
suspended solids, high initial cost
Flow nozzle moderate good More expensive than orifice but
less pressure drop, hard to replace

Pitot tube 10-106 gpm Easy installation, Absence of

moving parts, restricted to point
measurements
Rotameter variable 0.5-2% No external power required,
vertical installation, specific
calibrated scale graduations.
Positive Displacement Meters
Nutating Disk 1-1000gpm 1% Mostly used for water metering,
can handle high viscosities &
pressure.
Piston Meter Upto 1500 1% Can handle wide range of
gpm viscosities
Lobe Meter Upto 106 variable Best if used for high flow rates &
cfh for gases, low pressure drop
Velocity Meters
Turbine 10-3-106 0.25% High maintenance cost
gpm
Vortex Meter 10-21000 0.5% No mechanical parts
gpm
Magnetic Meter 10-2-106 0.5-1% No pressure drop, Accuracy
gpm unaffected by pressure,viscosity,
density etc
Open channel Meters
 109

Weir Very large Fair, Used for large flow of water:

requires sewage & industrial wastes,
calibratio constructed on site
n
flume Larger than Variable less head loss, can handle more
weir solid content

CHAPTER 5

LEVEL
MEASUREMENT
 110

Chapter 05
Level Measurement
 111

Objectives
The objective of this chapter is;

 Understanding of different Level Detection

systems.
 Types / classification and working
principles of liquid level measuring
instruments.
 Use of different level sensors for level
measurement of solid.
 Selection criteria of level measuring
devices to suit an application.
 112

5.1 INTRODUCTION;
____________________________________________________

The sensing and control of level or height of materials in container or vessel is

necessary in many process industries and thus require proper instrumentation
techniques to be devised. When level is measured with reference to some datum
plane it is the position measurement. The level measurement is dependent on
factors like density immensely and thus it is essential to consider this while
selecting a suitable technique for a specific process. When level is measured as
volume or weight measurement, the factors like density and temperature need
to be regarded for true level measurement.

There are many approaches to categorize level sensing devices. One is to divide
them into point level detection and continuous level detection devices. Point
level detection involves indicating level with a preset level condition whereas the
continuous level indication gives level for entire range rather than for a point
and gives uninterrupted level indication. Another approach is to divide them on
the basis of level measuring techniques like direct level measurement devices
and indirect level measurement. Many physical phenomena are employed for
level measurement like pressure, hydrostatic head, radiation, sonic and electrical
etc.

The level measurement devices are also based on the type of material and
interface they have to detect. Not only liquid but free flowing solids also require
level indicating devices. Level measurement is mostly considered to detect the
interface between a liquid and a gas but other interfaces like between two
liquids, between granular and fluidized solids or solid and a gas and liquid and its
vapor are also common. The main types of level detectors can be categorized as
direct level detectors, pressure level detectors, electrical level detectors,
radiation level detectors and specialty level switches.

5.2 DIRECT LEVEL MEASUREMENT;

____________________________________________________
 113

5.2.1 GAUGE GLASS:

This is the most simple and direct method of level measurement and is basically
like a manometer. A transparent tube is attached vertically adjacent to the vessel
and the liquid height in the tube is a direct representation of the liquid level in
the vessel. The tube is kept open to atmospheric for liquids at ambient
conditions or is connected to top and bottom of container for the pressurized
vessel systems. A graduated scale is attached with the tube to give quantitative
measure to the level measurement. The tube can be made of glass or plastic
depending on the process fluids temperature and pressure. Another inert liquid
of higher density can also be used in the tube after proper calibration of the
measuring scale considering all compensations

Figure 5.1: Transparent Tube Gauge Glass

Advantages:

 cheap
 simple
 reliable

Disadvantages:

 Breakable
 Prone to human reading error
 114

5.2.2 FLOATS:

The floats are based on the buoyancy principle, placed on the surface or
interface between two phases they are motion balanced devices that move with
the changing level. The change in the position of the float is communicated to a
scale through different mechanism and is the basis for different types of float
devices.

Ball Float:

As the name indicates this type

consists of a float shaped like a
ball. A hollow sphere of metal is
most commonly used. Although
any size, shape and material can
be utilized but the material
should have density less than the
density of liquid to allow it to
float on the surface. It is a direct level measuring mechanism with a pulley like
arrangement having a lever attached toFigure 5.2(a):
a rotary Magnetic
shaft Float Gauge
to indicate level on a
calibrated scale.

Chain/Tape Type:

In this type, a flexible chain or tape is used to connect the float and the
indicating mechanism. The difference in this type from the ball type is presence
of a weight to counter balance the weight of the float and keeping chain or tape
under constant tension. It is a direct measuring instrument and has fewer
limitations than the ball type and the level is indicating by movement of the
counterweight over a reading gauge.

Magnetic Type:
 115

A Magnetic type float devices uses a float of magnetic material and coupling
float to magnetic mechanism to actuate a switch or read level on a gauge. The
gauge type constitutes a magnetic float placed outside a non magnetic tube
containing a magnet inside connected to the indicator. In case of switch the
magnetic field produced by the magnet in the trip part actuates a reed switch
(sealed contact). This closes or breaks the electric circuit, depending on the
function of the switch.

Figure 5.2(b): Magnetic Float Switch

Advantages:

 Simple
 Rugged
 Reliable

Displacer:

The displacer basically follows the Archimedes Principle that when a body is
immersed in a fluid it appears less in weight equal to that of the fluid displaced.
By detection of the apparent weight of the immersed displacer, a level
measurement can be inferred. They are force balance gauges and the buoyant
force on the displacer object is proportional to the weight of the fluid displace
and indicate level change. A spring is loaded with weighted displacers and when
 116

the buoyancy changes after immersing in water, the spring

moves upward transmitting the buoyant force. Thus level is
indicated by a force sensor.

The buoyant force on a cylindrical displacer is given by

F= (1/4) γ π d2 L

Where, γ is specific weight of the liquid, d is float diameter;

L is length of the displacer submerged in the liquid.

The weight as seen by the force sensor is given by:

Weight on force sensor = weight of displacer – F

Figure 5.3:
Displacer

5.3 PRESSURE LEVEL DETECTORS;

____________________________________________________

5.3.1 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TYPE:

The pressure exerted by column of liquid in a vessel also known as hydrostatic

head is utilized to indicate level of the liquid in the vessel. The weight or Pressure
of liquid in a vessel of known base is directly proportional to its height or level
and density. The pressure thus measured is called hydrostatic head pressure and
is also dependent on atmospheric pressure acting down the liquid. The
atmospheric pressure effect is accounted for by using a differential pressure
technique.

The tank opened to atmosphere use a differential pressure detector to measure

the liquid level. The differential of pressure is created by taking higher pressure
at the bottom of the tank and lower pressure as reference or atmospheric
pressure. When the vessel is not open to atmosphere or in a pressurized vessel
 117

the lower pressure is also taken from the vessel usually at top and both pressure
taps are connected by reference leg so only the head of the liquid is measured.

The pressure sensors utilized for level measurement can be any of the available
for the pressure measurement. Strain gauge integrated on a diaphragm to sense
pressure is one of the common choices. When a pressure sensor is assembled
with a transducer and transmitter, the instrument is known as DP cell and is the
most frequently utilized for differential pressure measurement in industry.
Because the DP cell responds only to changes in differential pressure, a change in
static pressure on the liquid surface will not change the output of the
transmitter. Thus, the DP cell responds only to changes in liquid level when the
specific gravity or density of the liquid is constant. Density is temperature
dependent term and for high precision instrument density is compensated with
relation to actual temperature of the liquid.

Disadvantages:

 Material Bridging prevent operation

 No Switch Differential
 Elastic Sensing element subject to wear

5.3.2 BUBBLER TUBE:

This instrument essentially consists of a tube with its open end inserted near the
bottom of the tank. Inert gas or clean air is forced out of the tube and it escapes
as bubbles into the liquid in the tank. The pressure required to force out the
liquid is equal to pressure at the end of the tube. The pressure in the tube is
equal to hydrostatic head which is measure of the level. As the level varies the
pressure in the tube also varies correspondingly. The system consists of a pipe,
an air supply, a pressure transmitter and a differential pressure regulator. The
regulator is employed to produce the constant gas flow required to prevent
calibration changes. The specific weight of the gas is considered negligible and
pressure is equal to the product of depth of liquid and specific weight of liquid.
This instrument is particularly suitable and safe choice for corrosive liquids;
 118

slurries or other process fluids with entrained solid because the gas coming out
of the tube prevents any process fluid to enter the measuring system assembly.
The accuracy of the system is limited based on stable air supply by a regulator.
Another consideration should be given to fluid purge exposed to hazardous
process fluids; this can contaminate system and can cause safety hazards.

Figure 5.4: Bubbler Tube Technique

Advantages:

 No moving parts
 Easy installation
 Good accuracy and repeatability

Disadvantages:

 Not suitable for pressurized tank.

