ASSESSMENT OF CHARGE-AIR COOLER HEALTH IN DIESEL ENGINES USING

NONLINEAR TIME SERIES ANALYSIS OF INTAKE MANIFOLD TEMPERATURE

Alok A. Joshi ∗, Scott James, Peter Meckl, and Galen King Kristofer Jennings
Ray W. Herrick Laboratories
School of Mechanical Engineering Department of Statistics, College of Science
Purdue University Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2031 West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2067
Email: aajoshi@purdue.edu

ABSTRACT NOMENCLATURE
Degradation in the cooling effectiveness of a charge-air CAC Charge-air cooler.
cooler in a medium-duty turbocharged diesel engine has signif- de Embedding dimension for temperature state-space.
icant impact on engine performance. This degradation lowers
du Embedding dimension for exogenous inputs.
the boost pressure and raises the intake manifold temperature.
As a result, the engine provides lower horsepower and higher δ Time parameter used for independence. (δ = kτs for some
hydrocarbon levels than the rated values. The objective of this integer k) (s).
research is to monitor the health of the charge-air cooler by ana- ECM Engine control module.
lyzing the intake manifold temperature signal. Experiments were EGR Exhaust gas recirculation.
performed on a Cummins ISB series turbocharged diesel engine, EPA Environmental Protection Agency.
a 6-cylinder inline configuration with a 5.9 liter displacement f (·) Function used for the map reconstruction.
volume. Air flowing over the cooler was blocked by varying
fi ith fault dataset.
amounts, while various engine temperatures and pressures were
monitored at different torque-speed conditions. Similarly, data hi ith healthy dataset.
were acquired without the introduction of any fault in the engine. ˆ ·) Mutual information estimate (nats).
I(·,
For the construction of the manifold temperature state- N Number of samples in time series.
space, average mutual information estimates and a global false Pim Intake manifold or boost pressure (psig).
nearest neighbor analysis were used to find the optimal time pa- Po Oil pressure (psig).
rameter and embedding dimensions, respectively. The prediction
pe Estimated engine power (hp).
of the healthy temperature vector was done by local linear re-
gression using torque, speed, and their interaction as exogenous p̂(·) Probability mass function estimate.
variables. Analysis of residuals generated by comparing the pre- Tc Coolant temperature (◦ F).
dicted healthy temperature vector and the observed temperature Tim Intake manifold temperature, IMT (◦ F).
vector was successful in detecting degradation of the charge-air de
~Tim (t) =[Tim (t), Tim (t − δ), . . Tim (t − (de − 1)δ)]T a de -
cooler. This degradation was quantified by using boxplots and dimensional trajectory vector for intake manifold tem-
probability density functions of residuals generated by compar- perature.
ing intake manifold temperature of healthy and faulty charge-
{Tim (t)} = {Tim (t), Tim (t − τs ), . . Tim (t − (N − 1)τs )} a time
air coolers. The general applicability of the model was demon-
series for intake manifold temperature signal.
strated by successfully diagnosing a fault in the exhaust gas re-
circulation cooler of a different engine. τs Sampling interval of time series (s).
τe Estimated engine torque (ft-lb).
ωe Engine speed (rpm).
∗ Address all correspondence to this author.
1
INTRODUCTION
An important goal for diesel engine manufacturers is to
achieve maximum power. One approach to meeting this goal is
to use a turbocharger and a charge-air cooler. The turbocharger
compresses the intake air, and then the charge-air cooler (CAC)
cools the pressurized air. The result is a high density charge
that can be packed into the engine cylinders during intake. This
high density charge allows a turbocharged diesel engine to de-
liver more power than a naturally aspirated diesel engine. How-
ever, a malfunction of any component in the intake-air system
of a turbocharged diesel engine can drastically affect the engine
performance. For example, degradation in the charge-air cooler
performance due to debris accumulation on the cooler fins can
lead to intake manifold temperatures (IMT) higher than nominal
values. This degradation can significantly affect power delivery
and exhaust emissions of the engine. Thus, it is important to
monitor the health of the charge-air cooler so corrective action
can be taken during the condition-based maintenance schedule.
The assessment of the health of the charge-air cooler by
monitoring intake manifold temperature will be the focus of this
paper. Due to the nature of the intake-air handling system of tur-
