6.

1 Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits

Chapter 6 Microwave Resonators Z in  R  j L   j C 
1
(1) Series Resonant Circuit
Part I 1 1 2 2P
Pini  VI *  I Z ini  Ploss
l  2 j Wm  We   Z ini  in2
1. Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits 2 2 I
1 2
2. Loss and Q Factor of a Resonant Circuit Power dissipation : Poss I R
2
3. Various Waveguide Resonators 1 2
Energy stored in L : Wm  I L
4. Coupling to a Lossy Resonator 4
2
I
Energy stored in C : We 
4 C 2

Part II
 Resonance
R occurs att Wm  We , Zin  R, and
 Time-Domain Analysis of Open Cavities
  0  1 LC .

Part III  Quality factor :

 Spectral-Domain Analysis of Open Cavities Q 
Average energy stored
 0
2Wm 0 L
 
1
E
Energy loss
l per secondd Ploss R 0 RC

1 2

Series Resonant Circuit Parallel Resonant Circuit

N R
Near Resonance   0   ,  iis small.
ll
 1  2
Z in  R  j L 1  2  1V
  LC  p
Power dissipation : Ploss 
2 R
  2  02  1
 R  j L   Energy stored in C : We  C V
2

 
2
 4
QR 0 L 1 V
2
 R  j 2 L  R  j 2  , Q  Energy stored in L : Wm 
0 R 1 4 2L
1 1 
Z in     jC 
 j   R j L 
Complex frequency : 0  0 1    Complex power delivered to the resonator
 2Q 
2
 If R=0 or lossless case,
case 1 1V 1 21 1 
Pin  VI *   V    j C 
2 2 Z in* 2  R j L 
Z in  j 2 L  j 2 L   0 
  j  0 L  Ploss  2 j Wm  We 
j 2 L   0 1     j 2 L   0  
  2Q   Q
 Input impedance at resonance,
 j 2 L   0   R 1
Z in  R, Wm  We , 0 
 A resonator with loss can be treated as a lossless resonator whose resonant LC
frequency ω0 is replaced by a complex frequency ω0(1+j/2Q) 3 4
 Parallel Resonant Circuit Parallel Resonant Circuit
The loss factor can be accounted by
Average energy stored using 0  0 1  j 2Q  .
Q 
E
Energy loss
l per secondd 2Wm R
2Wm R Q  0   0 RC
 0   0 RC Ploss 0 L
Ploss 0 L Fractional bandwidth  2  0  Q 1
R
1 1 Z in   
1 1  if R  , Z in  2
Z in     j C  , near resonance   0   j 2    C
 R j L  1 j L
2    C  j 2C   0     jR
j C   j L  1   2 LC
1 1
  
 1 1   1
1  L
  0
 j   0     C     j 2  C  0  0 1  j 2Q   2 LC  1   ,
R j0 L  R  R
 
    j   
2
1 
R R 1 j 2C   0 1         1  0  Quadratic equation
2Q 
   0
R 
      0 Q 
1  j 2 RC  j 2    C
1  j 2Q 0C 1
0  j 2C   0    j 2C    1 1 1    2 1
Q R     4   1 
5
0 2  Q Q 2
 0 Q 6

Loaded and Unloaded Q Summary

 Unloaded Q (Load resistance RL  ) (1) Model for a Series Resonant Circuit
0 L 1
Q 
Q  0 RC   0 L R
1
Series Resonance: R 0 RC
Z in  R  j 2 L  R  j 2   0  L
P ll l Resonance:
Parallel R Q  0 RC  R 0 L

• A lossless series resonant circuit is

 0 L circuited at ω0 and has Q  
short-circuited
short
 R , for
f series
i resonantt circuits;
i it
 L
 External Q, Qe  
 RL , for p
parallel resonant circuits. (2) Model for a Parallel Resonant Circuit
 0 L R
Q  0 RC
 Loaded Q, or QL , of a resonant circuit with a load of RL 0 L
0 L 1 1 1 1 1
Series Resonance: QL     Yin   j 2C    j 2C   0 
R  RL QL Qe Q R R
R / / RL 1 1 1 1 1 1 • A lossless parallel resonant circuit is
Parallel Resonance: QL     ,  
0 L QL Qe Q R / / RL R RL short-circuited at ω0 and has Q  

7 8
 6.2 Transmission Line Resonators 6.2 Transmission Line Resonators

 All realistic resonators have a finite Q=f0 /BW (1) Short-circuit λ/2 line section   
0     
Nonzero bandwidth Resonator is lossy (a) tanh     , (b)  is small.     1    tan    
vp  0  0
Transmission line resonator has an   0
tanh    j tan  
Lossy transmission line Z in  Z 0 tanh   j     Z 0
1  j tanh   tan  

  j 
0   
 Z0  Z0    j 
  0 
(1) Short circuit λ/2 line series resonance 1  j  
 If loss is small,    1, tan     . 0
N resonance,   0   ,  is small
 Near small.  R  2 jL
 What is the equivalent circuit?
Equivalent circuit :