 Sediments/impurities may block tube
 Tank must be freely vented

5.4 ELECTRICAL METHODS;

____________________________________________________
 119

5.4.1 CAPACITANCE LEVEL DETECTORS:

Theory:

A capacitor is basically two conductor plates separated by non conducting

material called dielectric. The system stores electric charge when the plates are
present on different potentials.

The basis of Capacitance-type level measurements depends on that the electrical

capacitance between two electrodes varies with the dielectric constant of the
material between them when the area of the plates and the distance between
them remains constant.

Capacitance Probe:

The arrangement mostly comprises of a probe made of an inner rod and outer
shell. The other plate is usually the metallic vessel and process fluid act as
dielectric and capacitance between the two is measured by help of a bridge. As
the level rises the capacitance is changed because the lower portion of the probe
is exposed to liquid and the upper with air having dielectric value closer to one.
Thus capacitance is proportional to level measurement.
 120

Figure 5.5: Capacitance Probe

RF Admittance Level Sensor:

Capacitance level sensors are also known as RF Admittance or RF capacitance

because the theory is same as capacitance level detectors with addition of two
circuits for oscillator buffer and chopper drive to separately measure capacitance
and resistance. RF stands for radio frequency and is used because these level
sensors operate in the low radio frequency range up to 30MHz to measure
admittance varying with level. The measure of conductivity in an Ac circuit is
known as admittance and its reciprocal is impedance. It is similar to conductance
in Dc circuit. The RF admittance level sensor uses pulsed radio frequency waves
to determine when material or liquid is touching the end of its probe. When the
level of liquid rises and the value of dielectric begin to change, the amount of
energy to transmit the energy wave will change. This change is proportional to
the change in level of the liquid. When the process fluid is conductive the probe
is used with an insulating sheath and this cover act as the dielectric between the
probe and the process fluid.

Advantages:

 No moving parts
 Essentially Linear
 Large spans possible
 Interface Measurement possible

Disadvantages:

 Errors due to material build up on probe

 Affected by bulk density
 Affected by variation in temperature
 121

5.4.2 CONDUCTIVITY LEVEL DETECTORS:

It is a simple low cost instrument used for point detection level measurement
which requires electrical conductance of the process fluid. An electric circuit is
setup using electrode probes inserted in the system. If the vessel or the tank is of
metal it can also be used as a probe. When the probes are immersed in the
water the conductive fluid completes the circuit on contact with the probes and
hence the current is indicative that a set level point is attained. Two or more
probes can be utilized in the system to give set level readings. The system
comprises of level detector probes, operating relays and controller. Usually three
probes are used one for low level, second for high level and third for high level
alarm based. The three sets of level states are indicated when liquid comes in
contact with any probe and current flows between electrode and the ground.
The relay contact is operated by the current produced which in turn can actuate
an alarm or a valve. When a dual-tip probe is used it eliminates the need for
grounding a metal tank.

Figure 5.6: Conductivity Probe Level Detection System

 122

5.5 RADIATION LEVEL DETECTORS;

____________________________________________________

Materials radiate and absorb energy waves or radiations. This property has
enabled to devise some of the most unique non contact level detectors. Their
main advantage is that there are hardly any moving parts and they can work
without getting in contact with process system. this reduce the maintenance
cost immensely but the overall cost depend on the type of radiation employed
and the expense of radiation source.

Figure 5.7: Radiation Type Level Detection

5.5.1 RADAR/MICROWAVE:

Radar and microwave terms often used interchangeably are electromagnetic

radiation which travel with the speed of light but have different frequencies. The
basic working principle is same for all; a radiation source directs radiations
 123

towards the process vessel. A sensor or detector receives back the reflected
radiations which contains part of the energy compared to the original radiation.
Travel time or time of flight is calculated and is measure of the level in the
vessel. So, time of flight is the period between the transmission of radar pulse
and reception of the return echo.

There are two systems or technologies that are used as non contact methods to
detect level Frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) and pulsed radar or
pulsed flight of time. FMCW emit a continuous swept frequency modulated
signals. The distance is measured from the difference in frequency from the time
delay between transmitting and receiving signals at any pointy in time. The
pulsed radar system involves transmitting of short duration radar pulses towards
the liquid and the transit time for the pulses to return is used to calculate the
level. Radar waves are low energy waves and obstruction in their way like foam
act as dielectric and can affect its performance.

The devices to generate and transmit signal or radiations are known as antennas.
The two types of antennas used for level detection are cone type and parabolic
dish. Parabolic tends to direct signals at a wide range whereas the cone direct at
narrower path. Larger antennas generate more focused and less noise affected
signals but are prone to errors caused by unwanted reflection from turbulent or
sloping surfaces. The choice of type of antenna and its size depends on factors
like tank foam and turbulence which act as obstructions when reflecting back the
waves.

The contact method also called as the guided wave radar method involves a use
of rod or cable as means of wave guide and reaches the bottom of the tank by
passing through the process fluid. The radar pulse is passed through the cable.
The change in dielectric of the fluid causes the wave to reflect back. The time of
flight is measured. The transit time of the signals down and back are used to give
level measure.

5.5.2 ULTRASONIC/SONIC:
 124

Ultrasonic and sonic are both sound waves with different frequencies. Both
types of level detectors are based on the same principle of transmitting sound
waves towards the process fluid, the reflected back waves or the echoes are
indicative of the level in terms of time taken for them to return. A piezoelectric
transducer id generally used to convert electrical waves into sound signals. The
position of transmitter and receiver defines point contact detectors and
continuous non contact detectors. A gap is provided in point detection as soon
as the liquid fills the gap the signal is transmitted and received. The continuous
level detectors make use of the time taken by the reflected wave to return to the
receiver.

The continuous non contact method is popular because it can be used with
solids and kind of process fluids that are corrosive and volatile. Some
considerations should be taken into account like temperature. Speed of sound is
dependent on the temperature of the medium and compensation has to be
provided for that. Turbulence and foam can also affect the level reading by
disturbing the return signals. Stagnant, non agitated liquids and solids consisting
of large and hard particles are good reflectors, and therefore good candidates
for ultrasonic level measurement.

Advantages:

Not in contact with product

Disadvantages:

Noise and dust can interfere with operation.

5.5.3 NUCLEAR:
 125

Nuclear level detectors though very expensive are used when all other
instruments are unsuccessful. They have the same working principle as
ultrasonic and radar but based on the fact that some material known as
radioactive isotopes emit radiations naturally by themselves. Gamma radiations
are basically used in nuclear level detectors. They are electromagnetic radiations
with high energy and shorter wavelength with high penetrable powers.
Radioisotopes are used to get gamma radiations at constant rate.

Gamma rays are passed through the vessel wall and process fluid and a detector
on the other side of the vessel measures the radiation field strength and infers
the level in the vessel. The gamma rays are affected by specific gravity, thickness
of the object and the distance between the source and the detector. Keeping all
other variables constant, thickness can be used as a measure of level or if
thickness is kept constant density of the process material can be used.

The most commonly employed radiation detector is Gieger Muller tube. When
the tube is exposed to gamma radiation, the gas ionizes and the ionized particles
carry the current from one electrode to the other. The more gamma radiation
reaches the gas in the tube, the more pulses are generated. The resulting pulse
rate is counted by the associated electronic circuitry, which makes
measurements in pulses per second.

Nuclear level detectors need safety procedures to follow and license is required
from concerned authorities.

5.6 SPECIALITY LEVEL SWITCHES;

____________________________________________________
 126

The processes where all other types of level sensors are not feasible to use
either because of process constraints or because of economic constraints, some
special level sensors have been devised and are
used in form of switches mostly. They usually do
not have mechanical moving parts, thus require
low maintenance and can be designed for high
pressure systems. The most common types are
vibrating, thermal and optical.

5.6.1 VIBRATING LEVEL SWITCHES:

Theory:

The operating principle is the same for all

vibrating level switches. A vibrating level switch
detects dampening those results when a
vibrating probe immersed in the process
medium. Damping is any effect that tends to
reduce the amplitude of oscillations in an
oscillatory system. The attenuation of
oscillations indicates that the liquid has reached the measured level. A piezo-
Figure 5.8(a):
electric crystal is generally used to force a blade to oscillate at its fundamental
frequency (natural resonance). When the blades come into contact with Paddle
the Level
process medium the natural frequency of oscillation is damped; the electronicsdetector in a
sense the change in frequency which causes the unit to switch. The output can bin
be employed in an electronic circuit to operate an on/off switch or can be
directly linked with a system to give level indication. These are versatile level
sensors in context that they can be used to measure level in liquid and as well as
in solids and slurries of mostly all types. Different level sensors are manufactured
by choosing appropriate vibration frequency and sensitivity adjustments to avoid
false reading, but depending basically on configuration and operating
frequencies they can be divided into three main forms reed switch, probe type
and tuning fork.
 127

Reed Paddle Switch:

The main parts of a reed switch are a paddle, a driver and a pickup. The driver
coil induces vibration in the paddle that is damped out when the paddle gets
covered by a process material. The switch can detect both rising and falling levels
and only its actuation depth (the material depth over the paddle) increases as the
density of the process fluid drops. A reed switch can detect liquid/liquid,
liquid/vapor, and solid/vapor interfaces, and can also signal density or viscosity
variations. They have a limitation of forming cavity around sensor and giving
false readings, especially in wet powders in granular solids. Thus they should not
be used in such application or should be provided with some cleaning mechanism
like automatic spray washing for reliable working.