bocharged diesel engines, monitoring IMT is of immediate rele-
vance to CAC health assessment. Two different approaches may
be used to develop this monitor, one physics-based and the other
signal-based (i.e., data-based). In the physics-based approach,
ideal gas state equations [1], mass, heat, and momentum balance
equations [2], along with empirically obtained turbocharger per-
formance curves [3–5] can be used to accurately predict nominal
intake manifold temperature. Some physics-based approaches to
model the intake-air system can be found in references [6–11].
Though the physics-based method can lead to an accurate model,
it assumes that some measurements, such as compressor outlet
pressure, CAC inlet and outlet temperature, and CAC air mass
flow rate, are available in addition to factory installed sensors.
Yet, commercial engines are seldom equipped with such addi-
tional sensors demanded by a physics-based model. In this pa-
per, an attempt is made to use only those signals that are avail-
able on a standard, commercially available turbocharged diesel
engine. A high-ordered physics-based model used for systems-
level fault diagnostics may be more accurate than a pure signal-
based model. However, a low-ordered signal-based model may
be more suitable for fast-acting on-board diagnostics. In this
way, we wish to motivate the use of a signal-based method as
opposed to the physics-based approach for health monitoring of
the charge-air cooler.
In this paper, the health of the charge-air cooler was assessed
by monitoring a temperature vector in the state-space of intake
manifold temperature. This state-space is constructed using an
embedding technique of nonlinear time series analysis. The de-
tails and the variations of this technique can be found in vari-
ous papers and books [12–14]. Healthy behavior of the intake
manifold temperature is predicted using only the torque-speed
2
profile of the engine. The changes in the trends of intake man-
ifold temperature are observed to be highly nonlinear with re-
spect to the torque and speed of the engine. This is the moti-
vation for the choice of technique used for health monitoring.
The main disadvantage of the proposed method is that it does
not take into account the effect of the ambient air temperature
when modeling nominal behavior of the intake manifold tem-
perature. Especially in the summer, engines could experience
high intake manifold temperatures due to outside conditions even
when there is no fault with the charge-air cooler. This problem
can be partially solved by (i) installing an ambient temperature
sensor and using gauge temperatures for analysis and/or (ii) re-
calibrating the proposed model seasonally or after each time the
engine receives maintenance. In this paper, absolute IMT is used
to explain the details of nonlinear time-series analysis. The vari-
ations in ambient temperature due to geographic or weather fac-
tors, variations in CAC efficiency due to vehicle speed, varia-
tions in torque estimates, and the effects of sensor-faults mask-
ing system-level faults are not considered in this paper. Other
signal-based approaches to health monitoring include variations
of auto-regressive moving-average time series models with ex-
ogenous inputs [15], wavelet domain tools [16], and frequency
domain tools such as periodograms and power spectral density
estimates [17].
This paper is organized as follows. The next section de-
scribes the experimental setup and the experiment designed to
acquire data from an engine with and without a charge-air cooler
(CAC) fault. A three-step procedure of nonlinear time series
analysis to model nominal intake manifold temperature is ex-
plained with application to the data acquired from the engine.
The results of successful health monitoring are discussed and
summarized at the end.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND DESIGN OF EXPERI-
MENT
In this research work, experiments were performed on a
Cummins ISB 1998 engine, a 6-cylinder (5.9 liter) inline diesel
engine with an advertised rating of 275 hp at 2500 rpm. ISB en-
gines are used in on-road vehicles such as buses, shuttles, and
pickups.
Experimental Setup
Figure 1 shows an overall block diagram of the data acqui-
sition system for the ISB 1998 setup. Table 1 gives the list of
sensors used to monitor the ISB 1998 diesel engine. The sensors
were sampled at 5 Hz and stored to the engine control module
(ECM). Data were recorded on a computer using a data logger
that communicates with the ECM using an adapter and the J-
1939 communication standard. Data were also monitored online
when the engine was running using a calibration terminal.
 Exhaust Flow