 Z0 1
R  Z 0 , L  ,C 2
2 0 0 L
L  
Q 0  
R 2  2

9 10

Transmission Line Resonators Transmission Line Resonators

(2) Short-circuit λ/4 line parallel resonance (3) Open-circuit λ/2 line parallel resonance
 ll    1,
If lloss iis small, t     .
1 tan  ll    1,
If lloss iis small, t     .
1 tan
 Near resonance,   0   ,  is small.  Near resonance,   0   ,  is small.

1  j tanh   cot   1  j tanh   tan  

Z in  Z 0 tanh   j     Z 0 h   j     Z 0
Z in  Z 0 coth
tanh    j cot   tanh    j tan  
               
  1   , cot     tan        1   , tan    tan    
2 0   2 0  2 0   0   0  0
Z0 1 Equivalent circuit : Z0 1 Equivalent circuit :
Z in   Z in  
  1  1
  j  2 j C    j  2 j C
2 0 R 0 R
 Z0 1  Z 1
C ,R , L C ,R 0 , L 2
40 Z 0 
02C 20 Z 0  0 C
    
Q  0 RC   ,  at resonance. Q  0 RC  ,   at resonance.
4  2 2 2 

11 12
 Example 6.2
6.3 Rectangular Waveguide Cavity
A half-wave
half wave microstrip resonator
50-Ω line,  /2 resonator, d  1.59 mm,  r  2.2, tan   103 , f  5 GHz.
TEmn, TMmn modes :
Calculate its Q value.

Et  x, y, z   e  x, y  A e  j mn z  A e  j mn z 
2 2
l Z 0 =50 Ω, d =1.59 mm, and  r =2.2  W =4.9 mm,  reff =1.87.
Sol:  m   n 
 mn  k 2     
 
   2  c 2 f  reff  21.9 mm
 a   b 

  2   143.2 rad/m
For a resonant cavity, Et  0, at z  0, d
 c  R Z 0W  0.075 Np/m
 d  ...  0.0611 Np/m  mn d   ,   1, 2, 3, ...

Q   2   2  c   d   526.
2 2 2
 m   n    
kmn       
 a   b   d 
c kmn
f mn 
2 r  r
13 14

Example 6.3
Q-Factor of a TE10l Cavity Design of a Rectangular Waveguide Cavity
 Total fields:  Q factor  We , Wm , Pc , and Pd a  40 mm, b  20.0 mm,  r  2.25, tan   4  104. If f  5 GHz,
 abd fi d d andd Q values
find l f   1.
for
x  z 2
 E02
4 
E y  E0 sin sin We  E dv 
a d 16 Sol:
E0 x  z  2 abd
bd  1 2   2  5 109
 E02 
4 
Hx   j sin cos Wm  H dv     We k r  2.25  1.5708 cm 1
ZTE a d 16 Z 2
k a 2 2
2 
 TE  c 3  1010
j E0 x  z 
Hz   j cos sin 1 2 Rs E0 2  2   2 ab bd  2 a d   d    d   23.05 f   11.
23 05 mm, for
ka a d Pc 
2  Ht ds  
8 2  d 2
   
a 2 2d 2a   
2
walls
k  
2

 Total losses = Pc + Pd 2We  kad  b

3
1 a
Qc  0 
Pc 2 Rs 2 a b  2bd   2 a3 d  ad 3
2 2 3 3 120
Rs  1.84 102 Ω(copper@5GHz),    251.3 Ω
r
1
 1 1    2   abd 2
2 
Q   Pd  E dvd  E0
Q Q 2 4
 d 
Qd   tan    2500, Qc  8370,   1.
c 1
v
2We   1
Qd  0    tan    1 1 
1 1
Pd   1 1 
Q       1925,   1.
Q
 c Qd   8370 2500 
15 16
 6.6 Excitation of Resonators Coupling to Microwave Resonators

Gap Coupling to a
Gap-Coupling Probe-coupling
Probe coupling to
Micro resonator cavity A rectangular WG cavity

(a) A microstrip transmission line resonator gap coupled to a microstrip feed line.
(1) The penetration depth h is tunable (b) A rectangular cavity resonator fed by a coaxial probe.
For impedance adjustment. (c) A circular cavity resonator aperture coupled to a rectangular waveguide.
((2)) The pprobe can be sliding
g along
g z. ((d)) A dielectric resonator coupled
p to a microstripp feed line.
(e) A Fabry-Perot resonator fed by a waveguide horn antenna.
17 18