Figure 5.8(b): Reed Level Switch

Disadvantages:

 Moving parts and seal

 Subject to impact damage

Probe Type:
Probe-type vibrating sensors have most suitable design as they are less sensitive
to material build-up or coating. The vibrating probe is a round stainless steel rod
element that extends into the material. There design does not allow bridging of
material on the sensor and hence these devices tend to be self-cleaning and thus
low maintenance. The rod of the sensor vibrates if there is no material covering it.
When the rod is covered with material, the vibration is dampened and an
electronic circuit can operate a switch. When the rod gets uncovered, the vibration
 128

will restart and the switch position will change. Vibrating probe sensors can be
used to monitor powders, bulk solids, and granular materials such as grain, flour,
plastic pellets, cement, and fly ash.

Tuning Fork:
Tuning fork type level sensors vibrates at its natural frequency when in air. A
piezoelectric crystal-system is used to create vibration in the tuning fork. As the
tuning fork is covered by a liquid or slurry, a corresponding shift occurs in the
vibrating frequency of the tuning fork. The change in vibrating frequency is used
as an indication of level.

Tuning forks have also the tendency to give false readings due to material build
up around it. This can be avoided by making self cleaning designs. They are
manufactured for a variety of applications and can be used to detect level in detect
a wide range of materials, including lubricating oils, hydraulic fluids, water,
corrosive materials, sand, thick and turbulent fluids, powders, light granules, and
pastes.

Figure 5.9: Vibrating Level Detector

Advantages:

 Very sensitive
 Degree of self cleaning

5.6.2 THERMAL LEVEL SWITCHES:

 129

Thermal characteristic of fluids are utilized in making of thermal level sensors.

Thermal level switches are mainly based on either the temperature difference or
the thermal conductivity of materials. Typical temperature sensors like
thermometers, thermocouples and thermistors are commonly employed. These
switches can be used in difficult services, such as interfaces, slurry, and sludge
applications. They are very suitable for measuring interface temperatures of liquid
and vapor because of the marked difference in thermal conductivities of the two.
They can also detect thermally conductive foams if spray-cleaned after each
operation.

The sensors are generally in form of probes inserted in the system to detect
temperature change. They are mostly point detection sensors and the general
working principle involves heating the temperature sensor at keeping it a constant
temperature. The sensor will maintain its temperature when present in vapor area
because the vapors have low thermal conductivities and thus the heat is not
dissipated. But when the liquid comes in contact the heat is transferred to the
liquid, lowering the temperature of the sensor and thus indicating a set level or
actuating a switch.

Thermometers are sometimes employed for detecting level in high temperature

processes like molten matters. Without making contact the thermometers sense
the sudden increase in outside temperature of the mold which is indication of the
inside level of the mold. Multiple sensors are used to get more accurate reading.

When Resistance temperature detectors are used Wheatstone bridge is utilized.

Two probes are mounted at different levels, the one heated at constant
temperature is used as a sensor and other unheated for reference. The sensor again
utilizes the difference in thermal conductivity of materials. The difference in
temperature between the two probes makes an unbalanced bridge circuit. When
both are exposed to same fluid they equalize the temperature as that of the fluid.
The balanced bridge generates a signal for actuation of switch as an indication of
level. Both probes are connected to a voltage source when a current comparator is
utilized instead of the bridge circuit the interface is easily detected as difference in
the current passed through the two probes.
 130

Figure 5.10: level

Thermal Thermal Level Switch
Switch

5.6.3 OPTICAL LEVEL SWITCH:

Optical level sensors are based upon the light transmitting, reflecting, or
refracting properties of the process materials. Visible, infrared, or laser light are
commonly employed. They are quite efficient detectors and are modified to use
for unique and difficult applications like for ultra pure fluid, water hydrocarbon
mixtures and systems that are potentially unsafe when used with electrical
circuitry detectors. The reflective switches can measure the levels of clear as well
as translucent, reflective, and opaque liquids. Some solids level can also be
detected. Difficult level measurements, such as of molten metals, molten glass,
glass plate, or any other kind of solid or liquid material that has a reflecting
surface can also be made by optical level switches. They can be modified to give
continuous level transmission.

Electro-optical sensor contains an infrared LED and a light receiver. Continuous

light from the LED is directed into a prism which forms the tip of the sensor.
With no liquid present, light from the LED is reflected within the prism to the
receiver. When rising liquid immerses the prism, the light is refracted out into the
liquid, leaving little or no light to reach the receiver. Sensing this change, the
 131

receiver actuates electronic switching to operate an external alarm or control

circuit.

In simple reflective type optical sensor, the surface of material whose level is to
be measured is exposed to ray of light. A lens is utilized to direct beam of light
from the source. The light beam aimed down is detected by a photocell when
required level is attained. The reflected beam of light passes through the same
lens to reach the photo detector.

Figure 5.11: Optical Level Switch

Infrared or visible lights are used for interface level measurement because of the
refraction phenomenon. When the sensor is in the vapor phase, most of the light
from the LED is reflected back within a prism. When the prism is immersed, most
of the light refracts into the liquid, and the amount of reflected light that reaches
the receiver is quite reduced. Therefore, a drop in the reflected light signal
indicates contact with the process liquid. They require regular cleaning if used
with slurries or coating material to avoid error in the reading.

Transmission optical sensors are used mostly for sludge level detection. A light
beam is directed across the tank. A probe with some photo detector like LED and
a photocell is used. The probe detects light on contact with the liquid. In some
cases exposed fiber optic wire is utilized. A light source transmits a pulsed light
beam through the fiber cable, and the sensor measures the amount of light that
returns. If liquid covers the cable, it will cause light to refract away from the
cable. The amount of light that returns is indicative of the level.

5.7 SOLID LEVEL DETECTION;

____________________________________________________
The importance of measuring and controlling methods of solid level is growing.
Solid level detectors also fall in two principal categories: 1) Continuous which
 132

provide a continuity of measurement from the low to the high end of their
scales; and 2) fixed-point, which provide measurement one or specific levels.

The continuous solid level detectors are adapted to pneumatic or electrical

proportional control. The fixed point mostly used actuated alarm systems or
pointer indicators for weighing, storing and handling of solids. Most of the
devices used in handling fluid level are also used for solid materials. A brief
summary of the solid level detectors is as follows:

 The non contact Radiation Type level detectors are very advantageous for
solid level detection. The only limitation is to use the system safe
radiation. Ultrasonic devices are getting very popular because of ease in
installation and maintenance and cost effectiveness. They are employed
for level detection of most type of solid materials including the dry and
dusty type.
 Capacitance level Detectors are also used for measuring level in free
flowing solids. This type of measurement is also very suitable for solid
storage. The limitation is the buildup and rat holing (cavity formation)
around electrode. This can be avoided by mounting the electrode at an
angle slightly greater than the angle of repose of the material itself,
which will have the effect of making the rat hole self filling.
 Vibrating type level detectors: tuning fork and vibrating probe are very
suitable for low and high level detection of solids. They can be used when
dealing with solids in bulk or in powder form, granules and grains. With
some adjustments they are used for situations where there vibrations
can help to break the bridges and material build up in solids.
 Flexible diaphragm can also be used. I t is exposed to the material in the
bin. As solid level rises, pressure forces diaphragm against
counterweighed lever mechanism. Tipping of lever actuates electrical
switch.
 Rotating paddle Level detectors are used for point level detection. Paddle
is attached to the shaft driven by synchronous motor. When rotation is
resisted by solid material, motor support rotates in horizontal direction,
causing actuation of electrical switches.
 Optical Laser level Switches though not very popular in solid level
detection but are helpful in molten metal level detection.
 133

5.8 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR LEVEL SENSORS;

___________________________________________

Used for Accu Applications/

Instrument & racy Remarks
Material
Float Suitable for clean 1-3% Prone to errors due to
liquids; can be used corrosion or coating by
with viscous. liquids. The float should
be chosen according to
requirement.
Magnetic Liquids varies Chemical compatibility
of the liquid with the
parts of detector should
be checked.
Displacer For clean liquids only 0.1- Should not be used with
0.3% sludge and slurries
Differential Liquids (clean, seals can be an issue.
Pressure Type viscous, sludge and
slurries)
Bubbler Tube Clean Liquids (except 1% Impurities and foreign
for sludge and slurries) particles can clog the
tube. Requires high
maintenance
 134

Capacitance All kinds of liquids 1-2% Temperature variations

Probe and solids (Powder and may cause problems.
granules)
Ultrasonic All kinds of liquid and ---- Non contact type;
solids. presence of dust, vapor
etc can interfere with
true reading
Vibrating Liquids and most 0.1% Material build up can
solids. create problems.
Thermal Liquids (clean, 0.5 in Dependent on thermal
viscous, sludge, conductivities of
slurries) material, not suitable for
foam and interfaces
Radiation All kinds of liquids 1% Radiation safety for the
and solids system and surroundings
should be checked.