Cummins Inline II Cummins Inline II

Adapter Adapter
Water Cooling Tower
for Coolant
Coolat Flow
Computer-I Cummins ISB5.9
Computer-III
Cummins CalTerm for Engine Intake Manifold
Cummins EDL for
Online Signal Monitoring External Data Logging

dSpace Controller

Computer-II
dSpace, Simulink, and
MATLAB
Charge Air Cooler
Cooled Intake Air
Figure 1. Communication system for the engine setup in laboratory. Obstruction
Manual Control Valve Between Fan
for Water Flow to Dyno and CAC
Table 1. Sensor information taken from engine control module
Symbol Description Unit Figure 2. Experimental setup for monitoring charge-air cooler health.

Tc Coolant temperature ◦F

Compressed Fresh Air

Pim Boost pressure psig
Intake Manifold Temperature
Tim Intake manifold temperature ◦F
and Pressure Sensors

Po Oil pressure psig Fan Cooled

Charge-air

ωe Engine speed rpm Cooler

Engine RPM
Sensor
τe Estimated torque lb-ft Exhaust Gas

The engine setup shown in Fig. 2 was used to acquire healthy Compressor Turbine

data and data after the introduction of the CAC fault at various
levels. Figure 3 also shows a schematic of the intake air han-
dling system. In this setup, fresh air was first filtered and then From To Exhaust
compressed using a turbocharger; the compressed air was then Air Filter

cooled using a fan cooled charge-air cooler. The cooled air en-
tered the intake manifold. The high IMT symptom was generated
by blocking the area between the fan and the CAC and by divert-
ing airflow away from the charge-air cooler.
Design of Experiment
Data were acquired from the ISB 1998 engine at different
load-speed conditions and driving profiles described by test cy-
cle AVL-8. AVL-8 is a steady-state test-cycle designed to mimic
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tran-
sient test-cycle in terms of load-speed conditions as explained
in the reference [18]. Table 2 gives details on various torque-
speed points (modes) expressed as the percentage of the maxi-
mum rated torque-speed point. The table also presents the abso-
lute values of engine speed and torque in rpm and lb-ft used when
performing experiments in the lab. The engine load was con-
trolled manually by adjusting the water flow to the dynamometer
at different levels. Calibration was done to relate dynamome-
Figure 3. Schematic of intake air-handling system.
ter water valve settings to the corresponding estimated torque on
the engine. The test cycle used in lab tests was a modified ver-
sion of AVL-8. Two wait modes were added after mode 6 and
mode 7 of the original AVL-8 cycle to avoid excessive heating
of the dynamometer water. Transient test-cycles were avoided,
due to the sluggish response of this dynamometer. However, in
order to capture the dynamics of the system, the AVL-8 cycle
was performed as if it were a ramped-modal type cycle. During
a steady-state cycle, the engine is allowed to reach an equilib-
rium before data is collected. During a ramped modal cycle, data
is collected continuously, reflecting the engine’s response as it
ramps towards its equilibrium at each mode.
Healthy data were acquired from the engine by driving it
through the modified AVL-8 profile. Overall, six healthy datasets
were acquired from the lab engine. Datasets were named h1 to

3
 Table 2. Modified AVL-8 test cycle - two wait modes added 150 25
20
Mode Speed Speed Load % Load Time

(psig)
140

Tc ( F)
15

o
% (rpm) (lb-ft) (min) 130
10

im
P
120 5
1 0 800 0 0 8:42 110 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s) Time (s)
2 11 932 25 125 1:31 130 80
120 70

P (psig)
Tim ( F)
3 21 1052 63 315 0:42 110 60

o
50
100

o
4 32 1184 84 420 0:48 90
40
30
80
5 100 2000 18 90 2:00 0 500 1000
Time (s)
1500 2000 0 500 1000
Time (s)
1500 2000

600

6 95 1940 40 200 2:29 2000

ω (rpm)

τe (ft−lb)
400
1500
wait 0 800 0 0 0:30

e
200
1000
7 95 1940 69 345 2:26 0 500 1000 1500 2000
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s) Time (s)
wait 0 800 0 0 2:00
8 89 1868 95 475 1:45 Figure 4. Sensor readings retrieved from the engine control module.
Sample interval τs = 200 ms.