A Gap-Coupled Microstrip Resonator The Coupling Coefficient g

bc  Z 0 C
1
 Z 0 cot  
Z
zin  in   j  C
Z0 Z0
b  tan  
j c
bc tan  

 Temporarily treat the lossy resonator as

dzin  
j
sec2   d    
 j

1  bc 2  
 j
1 
 j

d bc tan   d  bc 2 v p bc 2 v p 1bc 2
losses and apply the concept of complex
frequency to evaluate its loss term R  1 
1 1 1 j
dzin   j   2Q

 j   1 
zin    zin 1     1         1   
1 d 1bc 2 2Qbc 2 1bc 2
 Z 0 cot   1
Z in b  tan  
bc  Z 0 C ; zin    j C j c
Z0 Z0 bc tan  
Z 0 Z 2Qbc 2
The input resistance R  and coupling cofficient g  0  .
2Qbbc 2 R 
 Resonance occurs at zin  0, bc  tan    0, tan    bc ,
bc   2Q , g  1, undercoupled
 If bc  1, 1 is close to the first resonant frequency of the unloaded resonator.
 The coupling of the capacitor C will lower its resonant frequency.
frequency bc   2Q , g  11, critically coupled
bc   2Q , g  1, overcoupled
19 20
Smith chart for the gap-coupled microstrip resonator Example 6.6
D i off Gap-Coupled
Design G C l d Microstrip
Mi t i Resonator
R t
50-Ω microstrip feedline, 50-Ω microstrip  /2 resonator with   21.75 mm,
 reff  1.9,   0.001 dB/mm. Find the coupling capacitor and the resonant
frequency f1 .
Sol:
vp c 3 1011
f0     5 GHz
g 2  reffff 2  21.75  1.9
 
Q   628(or 200   )
2 2
 
bc    0.05
2Q 2  200
bc 0.05
C   0.032 pF
 Z 0 2  5 109  50
f1  4.918 GHz(obtained by a root-searching process)
21 22

Smith chart illustrating coupling to

6.6 Excitation of Resonators
series RLC circuit
Critical coupling : A resonator is matched to a feedline to have max
ppower transfer at resonant ffrequency.
q y
Z in  R  2 jL 
Max ppower transfer  Conjugate
j g matchingg
P P
  0, See Chapter 2.
Rin X in
 Z in  Z g* , Rin  Rg , X in   X g
 At resonance,,   0 , or   0,, Z in  R  Z 0
Unloaded Q  0 L R
External Qe  0 L Z 0

 Coupling coefficient g  Q Qe  Z 0 R
g < 1, resonator is undercoupled to the feedline.
g = 1, resonator is critically coupled to the feedline.
g > 1, resonator is overcoupled to the feedline. 23 24
 Part II

Time-Domain
Time Domain Analysis of Open Cavities
Lecture Notes and Computational Exercises＊
for
Graduate Course "Microwave Physics and Applications"
Department of Physics, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, R.O.C.
g{ X
g{x XÇww Éyy V{
V{tÑAÑ I and
Graduate Research and Training in Advanced Microwave
and MM Wave Thermionics
University of California, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.

*Developed under the Agreement on Academic Exchange and. Cooperation

between Center for High Frequency Electronics (The University of California] Los
Angeles
g ) and High
g Frequency
q y Electrodynamics
y Laboratoryy (National Tsingg Hua
University)

The PowerPoint file is based on Prof.

Prof K.
K R.
R Chu
Chu’ss lecture notes –
Time-Domain Analysis of Open Cavities.
25 26