CHAPTER 6

COMPOSITION
 135

MEASUREMENT
 136

Chapter 06
Composition Measurement

Objectives
The objective of this chapter is;

 Developing understanding of Analysis and

composition measurement in Industry.
 Difference between On-line and Off-line
composition Analysis.
 Study of most commonly encountered
Industrial composition measuring
instruments.
 Selection criteria of composition measuring
devices to suit an application.
 137

6.1 INTRODUCTION;
__________________________________________

Analysis is defined as the separation, or resolution of anything into its

component parts so that they are individually distinguishable. Industrial
techniques for determination of chemical composition, when combined in a single
assembly of apparatus, are usually called analysis instruments. A wide array of
methods is available to measure composition; the most common of these methods
are

 Physical property measurements (density and specific gravity)

 Photometric analysis
 Electrometric analysis
 Chromatography
 Refractometery

The first step is to decide between measuring physical or chemical properties to

determine the composition. If physical property is to be measured, make sure that
it is unique to the desired component of the mixture and will accurately allow
determining the composition.

6.2 IMPORTANCE OF COMPOSITION MEASUREMENT

AND CONTROL;
____________________________________________

The industries concerned with material processing operations that include changes
in physical state or chemical composition require the Composition measurement
and control to achieve following objectives.
 The composition analysis of raw material is necessary to check purchase
specifications, trace impurities and to achieve product of desired quality.
 The on-line continuous testing helps in process control; making process
more efficient, safe and profitable.
 The composition measurement is also very essential for the waste
disposal; to analyze the stacks and waste stream for injurious toxic
substances and for product recovery facilities.
 Continuous analysis speeds up research process and aids in optimization.

6.3 TYPES OF TESTING:

____________________________________________
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Following are the major types of testing for composition measurement:

 On- line testing

 Off- line testing

On-Line Testing:
On-line analysis is the continuous monitoring of the composition of a sample,
which is under the influence of a control system and directed by an actuator which
can respond and regulate the operating conditions in real time such that the
desired set points are maintained. On-line testing can either be performed in-line
or by slip stream testing. In in-line testing, the sensor is attached directly to the line
and provides feedback via a transmitter. On the other hand, in slip stream testing,
a side stream of the process runs alongside the main line. Such an apparatus
closely resembles the set up of a bypass. The slip stream process conditions can
be continuously manipulated to make the measurements easier to obtain. Similar
to in-line testing, the sensor is directly attached to the slip stream and provides
feedback through a transmitter.

Advantages:
On-line analysis include an immediate and continuous feedback responding to
changes in process conditions and so on-line testing prevents the continued
production of undesired product, with an immediate response and correction of
the flawed material.

Disadvantage:
On-line testing is usually much more complicated and more expensive than off-
line testing.

Off-Line Testing:
Off-line analysis involves the extraction of a sample from the process or reaction,
and its subsequent testing in a machine that may be situated at a location far away
from the process line in a lab. In this case, a sample is manually removed which is
later sent to the composition analyzer. The results of the analysis are examined
and then they are sent to the control system or actuator to make the appropriate
adjustments. On-line analysis is comparable to off-line testing, the primary
difference being that in on-line testing, the samples are analyzed on a machine
that is next to the process line. This greatly reduces time lost in transporting the
sample, though it still permits the prospect of introducing contaminants into the
sample.

Advantages:
Off-line testing is more robust and has more varied applications.

Disadvantages:
 Sample dead-time, which is the time lost during transportation,
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 Variability of sample testing locations, and

 Lag time for adjustments to be made to the process.

In off-line analysis, the lag time between removing the sample from the system
and receiving the results of the test could cause significant losses to the company,
since the defective product is produced and the process is not corrected until the
results are received. This prolonged defective processing could result in the
accumulation of losses worth thousands of dollars, which could have been
avoided if an on-line analysis system was set up in place.

Standards and Calibration Curves:

Composition sensors use standards or calibration curves to measure an unknown
composition against a known one(s). The standard can either be an internal
standard against which all other measurements are compared, such as a reference
cell or a series of standards used to create a calibration curve. With a calibration
curve, a series of known standards are measured with the sensor and the signal
produced by the sensor is graphed on the y-axis of a plot; the known information
about each sample is graphed on the x-axis. From this information, a relationship
can be developed between the signal output from the sensor and the known
quantity that one is trying to measure. The data measured for the unknown sample
can then be compared to the calibration curve graphically or using the equation
written to describe the curve. Using this information, the measurement made by
the sensor can be interpreted as a useful composition measurement of weight
percent, volume percent, mole percent, etc.

6.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES MEASUREMENT:

____________________________________________

As far as chemical composition is concerned; analysis involves the determination

of components: 1) as to kind, qualitative analysis or 2) as to amount, called
quantitative analysis. Determination of physical properties is often very vital in
composition analysis in some cases: as the qualitative analysis will be incomplete
without it. Density and Viscosity are two common properties to be studied.

6.4.1 DENSITY MEASUREMENT:

Density is the most fundamental of all the physical properties. It applies to

substance in any of the three physical states. Density measurements are made for
the following reasons:

 To determine the mass and volume of products

 To assess the quality of products.
 To determine the composition and concentration of a process stream.
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 To determine the calorific values of fuels.

 To convert volumetric flow measurements into mass flow information.

Types of Density Measurements:

There are two basic approaches.

 Static density measurement

 Dynamic density measurement.

Generally static methods are well developed; lower in cost and more accurate.
Dynamic samples are expensive, highly automated and use microprocessor-based
signal processing devices. There is no universally applicable density measurement
technique available. Different methods must be employed for solids, liquids and
gases.

6.4.1.1 MAGNETIC METHOD OF DENSITY MEASUREMENT:

Magnetic densitometer is used for both liquids and gases.

Construction and Working:

It consists of a small ferromagnetic cylinder, encased in a glass jacket. The jacket
and ferromagnetic material combination constitutes a buoy or float. Therefore
float is suspended electromagnetically, totally immerses in the process fluid
whose density is to be measured. If the density of the fluid decreases, the float
will start sinking. The change in position is detected by search coils and it results
in an unbalanced signal to the amplifier and demodulator, causing an increase in
the current to the solenoid. This increases the force of attraction of the magnet on
the float and restores it to its original centered position. The density sensor can be
mounted on tank or pipeline nozzles, directly immersed in the process stream, or
provided with a sample chamber for mounting in a sample bypass line.

Advantages:
 Magnetic densitometer allows the determination of affects of pressure and
temperature down to cryoscopic range.
 it allows high measurement accuracy(of ½ to 1% of full scan)
 it is available in wide range of specified gravity units

Disadvantages:
 Sample flow rates exceeding a few GPH (gallon per hour) or viscosities
above a few centipoises can result in vertical forces on the float, causing
error in the measurement.
 Deposits on the float will also result in measurement error, for this reason
the detector is not recommended for slurry service.
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6.4.1.2 VIBRATIONAL METHOD OF DENSITY MEASUREMENT:

Working Principle:
The vibration methods (also called vibration densitometer) are used for liquid and
gas density measurements. They make use of the phenomenon that the natural
frequency of oscillation varies with the mass of the oscillating (vibrating) body
containing fluid in it or surrounded by it. Therefore if the mass varies with the
density, the frequency of oscillation can be used to measure it.
A factor common to all types of vibrating element densitometers is the problem of
setting the element in vibration and maintaining its natural resonance.

There are two drivers available for this purpose:

Magnetic drivers of vibrating element and the pick-up sensors of vibrations are
usually achieved using small coil assemblies. The main advantage of the magnetic
drivers and pick-up system is that they are non-contact methods. They use
conventional copper windings, are simple to construct and are available within the
temperatures of -200 to +200 oC.

The Piezoelectric drivers are mechanically fixed on the vibrating element by

adhesives. Therefore attention must be paid for the careful placement of the
mount in order to reduce the strain experienced by the piezoelement, due to
thermal and pressure stresses while the instrument is in service. The main
advantage of the piezoelectric drivers is that they have high impedance, thus
making the signal conditioning circuitry relatively easy and cost effective.

Vibrating Tube Densitometer:

If a body is excited into mechanical vibration by pulsating drive the amplitude of
its vibration will be proportional to its mass. This concept is used in vibrating tube
densitometer. The tube and the driving mechanisms are constrained to vibrate on
a single plane. As the liquid moves inside the tube, the density of the entire mass
of liquid is measured.

The tube containing the process fluid is vibrated at resonant frequency by

electromagnetic or piezoelectric vibrators. The tube and the driving mechanisms
are constrained by this to vibrate on a single plane. The resonant frequency is a
function of the density of the fluid moving inside the tube. The tube is carefully
isolated from the fixtures by carefully designed bellows.

Advantages:
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The design pressures and temperatures are not limited by flexible connectors and
ambient temperature, process pressure, sample flow rate or viscosity variations
have practically no effect on measurement.