Table 3. Data acquired from the Cummins ISB 1998 diesel engine
Data Description Samples
NONLINEAR TIME SERIES ANALYSIS
h1 Healthy 8338
The purpose of the data analysis presented in this paper is
h2 Healthy 7941 to develop bounds tighter than the existing fixed threshold on the
nominal IMT behavior given a torque-speed profile for the en-
h3 Healthy 7864
gine. Data acquired at various stages of CAC blockage are then
h4 Healthy 7864 compared to these bounds for assessing the health of the charge-
air cooler. The objective of this section is to predict the healthy
h5 Healthy 7663
behavior of intake manifold temperature when the engine is op-
h6 Healthy 7734 erated with various torque-speed conditions. Predicted healthy
manifold temperature can be compared with the actual observed
f1 Fault – small crack in the shroud 7751
temperature to generate residuals. These residuals can be used to
f2 Fault – big crack in the shroud 7680 infer the health of the charge-air cooler, assuming only one fault
occurs at a time. The variation in the intake manifold tempera-
f3 Fault – no shroud 7961
ture with torque-speed conditions is a highly nonlinear process,
f4 Fault – no shroud and CAC 50% blocked 7754 which is also affected by the coolant flow in the engine. Also,
the response of the intake manifold temperature to changes in
torque-speed conditions is delayed due to the large volume of
intake manifold air. This observation and knowledge about the
physics of the intake air system is the main motivation for apply-
h6 . Additional data were acquired by gradually blocking the
ing nonlinear time series analysis to predict the intake manifold
charge-air cooler and simulating symptom generation for high
temperature if the engine is running healthy.
intake manifold temperature. Details on these datasets can be
found in Table 3. As per the engine service manual, the prede- The following subsections describe a standard three-step
termined threshold limit for triggering the high IMT faultcode is procedure of nonlinear time series analysis applied to model the
195o F. Figure 4 shows the time series acquired when the engine intake manifold temperature. The main difference in the analysis
was operated with the modified AVL-8 driving profile. It should presented in this paper and the standard approach [19–21] is the
be noted that the acquisition of healthy and fault data at various third step of map reconstruction. In each subsection, mathemat-
fault levels was not done sequentially. The data acquisition was ical details and motivational aspects are explained first and then
randomized to minimize any significant residual effect on the en- the process is applied toward modeling healthy IMT for CAC
gine when doing a healthy test run after a fault test run. diagnostics.