Time-Domain Analysis of Open Cavities I. Introduction

Caption: Illustrative model of an open
1. Introduction cavity. Section z  z2 is a cutoff waveguide
(for electron beam entrance). The section
2. Formulation between z2 and z3 comprises the main body
of the cavity. The section between z3 and z4
3. Numerical Algorithm
g is slightly
g y tapered
p to pprovide ppartial
reflection back to the cavity and partial
4. A Fortran Exercise transmission into the output waveguide (z 
z4).
5. Discussion
i i
• Open cavities are employed in gyrotrons for generation and
6. Appendix extraction of high power millimeter/terahertz radiation.
• Dispersion relation for a lossy waveguide • The resonant characteristics depends on the structure. This is a
• Complex-root finding by Muller’s method (Fortran) low-Q resonant circuit due to the open-end structure.
• I
Integration
i off differential
diff i l equation
i using
i Runge-Kutta
R K (F
(Fortran)
)
• Spectral domain analysis of open cavity • The materials are self-contained and self-explanatory.
• Solution to exercise • A complementary spectral-domain
spectral domain model can be found in
Appendix.
27 28
 II. Formulation Time-Domain Analysis
Consider a typical open cavity
formed of multiple sections of The time dependence of a field component (say Bz ) is
uniform and linearly tapered
structures. Find the field profile Bz ~eit  eit eir t
andd thee Q
Q-factor.
co.
3 assumptions:
~ e2it , (i <0)
2
Field energy ~ Bz
• Thee waveguide
wavegu de radius
ad us changes
c a ges sslowly
ow y aand
d tthere
e e iss no
o mode
ode
conversion. d
• A resonant mode is initially present in the cavity. All fields vary Power loss ~ (field energy) = 2 i  (field energy)
dt
with time as exp(-iωt).
• The end sections are uniform to ensure the correctness of
calculation.
calculation Q lit factor
Quality f t off the
th cavity:
it
  r  ii ((where i < 0.)) r  field energy  r
Q 
power loss 2 i
29 30

Characteristics of TEmn mode Field Profile

ik z z
 Ae
ik z z
For a circular waveguide with slowly varying radius rw(z) , the TE  Be , if r  cmn  c
f ( z)   , where cmn  mn
mode wave equation is expressed in a cylindrical coordinate  z  z rw
 Ce z  De z , if r  cmn
system as,
im it
Bz  f ( z ) J m  kmn ( z ) r  e The complex function of f(z) takes the general form,

Applying the boundary condition on the side wall, f ( z )  f ( z ) ei ( z )

 x The dependences of f(z) and Φ(z) on z indicate the nature of the
Bz r rw ( z )  0  kmn ( z )  mn , wave.
r rw ( z )
where xmn is the n-th  ( x)  0
th root of J m • For a pure traveling wave (A = 0 or B = 0),0) |f(z)| is independent of z,
z
Substituting to the wave equation, we obtain but Φ(z) is a linear function of z.
 2 • For a p
pure standingg wave (A( = ± B),
), |f(z)|
|f( )| is a sinusoidal function
 2 x2
 k z ( z )  2  2mn above cutoff of z.
 d2   c rw ( z )
2
 2  kz ( z) f ( z )  0, where  • For decaying waves at both ends, Φ(z) is independent of z.
2
 dz
d   2 xmn 2

 z ( z )   below cutoff
 rw2 ( z ) c 2 Use the boundary conditions to determine |f(z)| and Φ(z).
31 32
 Boundary Conditions Numerical Procedure
Out-going wave boundary conditions: Initially there is a field
profile satisfying
p y g all the boundaryy conditions and then decaying
y g  With a proper guess of the value of ωr and Q (ω= ωr +iωi).
with time.
 f is given at z=z1 and f ′ is set accordingly.
A bboth
At h ends,
d A=D=0
A D 0 at z=z1 andd C=B=0
C B 0 at z5.  Integrate from z1 to z5 using Runge Kutta method

 ik ( z ) f ( z1 ), ) if r  cmn ( z1 )  Check the boundary condition at z5 and using Muller

Muller’ss method
f ( z1 )   z 1
 z ( z1 ) f ( z1 ), if r  cmn ( z1 ) to guess the next root of ωr and Q.

 Iterative integration, each time with an improved guess for ω,

 ik ( z ) f ( z5 ), if r  cmn ( z5 )
f ( z5 )   z 5 will eventually converge to a correct solution for ω, and f(z)
 z ( z5 ) f ( z5 ),
) if r  cmn ( z5 ) will
ill satisfy
ti f all
ll the
th boundary
b d conditions.
diti

33 34

Complex Boundary Condition (cbc sub-rountine) Comments

Boundary condition at z=z1 is given. However the boundary  It is clear that the solution for should be independent of the
condition at zz=zz5 needs to be checked.
checked positions of z1 and z5 as long as they are in the uniform end
sections.
 ik ( z ) f ( z5 ), if r  cmn ( z5 )
f ( z5 )   z 5
 z ( z5 ) f ( z5 ), if r  cmn ( z5 )  Validity of the evanescent wave boundary condition requires
that the end waveguide radius (Rl or R2) be smaller than the
 f ( z5 )  ik z ( z5 ) f ( z5 ),
) if r  cmn ( z5 ) cavity
it radius
di (R).
(R)
or D( )  
 f ( z5 )   z ( z5 ) f ( z5 ), if r  cmn ( z5 )
 It should also be noted that the assumption
p of slowlyy varying
y g
Standard root-finding algorithms such as Muller’s method can be cross-section is violated at z=z2 (Fig.1). This is justifiable only
readily used. if the left end waveguide (z  z2) is cutoff to the cavity mode. In
this
hi case, totall reflection
fl i fromf the
h left
l f endd takes
k place
l j as a
just
There are a series of discrete solutions for ω corresponding to more exact model would predict.
different axial modes ((assumingg that the transverse mode number
m and n are given).
35 36
 III. Numerical Algorithm
III. Numerical Algorithm
Initial Boundary conditions at z1
How to integrate a differential equation?
 2  2 x2
 k z ( z )  2  2mn above cutoff
 d2 2   c rw ( z ) The boundary conditions at z = z1 can be written,
 2  k z ( z )  f ( z )  0, where 
2
 dz   2 xmn  2