Disadvantages:
 The single tube densitometers have the disadvantage of presenting
obstruction to the flow, thus having some pressure losses.
 The vibrating tube densitometers can handle only clean fluids with low
and moderate viscosities and are not suitable in highly viscous liquids or
slurry applications. High viscosity streams or heavy slurries are likely to
plug the small diameter tube.

Vibrating Cylinder Densitometer:

In vibrating cylinder densitometer, a thin walled cylinder with a 3 to 1 ratio of
length versus diameter, is fixed with stiff ends.
The thin walled cylinder is located concentrically inside the housing of the
densitometer. The cylinder can be excited to vibrate in hoop made by magnetic
drives mounted either in or outside the cylinder.

Figure 6.1: Vibrating Cylinder Densitometer

The cylinder is made to vibrate at the resonance frequency. The change in the
resonant frequency is determined by the local mass loading of the fluid in contact
with the cylinder. The mass of the entire system in vibration consists of the mass
of the spool plus that of the fluid. Oscillations are induced and sustained by a
feedback amplifier. A predetermined number of oscillations are counted and the
elapsed time is measured by a high frequency clock.
The curve of frequency against density is nonlinear and has a parabolic shape,
thus requiring linearization to obtain practical outputs.

Advantages:
 Vibrating cylinder densitometers have zero pressure coefficients.
 They are ideal for liquidized gas products or refined liquids.
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Disadvantages:
Due to relatively small clearances between cylinder and housing, they require
regular cleaning. They are not suitable for liquids or slurries with high viscous
properties.

6.4.1.3 WEIGHING METHOD OF DENSITY MEASUREMENT:

The majority of industrial liquid density instruments are based on the

measurement of weight, buoyancy or hydrostatic head.

Pycnometric Densitometer:
These are static devices used for measuring densities of liquids and gases.
Pycnometers are manufactured as fixed volume vessels which can be filled with
sample fluid.

Advantages:
 Pycnometers are accurate.
 They can be used for both density and specific gravity
measurements.

Disadvantages:
 Great care must be exercised for accurate results.
 The sample has to be taken off-line with consequent time lag in
rest.
 High precision weighing scales and controlled laboratory
conditions are needed.

Hydrostatic Densitometers:

Applications :
 They are used for measuring densities of both liquids and gases.

 They are also used for the measurement of density of porous or powdered
solid substances.
 Hydrostatic densitometers are suitable for solid and liquid density
measurements only. A typical example of such devices, used for solid
density measurement is the Westphal balance.
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Figure 6.2: Hydrostatic weighing Liquid densitometer

Advantages:
 Hydrostatic densitometers are rugged.
 They give accurate results
 They are used for calibration of other liquid density transducers.
Disadvantages:
They must be installed horizontally on a solid base. They are not flexible enough
to adapt for any process.

Applications
 Hydrostatic densitometers are suitable for solid and liquid density
measurement.
 The hydrostatic weighing methods of liquids give continuous reading for
two phase liquids such as slurries, sugar solutions, powders, etc.

Hydrometers:
Hydrometers are direct reading instruments, most
commonly used for measurements of density of liquids.
They use buoyancy principle as the main technique of
operation.
Hydrometers may be classified according to the
indication provided by graduations of the scale such as:

1. Density hydrometers
2. Specific gravity hydrometers
3. Percentage hydrometers

Advantages:
 Hydrometers are low cost devices.
Figure 6.3: Hydrometer
 145

 They are easy to use.

 They are direct reading meters without need for mechanical linkages.
 They are accurate and frictionless devices.
 They are compatible with most corrosive fluids.
Disadvantages:
 They have short span.
 They are made from glass and are fragile.
Metals and plastic versions are not very accurate.
 The fluid needs to be an off-line sample.

6.4.2 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT:

Viscosity is a property of the fluid which affects its behavior. In modern science
and in processing plants viscosity measurements are used in determining the
following

 Viscosity is a direct measurement of fluid characteristics and behavior when in

motion. It is very difficult to size a pump, pipeline, orifice meter, or agitator
without knowing the viscosity of the fluid. In any process where liquids are used
viscosity of the fluid determines the effectiveness of the process and the quality of
the product.
 Viscosity detection can be an indirect measurement of other properties. Molecular
weight and its distribution in polymers, specific gravity, color, size and
distribution of solids in slurry can all be reflected in viscosity variations.
Many designs of viscometers are available today; however, some of the
commonly used types are described here.

6.4.2.1 CAPILLARY VISCOMETERS:

Capillary viscometers utilize the flow of the process fluid

through a capillary to measure viscosity. The capillary tube
viscometer consists of a fluid reservoir to hold a specific
volume of sample liquid and of a capillary tube. The
hydrostatic head of the fluid causes the liquid to flow through
the capillary.

Advantages:
 Capillary tube viscometer is a simple and
convenient instrument for measuring kinematic Figure 6.4: Capillary Viscometer
 146

viscosity accurately in the range of 0.2- 12000 centistokes.

 It is relatively inexpensive.
 It is easy to operate and preferable for on-line measurement.
 It needs little or no maintenance besides cleaning.
 It has high repeatability.

Disadvantages:
 Because of small driving force caused by the hydrostatic head of the fluid
and because of the change in hydrostatic head with time, it is usually
restricted to low-viscosity Newtonian fluids.
 Since the unit is operated under atmospheric conditions and because of the
time lag from sample taking to measurement is large, its use on highly
evaporative samples is avoided.

Applications:
 Kinematic viscosity measurements.
 Absolute viscosity measurements.
 Molecular weight measurements by relating it to intrinsic viscosity.
 Study of molecular shapes of natural and synthetic polymers.

6.4.2.2 EFFLUX CUP VISCOMETER:

The testing procedure of the efflux cup viscometer is quite similar to that of
capillary tube viscometers where efflux time of a specified volume of fluid is
measured through fixed orifice at the bottom of a cup to represent the viscosity.
The efflux time is converted to kinematic viscosity by conversion charts or by
formula suggested by the equipment manufacturer. Some common types of efflux
type viscometer are:
Saybolt viscometer is the standard instrument for testing petroleum products.
Accuracies within +-0.1% of reading are possible when standard testing
procedure is followed.
Zahn cup viscometer is widely used by paint manufacturers to standardize their
products during manufacturing stages.
Automatic efflux cup viscometer are essentially an automated Zahn cup
viscometers to be used on-line where filling, efflux timing and solvent washing
operations are controlled by a cycle-time programmer. They are low cost on-line
viscometers.

6.4.2.3 ROTATIONAL VISCOMETER:

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These are probably the most widely used

rheometers. The operating principle of
the rotational viscometer is based on the
fact that the torque necessary to
overcome the viscous resistance to the
induced movement (torque) by rotation
of a spindle is directly proportional to the
viscosity of the fluid.

These viscometers are classified into the

following types:
 Coaxial-cylinder rotational
viscometers.
 Cone-and-plate type rotational
viscometers.
 Parallel-plate rotational
viscometers.

Advantages:
 The cone-and-plate type
viscometer is the most versatile of Figure 6.5: Rotational
all types and is an excellent Viscometer
rheometer. It has the ability to
record rheograms automatically
for non-Newtonian fluids.
 Rotational viscometers have the ability to perform continuous
measurement under varying process conditions on the sample.

Disadvantages:
The cost of cone-and-plate viscometer is high.
In case of coaxial cylinder viscometer uncertainty arises when non-Newtonian
fluids are dealt with.

Applications:
 Rotational viscometers are particularly useful for investigation of non-
Newtonian fluids.
 They are useful for measurement of fluids viscosities ranging from 10-4-
108 poise; at a full range of shear rates from 10-4 to 104 sec-1 with varying
spindle size and speed of rotation.
 The cone-and-plate type viscometer is capable of measuring not only
absolute viscosity of Newtonian fluids but also elasticity and all other flow
properties.
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6.5 SPECTROPHOTOMETERS:
___________________________________________
The spectrophotometers are composition analyzers which employ electromagnetic
radiation. They measure intensity of radiation as function of their wavelength
(frequency). They can be divided into two parts a light source and a light detector.
Spectrophotometer involves measurement of quantity and quality of
electromagnetic radiation emitted, reflected, transmitted or diffracted by the
sample.

Chemical composition variables are measured by observing the basic interactions

between matter and energy. Electromagnetic radiation varies in their energy with
changing wavelengths. Shortest wavelengths have highest energy and thus
penetration into the matter. All types of electromagnetic radiations are used in
spectrophotometers depending on the sample under observation and thus can be
divided into several types based on the type of radiation involved.

Radiation of the shortest wavelength (gamma rays) interact with atomic nuclei, X-
rays with the inner shell electrons, visible and ultraviolet with valence electrons
and strong inter atomic bonds, while infrared radiation and microwaves interact
with weaker inter atomic bonds and with molecular vibrations and rotations. The
analysis techniques are based on these interactions and relationships.

Long wavelength Short wavelength

Low energy High energy
Figure 6.6: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Basic Configuration:
The basic design of a spectrophotometer includes following components.