4
Estimation of the time parameter (δ) to introduce near
statistical independence in temperature states
This is the first step of nonlinear time-series analysis. In
this step, samples at every δ (δ = kτs ) time interval are selected
from the original time series {Tim (t)} sampled at τs sample in-
terval. This step helps introduce near statistical independence
in the temperature states, which is necessary for estimating the
embedding dimension in the next step. Also this step reduces
the dimension of matrices and the computational time used for
predicting nominal behavior of temperature in the third step of
the nonlinear time series analysis. δ should be large enough to
make consecutive samples of the derived time series almost sta-
tistically independent. However, δ should also be small enough
to preserve the structure in the time series. Such an optimal δ is
found using a metric called average mutual information between
the lagged versions of time subseries derived from the original
data. References [19, 20, 22] give more information in apply-
ing mutual information to nonlinear time series analysis. Other
metrics, such as the autocorrelation function, may also be used.
However, the correlation is a metric of linear association between
the two variables; a zero correlation does not necessarily imply
statistical independence. Mutual information measures associa-
tion between two random variables in a nonlinear sense and zero
mutual information does imply statistical independence.
In the traditional frequency-domain analysis techniques
such as Fourier analysis, faster sample rates produce better res-
olution in the frequency domain. However, the proposed proce-
dure of selecting samples from the original time series is opposite
to the sampling requirements of Fourier analysis. Because the
purpose of this step is to introduce near statistical independence
among the temperature states required for the next step of form-
ing the temperature state-space. This step is employed only if the
signal is sampled at a much faster rate than the dynamics of the
system (twenty or more times faster than the highest frequency
in signal) and if one does not wish to use any frequency-domain
technique for further analysis. The Nyquist sampling criterion
still holds in this case to make sure the information regarding the
dynamics of the system is preserved.
If the components of the intake manifold temperature time
series {Tim (t)} are treated as random variables, then the mutual
information between a random variable and a random variable at
a delay of l time units can be found as
ˆ im (t); Tim (t − l)) =
I(T
p̂(Tim (t), Tim (t − l))
∑ p̂(Tim (t), Tim (t − l))ln
p̂(Tim (t)) p̂(Tim (t − l))
, (1)
Tim (t),Tim (t−l)
where summation is over the joint space of random variables.
The joint probability mass functions required in the estima-
tion of mutual information can be approximated using multi-
dimensional histograms [23]. The actual intake manifold tem-
5
perature is a continuous signal. For computer storage, this signal
is represented as a realization of a discrete-time discrete-state
stochastic process. More information on the bias introduced in
mutual information estimates as a result of the discretization of
signal amplitude, the effect of approximating the probability den-
sity function by a histogram, and the effect of the number of
dimensions used to construct the histogram, can be found in a
paper by Battitti [24] and references therein.
1.99
Average Mutual Information I(δ) (nats)
1.90
1.81
1.73
1.65
h2
1.58 h
h1 6
1 10 20 50 100
Time Parameter (δ = kτ ) in Units of k
s
Figure 5. Average mutual information plotted as a function of delay units,
both on log-log scale.
In this paper, a subseries of length (Nsub = 5000) is taken
randomly from the original time series. It is delayed succes-
sively by one time unit (up to fifty lags) and the information
between the subseries and its lagged version is calculated each
time. This process is repeated fifty times. By this process, fifty
information values were estimated for each delay and the val-
ues were averaged to obtain the average mutual information for
a specific lag. Figure 5 shows the average mutual information
plotted against the time delay on a log-log scale for three differ-
ent healthy datasets (h1 , h2 , h6 ). The estimated information starts
rolling-off after ten lags for all three plots.
As discussed earlier, the time parameter δ should minimize
the average information while preserving the structure of the time
series. In this case, a time lag of 20 units (k = 20, δ = 20τs )
was selected as the desired time parameter. Visual inspection of
the original and the derived time series was used to check if the
structure of the original time series is preserved. From Fig. 6, it
can be seen that the original and the derived time series (joined
by dots) do not look drastically different. This check confirmed
that the choice of (k=20) was acceptable for further data analysis.
 130
Equation (2) is used to calculate whether two points are false
Original Time Series
120 nearest neighbors. If the ratio of distances in moving from d to
d + 1 is more than a threshold thFNN then the points are declared
Tim ( F)

110
o

100
as false nearest neighbors. The calculation is repeated for all the
points and the fraction of total points declared as false neighbors
90
is used to calculate the percentage false nearest neighbors. The
80
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 design parameter, thFNN , is selected as 5 in this paper. The value
Time (s) of percentage global false nearest neighbors is sensitive to the
130 selection of the threshold value, thFNN . Some guidelines on the
120
Derrived Time Series selection of thFNN and a study of the effect of threshold values
on the percentage global false nearest neighbors can be found in
Tim ( F)