 z ( z )   below cutoff
The Runge-Kutta method:  rw2 ( z ) c 2  f r ( z1 )  arbitrary real constant

The second order equation shown above can be decomposed into  fi ( z1 )  arbitrary real constant
the form of coupled real differential equations of the first order.
 k ( z ) f ( z )  k zi ( z1 ) f r ( z1 ), if r  cmn ( z1 )
d
f r  f r f r ( z1 )   zr 1 i 1
f  f r  iffi  dz  zr ( z1 ) f r ( z1 )   zi ( z1 ) fi ( z1 ), if r  cmn ( z1 )

f   f r  ifi d k f ( z )  k zi fi ( z1 ), if r  cmn ( z1 )
f i  f i
 dz fi ( z1 )   zr r 1
k z2 R (k z2 )  i Im(
 Re( I (k z2 )    zi f r ( z1 )   zr fi ( z1 ),
) if r  cmn ( z1 )
d
 k z   k zr   k zi   dz f r   Re( k z2 ) f r  Im( k z2 ) fi
    i  
 z   zr   zi  d fi   Im( k z2 ) f r  Re( k z2 ) fi
 dz 37 38

III. Numerical Algorithm IV. A Fortran Exercise

Final Boundary Conditions at z5
The program (named CAVITY.f) consists of a main program and the following
subprograms.
 A guessed value for ω can now be integrated from zl to z5. 1 General
1. G l purpose subprograms.
b
MULLER: finding the complex roots of an arbitrary complex function (see
Appendix B).
 The resulting functions fr(z5),
) fi(z5),
) fr'(z
(z5) and fi'(z
(z5) give f(z5) RKINT performing
RKINT: f i iintegration
t ti off simultaneous
i lt diff
differential
ti l equations
ti off the
th first
fi t
and f'(z5). order by the Runge-Kutta method (see Appendix C).
SSCALE and SPLOT (or BSCALE and BPLOT): plotting data conveniently in
characters (see Appendix D).
D)
 The procedure is to be repeated with an improved guess of
until the required accuracy is achieved. 2. Subprograms written for CAVITY (It is recommended to go over the contents closely).
CBC: evaluating the function D( ) in Eq.
Eq (19) by integrating Eqs.
Eqs (24)
(24)-(27)
(27) with
initial values given by Eqs. (28)-(31).
DIFEQ: evaluating the derivatives in Eqs. (24)-(27).
RADIUS: evaluating the cavity wall radius as a function of z.
RHO: evaluating the wall resistivity as a function of z.
CLOSS: evaluating the wall loss factor derived in Appendix E (The loss factor has
been incorporated
p into the formalism in Appendix
pp F.))

39 40
 Procedures for Running Program Cavity.f Cavity Dimensions and Calculated Results
 To begin, the cavity dimensions , mode of interest, and Cavity dimensions used for numerical example
numerical instructions, etc. are specified in the main program.
 A guessed value of is then input into MULLER which calls
CBC to evaluate D(ω). Subprogram CBC calls RKINT to
perform the integration from zl to z5. Subsequently, RKINT calls
DIFEQ to evaluate the derivatives at every z-step of the
integration.
integration
 Finally, MULLER returns the solution for to the main program
which
hi h prints
i t all
ll the
th information
i f ti off interest
i t t andd calls
ll SSCALE
and SPOLT (or BSCALE and BPLOT) to plot and .
 CCommon blocks
bl k are extensively
t i l employed
l d forf information
i f ti
sharing (e.g. the cavity dimensions specified in the main
program and the field profile calculated in subprogram CBC) TE111 mode field profile |f| and phase angle Φ as functions of z for
between the main program and subprograms. the cavity shown above.
41 42