A light source is provided to get the required form of radiation. Incandescent

lamps are used to get visible and near infrared radiation. Mercury lamps are very
efficient source of blue and ultra violet radiation. X-rays can be obtained by
hitting a metal target with a stream of high-energy electrons.

The radiation is usually isolated to get narrow bands of wavelength by employing

monochromator or any element like
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 prism
 grating
 filter

Figure 6.7: Spectrophotometer components

There is also a container section to hold the sample , it is called a cuvette. A

cuvette can be divided into two cells; measuring cell for sample gas and reference
cell for reference gas.

The light detectors can be as primitive as human eye but they are not preferable as
they cannot be used continuously. Photoelectric detectors are more reliable, they
convert the measured light intensity into electric signals output. The most
common are Photovoltaic cells or Photoemission tubes. A spectrophotometer
generally has a linear charged couple device which is an integrated circuit of light
sensitive capacitors. The output of spectrophotometers can be a display unit or it
can be linked to a computer which utilizes software to give output in forms of
graphs between absorbance and wavelength.

6.5.1 SPECTRUM BASED TYPES:

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Spectrphotometers are also classified on the basis of the electromagnetic spectrum

they employ. Although whole range of electromagnetic radiations is used in
Spectrophotometers, features of the most commonly used are as follows:

ULTRAVIOLET/VISIBLE:

 Most commonly used for liquids, but can also be used for gases or even
solids to get quantitative and qualitative analysis (Beer Lambart’s law).
 Cuvette is made up of glass, plastic or quartz for visible range. Plastic and
glass are unsuitable for UV as they absorb UV radiations.
 Visible Spectrophotometers are not suitable with materials having
fluorescence.
 Tungsten or halogens lamps are used for visible radiation source mostly
and low pressure excitation of deuterium or hydrogen is a good source of
continuous UV radiations.

INFRARED :

 Infrared like UV and visible radiation is mostly absorbance type

spectroscopy used for functional group analysis.
 Infrared radiations are used based on their divisions from higher in energy
to lower i.e., near, mid and far infrared radiations.
 Different Photo detectors have to be used for different infrared regions.
 The absorption occurs when the frequency of the radiation matches that of
the vibrational frequency of the molecules or bonds and the characteristic
data obtained by absorbance gives information about molecular structure.
 The cuvette cell needs to be manufactured of salts like silver chloride as
most materials like glass plastic etc easily absorb infrared radiations.

X-RAY:

 X-rays are used for several popular kinds of spectroscopy i.e., absorption,
emission and florescence.
 X-ray spectrophotometers are used for elemental analysis because it deals
with electronic transitions in the inner most core electrons.
 In X-ray fluorescence an X-ray source is used to produce X-ray by
secondary fluorescence from the sample under observation.
 XRFs are generally used for solid samples and the solid is powdered to
make a thin layer sample.
 Glass cell is usually employed to hold sample.
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6.5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SPECTROPHOTOMETERS:

They can be divided on different basis. One of the classifications divides them
into single beam and double beam spectrophotometer.

6.5.2.1 SINGLE BEAM SPECTROPHOTOMETER:

It is the simplest type of spectrophotometer in which a single beam passes from

minimum number of component i.e., from source through sample to the detector.
When the beam is passed through the cell without sample it, the intensity thus
obtained is known as Sample absorbance. The general practice is to obtain a blank
sample by passing light beam through the cell containing same solution as sample
except that particular component which needs to be measured (blank), the light
intensity thus measured is taken as zero absorbance at that particular wavelength.

When the light beam is passed through the sample under observation, the
absorbance thus obtained is indicative of that component in the sample. The
limitation of single beam spectrophotometers is that they are not suitable with
multiple wavelengths, and the zero absorbance needs to be determined every time
whenever a different wavelength is used. These instruments are although low in
cost but more prone to drift errors when used over extended period of time.

6.5.2.2 DOUBLE BEAM SPECTROPHOTOMETERS:

These are more complex as consists of more components than the simple single
beam spectrophotometers. A double beam instrument is provided with two
cuvette cells, one for sample and other is for reference or blank sample. Both are
provided in the same configuration. The beam from the source is passed through
the chopper; the rotating motion of the chopper passes light through sample
solution and reference solution alternately. The speed of the chopper is adjusted to
rotate it to obtain alternate readings from both cells continuously.

The light intensity passing through the two cells is thus compared and the output
readout displays the net absorbance. The double beam spectrophotometers are
much faster and stable and less prone to lamp drift errors. They are easily used
with multiple wavelengths and the correction of the blank sample is automatically
adjusted with changing wavelength and new sample.
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Figure 6.8: Double Beam Spectrophotometer

Schematic
Another type of double beam spectrophotometers are split beam type in which a
single light beam is divided into two and passed simultaneously through reference
cell and sample cell to identical detectors.

6.6 ELECTROMETRIC ANALYSIS:

___________________________________________

6.6.1 CONDUCTIVITY CELLS:

Conductivity is ability of material to conduct electrical current. Conductivity of

solutions is a parameter which is utilized to measure ionic concentration and
activity of a solution. Hence,
presence of alkali, acidity or
salinity in a solution can be
indicated in terms of
conductivity.

A simple conductivity cell

comprises of two plates or square
shaped electrodes immersed in a Figure 6.9: Basic Configuration,
solution capable of conducting Conductivity Cell
electric current. Alternating voltage is applied across the electrodes which cause
the ions in the solution to travel and electric current flows through the system.
Higher ionic concentration is indicated by greater amount of electric current
flowing through the cell. Cell constant is an important factor in conductivity cells
and is indicative of the physical configuration of the cell and is defined as ratio of
the distance between the electrodes to the electrode area. In actual, due to
presence of fringe field effect, the cell constant is determined by using a standard
solution of known conductivity.
 153

More advance design of conductivity

cells are also in use. One of them involves
four electrodes where alternating current
is applied on the outer pair of electrodes.
This type of sensor is more stable and
because of its versatility can be used for
all types of solution and also has reduced
risk of fouling.

Another type of conductivity cells are

known as Toroidal cells. They use
magnetic field for conductivity
measurement. A primary magnetic coil is Figure 6.10: Basic Toroidal Cell
employed to create a magnetic field by
supplying a known value of alternating current which induces voltage in the
solution. A current flows through the system and is dependent on concentration of
ions in the solution. The current generated induces magnetic field in receiving coil
and the resulting current measured is used to indicate conductivity value. They are
non contacting type of cells and thus require less maintenance.

6.6.2 pH MEASUREMENT:

pH in industry is one of the most common process

measurement . pH control is necessary in some
industries to ensure product quality, where as in
others reducing corrosion and scaling in plant
equipment is vital and is aided by pH control. The
equilibria and kinetics of many reactions are pH
dependent and thus require continuous pH
measurement. Environment is one the most important
area for which pH control is very essential either for
checking quality of water for use or for discharging
waste water within regulatory limits.

Figure 6.11: Electrolytic cell

Theory:
pH can be defined in many ways such as quantitative measure of the strength of
the acidity or alkalinity of a solution or as relative amount of hydrogen or
 154

hydroxide ion in an aqueous solution or to be more precise it is defined

as the negative common logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+].
But it is more beneficial to define pH in electrochemical terms which is an
operational definition from the way it is measured. pH scale is defined by
measuring the difference of pH between test solution and a standard buffer
solution. A potential difference is obtained in the solution by using a reference
electrode and another electrode. The difference in potential between the test
solution and the standard solution is converted to indicate pH value. The assembly
thus formed is known as electrochemical cell.

Figure 6.12: pH scale

6.6.2.1 pH MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES:

pH can be measured off line by colorimetric or titrimetric method in which color

indicator is used to indicate the pH of the sample taken. The method used for on
line pH measurement in industries is potentiometric method where pH is
measured as voltage of an electrochemical cell.

Off Line Method:

pH can be measured by indicating the change in color as measure of change in
pH value. One of the methods is calorimetric. The change in pH is indicated by
change in color development or intensity. In digital meters the color intensity is
measured by using photo detectors where as in visual method color sample in
terms of primary colors red, blue, and green components of light reflected from
the object or sample and perceived by eye.

In colorimetric method a light sensitive instrument is used and is based on the

Beer-Lambert law as in Absorptive Spectrophotometrs, which states that
absorption of light passing through a solution is proportional to the concentration
of a solute. The main parts of a colorimeter are a light source ( low-voltage
filament lamp), adjustable aperture, colored filters, solution cuvette, a transmitted
light detector and an output display meter. A filter is used to select and measure
the wavelength of light that the solution absorbs the most. When light is passed
through the medium , there is a decrease in intensity of light due to absorption by
 155

the medium. The analysis of transmitted light was usually done by perceiving the
color and comparing them with a standard. Now the colorimetric method are
made digital by employing a cuvette (small transparent tube closed at one end) for
spectroscopic analysis.

light proof cover

control knob
light detector smooth

light path side

light source rough

cuvette and sample side

Figure 6.13(a): Colorimeter Figure

Figure6.13(b):
6.13 (b) AA cuvette
configuration cuvette

A pH indicator is a substance that changes color around a particular pH value.