110
references [25–28].
o

100

90

80 h
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 80 1
Time (s) h2
Percentage of Global False Nearest Neighbors 70 h
6
Figure 6. Time series for intake manifold temperature sampled at
τs =200 ms and a time series derived using a factor of k = 20 for dataset 60

h1 .
50

40

Estimation of embedding dimension (de ) to form the

temperature vector state-space 30

This is the second step of nonlinear time-series analysis. A 20

de -dimensional temperature vector is formed from the derived
time series, the result of the previous step. Many such vectors can 10

be formed by moving the window of length de over the derived

0
time series. These vectors form a de -dimensional state-space. de
should be selected in such a way that the trajectory of vectors in 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Embedding Diemension (d )
16 18 20

this de -dimensional state-space is uniquely trackable using some e

function f (·) : Rde → Rde . The nature of such functions and the Figure 7. Percentage of global false nearest neighbors plotted as a func-
conditions for their existence can be found in reference [14]. tion of increasing embedding dimension for intake manifold temperature
The embedding dimension can be obtained by using the using different test datasets.
method of false nearest neighbors [19,21]. The percentage global
false nearest neighbors, when plotted as a function of the dimen-
sion of the temperature vector, can reveal important information The percentage of false nearest neighbors when plotted
for estimating the embedding dimension (de ). The percentage against the dimension of the temperature vector serves as an
global false nearest neighbors is calculated in the following way. important tool to estimate the embedding dimension. The di-
Assume that ~Tim d (t) and ~ d (t 0 ) are the closest vectors in terms
Tim mension at which the percentage of false nearest neighbors is
of Euclidean distance in the dimension d. When we move to very small (defined by another design parameter: threshold thd
one higher dimension d → d + 1, then the corresponding vec- = 1%) is the required embedding dimension. The state-space
tors are updated as ~Tim d (t) → ~ Timd+1
(t) = [Tim (t + δ), ~Tim
d (t)]T and
constructed using this embedding dimension can help track the
~Tim
d (t 0 ) → ~ d+1 0 0 ~ d 0 T T
Tim (t ) = [Tim (t + δ), Tim (t )] , where represents system state at any given time if the initial state and the trajec-
transposition. If ~Tim d+1
(t) and ~Tim d+1 0
(t ) are also close in dimen- tory of external inputs is known. Figure 7 shows the percentage
sion d + 1, then ~Tim d (t) and ~ d (t 0 ) are true nearest neighbors in
Tim of false nearest neighbors plotted against the increasing dimen-
dimension d, otherwise they are false nearest neighbors. sion for datasets (h1 , h2 , h6 ). It can be seen that at de = 13, the
percentage of false nearest neighbors falls below thd = 1% for
all three cases. Thus for this analysis, a value of 13 was chosen
||~Timd+1
(t) − ~Tim
d+1 0 2
(t )|| as the embedding dimension required to construct the state-space
≥ thFNN (2)
~ d ~ d
||Tim (t) − Tim (t )||2
0 for the intake manifold temperature signal.

6
 Table 4. Various parameters used for local linear regression model
Map reconstruction to predict healthy intake manifold
temperature Parameter Description Value
This is the third step of nonlinear time-series analysis. Tra-
Nsub Number of samples in a subseries 5000
ditionally this process involves estimating a function f (·) that
de taken from original series for estimat-
maps the de -dimensional temperature vector ~Tim (t) and the du - ing average mutual information
~ d
dimensional exogenous input vector U (t) at time t to the tem-
u

perature vector in the next time step. One such form of equation thFNN Threshold for ratio of squared Eu- 5
that assumes residuals are independent identically distributed clidean distance for calculating false
Gaussian random variables with zero mean and constant vari- nearest neighbors
ance, can be written as, thd Threshold to declare percentage false 1%
nearest neighbors as low
de
~Tim de
(t + 1) = f (~Tim ~ du (t)) +~εde .
(t), U (3) de Embedding dimension to form tem- 13
perature vector state space
More information on map reconstruction can be found in du Embedding dimension for exogenous 50
references [14, 21]. In this paper, local linear regression [29] inputs
was used to predict the intake manifold temperature vector using
exogenous inputs and their delay coordinates only. Engine speed Ntrain Number of samples used for training 1500
ωe , torque τe , and brake horse power (bhp) pe = ωe τe /5252 were local regression model
chosen as the external inputs. These variables were resampled Ntest Number of samples used for testing 3500
using the time parameter δ chosen previously to obtain derived local regression model (healthy and
inputs. du -dimensional vectors were formed from each of the various fault conditions)
derived input variables. These vectors were used as regression
variables in the model given by, Nnn Number of nearest neighbors used for 0.45Ntrain
local fitting