Check the Validity of the Results

Wall Resistivity and Loss Factor (Convergence Test)
(i) When calling MULLER to solve for the root of a function (e.g. CF in
 Ohmic wall losses have been included in CAVITY through
Appendix
pp B),
) always
y monitor the number of times ((e.g.
g ICONT in
subprograms CLOSS and RHO.
RHO Appendix B) that the function has been evaluated. For a well behaved
 Formulation of wall loss can be found in Appendix E. function, the number should be small (less than 10 per root). When the
number becomes too large or in the case MULLER is unable to find a
 As a first exercise, we can ignore this effect (hence CLOSS root, it is a warning signal of some numerical difficulty due to, for
and RHO) by setting the wall resistivity to zero in the main example, erratic behavior of the function (discontinuities and sharp
program. spikes, etc.) or the presence of many closely spaced roots. The result
 The TEmn mode dispersion relation for a vacuum filled may be in question or the physics may be unexpected. The warning
signal can not be ignored.
ignored
waveguide,
(ii) After MULLER returns a root, always insure that the resulting function
 value (e.g. VALUE1 and VALUE2 in Appendix B) is vanishingly small
c  m2  2 
 2  k z2c 2  cmn
2
1  (1  i ) 1  2   0 relative to the largest terms of the function. For example, if the function
 rw  x  m2  2   is composed of terms of the order of 1010, a function value of 102 may be
 mn mn  
considered
id d vanishingly
i hi l small ll (b
(beware off the
th number
b off significant
i ifi t digits
di it
the computer is capable of handling).
43 44

Check the Validity of the Results II
(iii) A valid root is not necessarily the desired root. For example,
we provide a guessed value for the l=2 root and call
MULLER to search around it for the correct =2 root.
MULLER will return a different root (e.g.
(e g l=1 or 3) if the
guessed value happens to be a better guess for that root. A
y to verifyy the l number of the root returned by
reliable way y p
MULLER is to count the number of peaks in the versus z.
Check the Validity of the Results III
Figures below show a typical convergence test.
test The resonant frequency and quality factor Q
are plotted as functions of the total number of steps in the z-integration (named IZSTEP in
program CAVITY). Note that the positions of the junction points (z2, z3, and z4 in Fig. 1) and
hence the cavity dimensions,
dimensions as resolved on the uniformly spaced axial grid points for the zz-
integration, are subject to an uncertainty in the magnitude of the step size. This is the
primary reason for the fluctuations of and Q with respect to IZSTEP in the approach to
convergence. The slow convergence shown in Fig. 4 is predominantly due to the uncertainty
of resolving junction point z2 (where there is a discontinuity in wall radius) on the discrete
grid points. Generally speaking, the minimum IZSTEP required for good convergence
depends on the circuit ggeometryy and the ratio of the total circuit lengthg to the gguide
wavelength. Too large an IZSTEP can also bring in accumulation of round-off errors.

(i ) Even with
(iv) i h all
ll these
h checks,
h k there
h is i still
ill no guarantee that
h theh
results are free from numerical errors. We must also check
whether the step size in the z-integration
z integration is sufficiently fine to
insure convergence of results.

45 46

V. Discussion
Does the Numerical Results Make Sense?  C
Computer programs basedb d on the h time
i d
domaini formalism
f li ( h as program
(such
CAVITY) are extremely effective in that they directly evaluate the resonant
Even computed correctly, numerical results can not be trusted frequency, Q, and field profile. They are essential tools for gyrotron designs.
unless they make sense physically. We may start by asking some Many runs can be rapidly made to achieve the desired resonant frequency and
universal questions: Is the energy conserved (see the slightly Q, to optimize the field profile and maximize mode separation, etc. However,
because of its inability
y to scan the frequency,
q y, the time domain formalism does
positive slope of in Fig.
Fig 3a)? Do the results reduce to well known
not present a complete physical picture of the open cavity. The low Q nature
limits [see Exercises (1) below]? Do they exhibit reasonable of the open cavity brings about some issues that can only be clarified with a
pparametric dependence
p [[see Exercises ((2)-(4)]?
) ( )] Do they
y conform to spectral domain analysis [see Exercises (8)(8)-(11)
(11) and Appendix F].
F]
known scaling laws [see Exercise (5)]? Obtaining answers to these
questions is a sure way to become familiar with the problem. We  Resonances of the type taking place in an open cavity are common in
microwave circuits which often contain slightly mismatched junctions
are now ready to go deeper into the problem [see Exercises (6)-(11)]
between various circuit elements. Single path reflection from one mismatched
and, for the best reward of all, let our imagination take us to the junction results in a standing wave pattern (measured by VSWR). Multiple
unexplored territories of research.
research reflections
fl ti b t
between t mismatched
two i t h d junctions
j ti result
lt in
i resonances, much
h like
lik
those of the open cavity. Thus, a circuit with multiple mismatched junctions
Always
y check carefully!
y behaves like coupled open cavities. The resulting circuit resonances are seen
on an oscilloscope as multiple spikes superimposed on a swept frequency
signal.
47 48
 Exercise (1) Exercise (2)
2 Use program CAVITY to show how the quality factor Q of a
2.
1. For the open cavity of Fig. 1 with dimensions given in Table I,
given mode varies with the output taper angle of the open
the resonant frequency of the TE111 mode is 9.839 GHz (see Fig.
cavityy (keeping
( p g other pparameters fixed).
) Interpret
p the results
4) For an enclosed cylindrical cavity with the same radius (0.9
4). (0 9
qualitatively.
cm) and length (11.7 cm) as those of the main body of the open
y, the resonant frequency
cavity, q y of the TE111 mode is 9.851 GHz.
Sol:
S l Larger
L θ results
l ini more reflection
fl i from
f the
h open end,
d andd
Explain the difference qualitatively.
hence lower diffraction loss and higher Q.
Sol: Because of the fringe field, the open cavity has an effective
length longer than L, hence the resonant frequency (of the  >0
modes) is lower than that of an enclosed cavity of length L. L It is
worth noting that for the =0 (TM) modes of an enclosed cavity
for which the axial field pprofile is uniform,, an opening
p g at either
end will impose an axial mode structure and therefore increase
the resonant frequency.