Another quick and easy method of calorimetric is use of indicating paper. The
paper or pH indicator strips are soaked up in the sample solution and the paper
changes color due to the presence of indicator dye and is indicative of the change
in pH with the change in color. The pH is estimated by comparison with color
chart. It is not very accurate method and gives a rough indication of the pH of
sample but it is inexpensive and rapid. Litmus paper is another type of pH
indicator paper. It turns red when placed in an acidic medium and blue in alkaline
medium.

On Line Method:
The most common method of pH determination is by measuring the voltage of an
electrochemical cell. A pH measurement device usually consists of following
components, the pH sensor, which includes a measuring electrode, a reference
electrode, and a temperature sensor; a preamplifier; and an analyzer or
transmitter. The pH measuring electrode is a hydrogen ion sensitive glass bulb,
with a voltage output that varies with the changes in the relative hydrogen ion
concentration or in other terms pH. The reference electrode output does not vary
with the pH. The pH electrode has very high internal resistance, making the
voltage change with pH difficult to measure. The pH meter is basically a high
impedance amplifier that accurately measures the minute electrode voltages and
displays the results directly in pH units on either an analog or digital display.
 156

The pH measuring electrode is usually made up of glass with a sensitive

membrane to only allow hydrogen ions through it. The ion exchange takes place
at the interface of the glass and liquid. The reference electrode provides a constant
potential regardless of the composition of the solution it is placed in. The voltage
difference between the reference and measuring electrodes is a function of the pH
value of a solution. When both measuring and reference electrode are present in
one body they are known as combination electrode.

Figure 6.14: pH Meter Configuration

When two solutions with different pH values exist inside and outside the glass
electrode with a membrane, electrochemical potential is developed which is in
proportion to the difference in pH of the two solutions. The pH inside the
electrode is known so as a result the unknown pH is determined. Temperature
changes in the solution can affect both the response of the measuring electrode
and the pH of the solution. Temperature measurement devices are inserted into
the liquid, and the signals from those devices are used to compensate for the
effect of temperature on pH measurement. The high resistance of the
measurement electrode's glass membrane requires the use of a voltmeter with high
internal resistance, or a null-balance voltmeter, to measure the voltage. To
calibrate the pH meter, a standard solution with a known pH value is used.

6.6.3 ION SELECTIVE ELECTRODES:

In liquid the current is carried by ions, this phenomenon is exploited by devising

an electrode with a sensitive membrane that let only a specific type of ions pass
through it and hence the voltage produced directly indicates the concentration of
those specific ions in the solution. The transport of ions from high concentration
to low concentration through a selective binding with some sites within the
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membrane creates a potential difference. Such types of electrodes are known as

ion selective electrodes (ISE) and they are a very common sensor used for
analytical purposes to determine the activity of a specific ion as a function of the
electric potential. One very important application is in pH meters where Hydrogen
ion activity is easily determined by using these. Other ions that can be measured
are fluoride, bromide, cadmium, and gases in solution such as ammonia, carbon
dioxide, and nitrogen oxide like in the field of environmental analysis for
pollution control and in agriculture for analyzing soil components or fertilizers
etc.

The main component of an ion selective electrode is the membrane and it is not
possible to use a single membrane for all types of operations because of
difference in conditions and behavior of different ions. Hence, variant types of
membranes have been devised to give accurate and reliable reading in all
conditions. The most common types of membranes are glass type, crystal based
and the polymer type membranes. If an incorrect type of electrode membrane is
selected it would be useless for that particular application.

The glass type is the mostly used for the charged cations like H+ and Na+. Glass
membrane electrodes are used in pH meters. They are generally made up of
silicates. Another type of solid membrane are crystal type made from mono- or
polycrystallites of a single substance. They are based on inorganic crystals doped
with small amount of ions. They have developed a good selectivity for both
cations and ions. A vary common type of such electrodes is Flouride ion
electrode. Combination electrodes are manufactured for variety of processes.
Polymer membranes with different ion selective resins are most versatile type of
ion selective electrodes. In special type of electrodes enzymes can also be utilized
as membrane to provide selectivity in enzyme substrate reactions.

The membranes are available in different shapes and their properties are affected
by the particular shape. A few popular shapes and their properties are described
below:
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Table 6.1: Glass Electrode Membrane

6.6.4 ORP (REDOX) SENSORS:

ORP stands for Oxidation Reduction Potential and ORP sensors indicate the
tendency of a substance to oxidize or reduce in terms of voltage. Oxidation is
characterized by loss of electrons and is always followed by its counterpart
reduction which is characterized by gain of electrons.

A Redox sensor is basically like pH sensor having electrodes. The electrodes in

this type of sensor detect the electron movement and activity within the solution
and thus indicate the oxidizing/reducing capability. An oxidizing agent can accept
electrons where as reducing agents tends to donate electron. ORP electrodes
measure the ratio of oxidized to reduced forms of all chemical species in solution.
 159

Figure 6.15: ORP Measurement Cell

The measuring electrode used should be a good conductor but chemically inert.
For this purpose mostly platinum but sometimes gold is employed. The reference
electrode is usually of silver. The electrode donates or accepts electrons
respectively from the oxidant or reductant present in the solution. This transfer of
electron continues until a potential is developed across the electrodes and
magnitude of potential can be described by Nernest equation. This potential is
measured with the help of a voltmeter and is indicative of the ORP of solution.

6.6.5 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY GAS ANALYZERS:

Thermal conductivity of a substance is

measure of its capacity to conduct heat.
Gases also have the ability to conduct
heat at a specific rate. This property of
thermal conductivity of gases is
employed to make a detector for
analyzing a two gas mixture. A
quantitative measure of the gas
concentration is achieved by measuring
the thermal loss through a heated
element when in contact with the gas. It
can also be used after proper calibration
to measure single component from a
multi component gas. Gases like H2, He
and Ar are commonly analyzed using
Figure 6.16: Gas Analyzer
Configuration
 160

this thermal conductivity detector. Diatomic gases like methane and carbon
dioxide are also measured with this type of gas analyzers.

Heated filaments or thermistor probes are exposed to the continuous stream of

gas. The gas carries away the heat and the amount of heat carried away by the gas
proportionally causes the cooling of the heated filament. The change of
temperature of the filament in turn produces a change in its resistance. The
resistance is measured by making filaments arms of Wheatstone bridge and hence
is converted to electrical current which gives an output signal.

A common configuration of this type of detector includes a measuring chamber

and reference chamber each containing a stretched platinum wire. The reference
gas is passed through reference chamber whereas the gas under observation is
passed through the measuring chamber. The platinum wires are heated by
constant flow of current and are part of a bridge circuit as a combination with a
fixed resistor.

When the concentration of gas varies the thermal conductivity also varies
accordingly and hence the temperature of platinum wire varies depending on the
heat transferred by the gas. The change in temperature varies the resistance and
hence the concentration of gas is measured from the change in electrical
resistance.

6.7 CHROMATOGRAPHY:
___________________________________________

Theory:
Chromatography is a separation technique which helps us to identify different
components in a mixture and thus not only allows identifying but also analyzing,
quantifying or even purifying components. The basic phenomenon of
chromatography involves the distribution of components between two immiscible
phases i.e. a mobile phase (liquid or gaseous) and stationary phase (solid or
liquid). In chromatography the components are separated on the basis of their
differential affinity with to the mobile phase and stationary phase.

The sample under observation is known as Analyte. The mobile phase has the
sample along with the solvent and it flow sample and solvent over and around the
stationary phase. The components of sample have different solubility or affinities
to different phases. The stationary phase as the name suggests remains at fixed
place. The retention time of a component is the time the samples takes to move,
migrate or elute through the column, it is the time taken when the sample is
injected till it reaches its maximum peak . The retention time and elution order are
 161

both based on the relative interaction between each solute and each phase. The
stronger the solute’s interaction with the mobile phase, relative to the stationary
phase, the sooner the solute will elute from the column.

Types of Chromatography:
The chromatography can be divided into following kinds based on the type of
mobile and stationary phase used.

LIQUID chromatography utilizes liquid sample and solvent as mobile phase and
stationary phase is solid. GAS chromatography is utilized for vaporized sample
and gaseous carrier as mobile phase and stationary phase can be liquid or gas. In
PAPER chromatography a paper is employed for stationary phase where as
mobile phase includes liquid solvent and capillary action is used to pull up solute
and separate it. THIN LAYER chromatography the mobile phase is liquid solvent
and the stationary phase is thin layer of finely divided solids like silica gel
supported on glass plate.

Solute-phase interaction is a function of the charges of the molecules, the

absorption of the stationary phase, and the relative solubility. On basis of
differential affinity of sample components with the stationary phase they can be
divided into following types.