de
~Tim (t) = A + B~τe du (t) +Cω
~ e du (t) + D~pe du (t) +~εde ,
where [A, B,C, D] is a de × (3du + 1)-dimensional matrix of re-
gression coefficients, found minimizing the least squares error.
The choice of exogenous inputs and their embedding dimensions
used to predict the intake manifold temperature was completely
based on the knowledge of the physics of the system. The engine
speed and torque are the independent variables that define a po-
sition of the engine on the duty cycle map. In other words, these
variables define the driving profile of the engine. The bhp was
included in the model to study the interaction effects of torque
and speed. After performing some experiments on the engine, a
time delay of at least 300 seconds was observed between change
in the trend of intake manifold temperature and the changes in
torque-speed conditions of the engine. Also, instantaneous val-
ues of intake manifold temperature were the result of a long his-
tory of load-speed conditions. To account for these delay effects,
du was heuristically chosen as 50. This choice of parameters
captures 200 second window of data (du × k × τs = 50 × 20 × 200
ms = 200 seconds) which is comparable to response time of 300
seconds mention above.
In the local linear regression method, a fraction of all sam-
ples available for training is used for making a prediction based
on the new torque-speed condition of the engine. In this paper,
approximately 1500 samples from datasets (h1 , h2 , h6 ) are used
(4) for training. To predict healthy intake manifold temperature for
a new torque-speed condition [~τe du (t)T ω ~ e du (t)T ~pe du (t)T ]T , a
few nearest neighbors (in terms of Euclidean distance) of this
point are found from the training samples. The number of near-
est neighbors Nnn is selected as 45% of the total number of
samples available for training. These neighbors are then used
for training the model given in Eqn. (4) to estimate the re-
gression coefficients. A vector of new torque-speed conditions
[~τe du (t)T ω
~ e du (t)T ~pe du (t)T ]T is plugged into a newly trained
model to predict the intake manifold temperature if the engine
were running healthy. This process is repeated to simulate the
healthy intake manifold temperature vector for a series of new
torque-speed condition vectors.
VALIDATION OF PREDICTED HEALTHY INTAKE MANI-
FOLD TEMPERATURE
Various datasets were acquired when the engine was running
healthy and when faults of different magnitudes were introduced
in the charge-air cooler. Details on data acquisition and design
of experiments can be found in previous sections. For analy-
sis in this section, data (h1 , h2 , h6 ) are used as training data and
the remaining data (h3 , h4 , h5 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 ) are used for testing.
The model in Eqn. (4) is used to predict healthy intake manifold
temperature when the model is presented with a new vector of

7
 130 140
Measured Measured
130
120 Simulated Simulated
120
Tim ( F)

Tim ( F)
110
o

o
110
100
100
90 90

80 80
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (s) Time (s)

6 15

( F)
( F)

o
o

10

im
2
im

Residuals of T
Residual of T

0
5
−2

−4
0
−6

−8 −5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) Engine without fault (Train data - h1 , h2 , h6 and test Data - h3 ) (b) Engine with grade-3 CAC fault (Train data - h1 , h2 , h6 and test Data - f3 )

Figure 8. Solid line in upper row of figures is actual intake manifold temperature measurement and dashed line is the response of local linear regression
model predicting healthy signal behavior when the ISB 1998 engine and the model are driven by the same torque-speed points defined by modified AVL-8
test cycle. The lower row of figures shows residuals generated by comparing actual signal and predicted healthy signal by the solid line and the dotted
lines indicate median, 10th and 90th percentile for the residuals.