49 50

Exercise (3)
( ) Exercise (4)
4 U
4. Use program CAVITY to t show
h howh the
th quality
lit factor
f t off a
3. For the cavity dimensions provided in Table I, the quality
given mode varies with the cavity length L (keeping other
factors of the first three modes (=1, 2, 3) are, respectively,
parameters fixed).
fixed) Give three reasons to explain the rapid
439, 116, and 56 (see output data in Appendix A). Give two
increase of Q with L.
reasons to explain the rapid drop of Q with the axial mode
number .
Sol: A shorter cavity stores less field energy which further reduces
the Q value.
g
Sol: Higher l number modes have higherg resonant frequencies
q
which result in (i) less reflection from the open end and (ii)
higher group velocity of the wave. Both effects lead to greater
diffraction loss through the open end and hence the decrease in
Q values

51 52
 Exercise (5) Exercise (6) and (7)
5. With reference to Fig. 1, assume that a traveling wave propagating to the left 6. Assume that the output p waveguide
g section of the open
p cavityy
is totally reflected at z=z2 and a traveling wave propagating to the right is
partially reflected at z=z3 with reflection coefficient . Show by the multiple
(see Fig. 1, z  z4) is terminated in a slightly mismatched load.
reflection approach (see R.E. Collin, II Foundations for Microwave Explain qualitatively how the load will affect the resonant
Engineering", 1st edition, pp. 340-343 and Eq. (49) in Ref.10 of Appendix F) frequency and Q of the cavity.
that the diffraction Q is approximately given by
1/2 7. Use program CAVITY to verify
 4 L 2
Q ( ) your answer to Exercise (6) by
1    adding a smooth bump on the
where λ is the free space wavelength of the resonant mode.
mode Compare this wall
ll off the
th output
t t waveguideid to
t
relation with the scaling of Q with respect to θ, l, and L as considered in
simulate the effects of the
Exercises (2)-(4). Note that depends on the taper angle and resonant
freq enc and that is a function
frequency f nction of and L.
L If wall
all losses are included,
incl ded show
sho mismatched load.
that the combined diffractive/ Ohmic Q is given by the above equation with
 replaced by exp(－2kzL), where is the attenuation constant which can be
evaluated
l d from
f Eq. (10)
( ) off Appendix
di E.

53 54

Exercise (8) Exercise (9)

8 The lack of a sharp boundary at the output end of the open
8. 9 In Exercise (8),
9. (8) if the fixed-position
fixed position spectrum is measured at
cavity is expected to result in a frequency sensitive field profile different points along the length of the cavity, will the spectral
for a resonant mode, as shown in Fig. 6 of Appendix F. How p of a given
shape g mode be different from point
p to point?
p Does
would the frequency dependent field profile affect the spectral this imply that probes located at different axial positions in the
shape of a resonant mode, measured at a fixed position in the cavity will measure different resonant frequencies and Q's for
cavity,
it in
i response to
t a sweptt frequency
f source incident
i id t from
f the same mode?
the output waveguide into the cavity?