ADSORPTION chromatography involves a gaseous or liquid mobile phase

adsorbed on surface of solid stationary phase. ION EXCHANGE chromatography
uses electrostatic forces and covalently bonds the ions of mobile phase with
stationary phase. GEL FILTERATION chromatography also known as Molecular
Exclusion involves passing of liquid or gaseous phase passing through porous gel
and the separation takes place on the basis of molecular size. AFFINITY
chromatography is employs a specific type of interaction and selectivity between
the molecules in mobile phase and immobilized molecules in stationary phase.
PARTITION chromatography is dependent on difference in solubility and
involves separation of solute between two liquid phases.

Process of Chromatography:
 162

The process of chromatography generally involves injecting sample into the

mobile phase. A pump is
used to flow mobile phase
through the system.
Capillary action or gravity
is also used sometimes to
move mobile phase. For
gaseous mobile phase heater
can be employed with
injectors to produce
vaporized feed. A column is
provided for stationary
phase, separation takes
place when the mobile
phase passes through it
depending on the degree of
affinity or interaction of
components with the
stationary phase. When the
sample passes through stationary
phase, components elute from Figure 6.17: Chromatography column
column at different rates with the
component having greatest affinity to stationary phase approaching last. The
components elute from column in different streams and are analyzed by help of a
detector. The detectors utilize a property that is related somehow to composition
or concentration of the sample and thus indicate the reading in terms of value that
we require.

Detectors:
A chromatography detector is a device that locates in the dimensions of space and
time, the positions of the components of a mixture that has been subjected to a
chromatographic process and thus permits the senses to appreciate the nature of
the separation. The eye has always been most commonly used detector in
chromatography but advance technology has led to development of a wide range
of detectors and they can be classified in many ways.

Classification of Detectors:
Detectors can be classified into two types. They are:
 bulk property detectors
 solute property detectors.
 163

The bulk property detectors measure some bulk physical property of the eluent
(such as dielectric constant or refractive index).
The solvent property detectors measure some physical or chemical property that
is unique to the solute (such as heat of combustion or fluorescence).

Detectors can also be classified as:

 concentration sensitive devices such as the katharometer
 mass sensitive devices such as the flame ionization detector (FID)
.
Another method of classification is to define detectors as:
 Specific
 Non-specific.

An example of a specific detector would be the nitrogen phosphorous detector

(NPD), which as its name implies detects only those substances that contain
nitrogen or phosphorous.

A non-specific detector would be the katharometer detector which senses all

vapors that have specific heats or thermal conductivities different from those of
the carrier gas.

Gas Chromatography Detectors:

There are a wide variety of detectors available for Gas chromatography because
vapor greatly varies in their physical and chemical properties from that of
permanent gases. Some common types of detectors are:

 The Kathrometer detector

 Simple Gas Density Balance
 The Radioactivity Detector
 Ionization Detector
 Thermal Conductivity Detector
 Flame Ionization Detector
 Nitrogen Phosphorus detector

Liquid Chromatography Detectors:

LC detectors developed more gradually then GC detectors and still face many
limitations because of the reason that as compared to gas, in liquid the change in
low concentration of solute does not change property of the liquid that
appreciably. Hence as compared to Gas detectors there are a fewer types of liquid
chromatography detectors available.

 Refractive Index Based Detectors

 The UV detectors
 164

 The Fluorescence Detectors

 Transport Detectors
 Light Scattering Detectors
 Electrochemical Detectors

Applications:
 In Pharmaceutical industry for finding components of drugs
 For detecting alcohol or drug levels or for forensic research.
 To check water pollution level in water samples.
 In biochemical field for separating and detecting amino acids or antibodies
etc.
 In Manufacturing plants to get feed or products of desired purity.

6.8 REFRACTOMETERY:
___________________________________________

Theory:
DO YOY KNOW???
The Refractometers are based on the optical
property of material known as refractive Why a straight rod appears more
index. Light travels in different mediums bent in sugar solution than in
with different speeds. When a light beam water?
enters from one medium to another, it is bent
or refracted except when the angle of the
beam is perpendicular to the surface of
medium. Refractive index is the measure of
the extent to which a medium can refract
light. Refractive index of the substance is
defined as ratio of speed of light in vacuum
to the speed of light in substance. The speed
of light in vacuum remains same where as
Refractive index is directly proportional
speed of light through different materials is to the density of a substance.
different because of the constant absorbance
and remittance by the atoms.

Figure 6.18: Light beam

refracted entering from
medium A to medium B; speed
of light greater in medium A
than in B.
 165

Principle of Refractometers:
The ratio of the speed of light between two mediums is equal to the ratio of angle
of incidence to angle of refraction which is equal to the ratio of refractive indexes
of the two mediums.

Hence refractive index can be calculated without finding the speed of light in
different mediums by measuring angle of refraction and knowing index of
refraction for one medium. Speed of light in a medium is dependent on
wavelength of the light therefore Refractive index is defined foe specific
wavelength.

Construction and Working:

Any typical refractometer comprises of two prisms; one for refraction or
measuring and other for illuminating. Other than that there is lens and light source
provided and a place for the sample. The refracting prism has always high
refractive index and the refractometer is designed for checking refractive index of
samples having lower value than that. The refractive index and angle of incidence
of prism is fixed and thus with samples of different refractive indexes indicate the
changes by showing varying border lines between dark and light region.

Figure 6.19: Light Path through Refractometer

Refractometers are generally based on critical angle effect effect where critical
angle is the angle of incidence above which total internal reflection occurs. It
defines the point of balance, the borderline, between refraction and total internal
reflection of light at a prism and sample interface. Refractive index is found by
determining the angle light beam makes and from the known refractive index of
 166

the prism used. The advanced digital refractometer involves use of light sensitive
integrated circuit to locate precisely the border line.

Figure 6.20: Digital Refractometer Arrangement

Types of Refractometers:
All refractometers follow the same principle described above but have different
optical designs and thus can be divided into three main types

1. Portable hand held instruments

 Traditional type
 Digital Refractometers
2. Bench type laboratory instrument
 Abbe Refractometers
 Automatic digital Refractometers
3. Inline process Refractometers

The hand held instruments are typical refractometers with prisms and lens and are
provided with glass reticle to view the sample. The digital refractometers are
provided with external light source and linear array of photodiode. The position of
the borderline on the photodiode is measure of the refractive index.

The bench type instruments are more precise and the sample is thinly spread
across the prism and hence doesn’t require large amount of sample. In digital
refractometers the technology has made possible availability of such instruments
where user eye to adjust or determine the reading is no longer required. The inline
refractometers provide continuous monitoring for quality and control purposes in
manufacturing process industries. The most advance type of refractometer utilize
solid state electronic devices and variety of softwares to give high accuracy and
easily usable controls.
 167

Refract Scales & Applications:

The refractometers are used in numerous applications and are thus calibrated
according to their use in respective scales. Refractometers are used to measure
solution concentration in major industries like Food, Chemicals, Petroleum,
Medical and Pharmaceuticals. Following are the common types of refractometers
available based on the content they are designed to measure

 Sugar Refactometer
 Clinical Refactometer
 Saline Refactometer
 Honey Refactometer
 Coolant Refactometer

The Brix Scale is the most commonly used scale other than Refractive index
scale. Brix is also known as sugar scale because it is used to determine the
concentration of solution mostly sucrose in food industry. Other commonly used
units are specific gravity, Plato and Baumѐ degree.

6.9 SELECTION CRITERIA;

The composition measuring instruments are of wide variety to suit the need and
the Selection criteria cannot be condensed in a generalized way to few categories
in a table. A summary of the commonly used techniques is described below

Analysis of Analysis For Limitations

Instrument
Viscometer Liquids,solutions, Concentration of Varies
suspension, slurries heavy solution widely
&suspensions,
molecular weight of
polymer melts &
solution; grading of
petroleum products
Infrared Analyzer Gases, vapors, Any heteroatom Sensitivity
liquids, solutions, molecule; specific affected by
thin film solids wavelength, based on presence of
separate interfering
spectrophotometric substances
data for each analysis.
With such data
performance can be
predicted.
 168

Ultraviolet Gases, vapors, Aromatic & other

Spectrophotomet liquids, solutions, double bonded organic
ers sometimes thin film materials. Cl2, ozone,
solids NO2, SO2, rare earth
free radicals &
biological materials
X-ray Absorption Gases, Vapors, Heavy elements in
liquids, solutions, light elements,
solids Usually not applicable
to elements of atomic
no less than Sulfur,
good for lead in
gasoline
pH meter Liquid, solutions, H+ or H2O+ content in
suspension, slurries liquid
Thermal Gases, vapors H2, CO2, acetone, Cl2, Mostly used
Conductivity He, SO2 & H2S, and for binary
Analyzer where ever gases have systems
variant thermal
conductivity
Chromatography Gases, vapors, All classes of organic Sensitivity to
liquids, solutions compounds that can be 1ppm,
vaporized and are Empirical
thermally stable in calibration,
vapor phase, inorganic Requires few
gases O2, N, H2, CO, minutes to
He, A, H2S run sample
Refractometers Liquid, solution, Applicable to
sometimes gases and binary and
vapors some ternary
solutions that
transmit
appereciable
light