55 56
 Exercise (10) Exercise (11)
11 Program CAVITY calculates Q by its time domain definition (denoted by
11.
10. Write a computer program based on the spectral domain formalism in Sec. II of superscript “t”) Q (t)  r
2 i
Appendix F to:
• verify your answers to Exercises (8) and (9) While the spectral domain formalism yields Q by its spectral domain definition
• calculate the reflection coefficient assumed in Exercise (5) as a function of (denoted by superscript “ω”) Q ( )  

the wave frequency.
q y
• calculate the reflection coefficient at the smooth bump assumed in Exercise h Δ ω is
where i the
th FWHM bandwidth.
b d idth Compare
C numerical
i l runs made
d with
ith
(7) as a function of the wave frequency. program CAVITY with those made with the program developed in Exercise (10)
to show that, for the same mode of a low Q open cavity, the two definitions of Q
do not yield the same result and (t ) ( )
Sol: RFS or RFS2 Q Q
Explain
p this result qqualitatively.
y
j
 i j t  t
f (x, t )   f j (x)e
2 Q(j t )

1  1 i
f (x,  ) 
2  0
f (x, t )eit dt 
2
f
j
j ( x)
   j  i  j 2Q (jt )
1 i 1 i
f f
2
f (x,  )  ( x) *
( x)
2 j
j
   j  i  j 2Q (jt ) 2 j
j
   j  i  j 2Q (j t )
57  ...  Q ( t )  Q ( ) 58

Appendix: Muller’s Method Appendix: Runge-Kutta’s Method (RKINT)

Note: Muller’s method is discussed in

Conte and de boor, Elementary Numerical
rd
y , (3
Analysis”, ( edition,, Sec. 3.7).
)

59 60
 Part III
Appendix: Dispersion Relation for a Lossy Waveguide Spectral-Domain Analysis of Open Cavities
D i ti off the
Derivation th loss
l factor
f t in i Eq.
E (19) off Appendix
A di F.
F
Reason: Cold tests of open cavities almost always employ the
method of frequency sweeping and Q is measured by its spectral
p ω) where Δω is the
domain definition ((hence denoted byy superscript
p
Jackson, Chap. 8
full width between the half maxima of the resonant line.
Q lit factor
Quality f t off the
th cavity:
it
 c  m2  2  Time-domain definition:
 2  k z2c 2  cmn
2
1  (1  i )  1    0 
 rw  x 2  m2  2   Q ( t )  r
field
fi ld energy
 r
 mn mn  
power loss 2 i
Frequency-domain definition:
0 What is the difference
Q ( ) 
 between these two definitions?
61 62

II. Numerical Approaches for the Spectral Model Numerical Model

3 assumptions:  With a proper guess of the value of Γ (Γ = Γr +i Γi).
• The waveguide radius changes slowly and there is no mode  f ( z1 )  eik z ( z1 ) z1  eik z ( z1 ) z1
conversion.  where r  cmn
ik ( z ) z ik ( z ) z
• A resonant mode is initially present in the cavity. All fields vary  f ( z1 )  ik z (e z 1 1  e z 1 1 )
with time as exp(-iωt).
exp( iωt)
• The end sections are uniform to ensure the correctness of  f is given at z=z1 and f ′ is set accordingly.
calculation.
 Integrate from z1 to z5 using Runge-Kutta method
Time-domain model:
  r  ii (where i < 0.)
0)  Check the boundary condition at z5 and using Muller’s
Muller s method
to guess the next root of Γ.

Frequency-domain model:  Iterative integration, each time with an improved guess for ω,
? will eventually converge to a correct solution for ω, and f(z) will
C
Complex
l reflection
fl ti coefficient
ffi i t satisf all the bo
satisfy boundary
ndar conditions
conditions.
Γ
63 64
 Frequency Response Numerical Results
Numerical results obtained under the temporal and spectral
models for the cavity dimensions in Table I with different output
t
taper angles
l θ . TE11l were calculated.
l l t d fc is
i the
th cutoff
t ff frequency
f off
the main body of the cavity.

65 66

Example I Example II

Frequency
q y Tunable Terahertz Gyrotron
y 394 GHz Frequency
q y Tunable Terahertz Gyrotron
y 203 GHz
Using Open Cavity Structure With Mode Selectivity
N l mechanism:
Novel h i R fl t d gyrotron
Reflected t b k d
backward-wave oscillator
ill t
An on-going research with
J
Japan F
Fukui
k iUUniv.
i

N. C. Chen, T. H. Chang*, C. P. Yuan, T. Idehara

and I. Ogawa,
g , “Theoretical investigation
g of a high
g
efficiency and broadband sub-terahertz gyrotron",
Appl. Phys. Lett. 96, 161501 (2010).

T. H. Chang*, T. Idehara, I. Ogawa, L. Agusu, C. C. Chiu, and S. Kobayashi, “Frequency tunable gyrotron using
backward-wave components”, J. Appl. Phys. 105, 063304 (2009).
67 68
g{ X
g{x XÇww Éyy bÑxÇ
bÑ V Vtä|àç
|à

69