Table 5. Root mean squared error in training healthy model and testing
torque-speed profiles. Various parameters used in this analysis
on healthy or faulty charge-air cooler.
are listed in Table 4. √
Figure 8 (upper row) shows predicted healthy response (the Data mse (◦ F) in Training
first component of 13-dimensional temperature response) using h1 1.7630
the proposed model (dotted line) and the measured intake man-
ifold temperature (solid line) for the engine when both are pre- h2 1.1560
sented with a specific profile of torque and speed. From Fig. 8(a) h6 1.4246
it can be seen that when the engine is running without a fault √
condition, the measured temperature signal and the response of Data mse (◦ F) in Testing
the model simulating healthy temperature are almost equal. Vari- h3 1.3982
ations in the simulated healthy response were due to the sparse-
ness of data in the neighborhood of the torque-speed vector for h4 1.6716
which the prediction was made. It is also a function of neigh- h5 2.4732
borhood size (in this study, a neighborhood that captures 45% of
training samples is used for the local fitting). More information f1 2.7812
about the bias-variance trade-off and the selection of neighbor- f2 3.3344
hood size in local linear regression can be found in paper [29] and
references therein. From Figure 8(b) it can be seen that when a f3 5.1810
grade-3 fault is introduced in the engine (no shroud for charge- f4 10.0785
air cooler), the measured intake manifold temperature is signifi-
cantly higher than the predicted healthy response.
From Table 5, the root mean squared error in training is
1.4479◦ F, and in testing healthy data is 1.8477◦ F on average. Residual Analysis: Inferring Health of Charge-Air
The root mean squared error gradually increases from 2.7812 to Cooler
10.0785◦ F while the magnitude of CAC fault increases. These Figure 8 (lower row) shows residuals generated by compar-
results confirm that the proposed local linear model is an accu- ing the predicted healthy response and the measured intake man-
rate representation of healthy behavior for intake manifold tem- ifold temperature. Dotted lines for median, tenth percentile, and
perature. ninetieth percentile of residuals are also shown. From Figure 8,

8
 way of assessing the location and the spread of the residuals.
f_4 Visual inspection of these boxplots reveals that the location and
f_3
spread of the box for healthy test data (h3 , h4 , h5 ) is almost the
same as that of training data (h1 , h2 , h6 ) with some exception
f_2 of data set (h5 ). The location of the boxes shifts to the right
and the spread of the boxes gradually increases with increasing
Testing

f_1
CAC fault magnitude. The location of residuals for data (h5 ) is
h_5
on the higher side compared to any other healthy data. The pro-
h_4 posed model does not take into account the effect of the initial
or ambient temperature. When the test to acquire data (h5 ) was
h_3
performed, the intake temperature was already on the higher side
h_6 due to back-to-back faulty-healthy tests.
Training

h_2
The mean of these residuals can be tested for equality using
a two sample t-test assuming residuals to be compared are Gaus-
h_1
sian and have almost the same variance. Figure 10 shows the
−10 −5 0 5 10 15 20
probability density function estimates for temperature residuals
Residuals of Tim (oF)
for healthy training data, healthy test data, grade-1 fault data,
and grade-4 fault data. These pdf estimates are obtained using
Figure 9. Box plots of intake manifold temperature residuals for various
Gaussian kernels of bandwidth 0.7. The null hypothesis of the
datasets used for training and testing the state of CAC health.
same location for the residual distribution cannot be rejected at
the significance level of 0.05 when comparing healthy data in
training and testing (with the exception of dataset h5 ). However,
Train healthy data: h , h , h
1 2 6 the location of residual distribution for the grade-1 fault (data
0.35
f1 ) is significantly different from the location of distribution for
Probability Density Function for Residuals

Test healthy data: h , h

3 4
healthy data used in training. This confirms the degradation in
0.3
Test fault data: f
1
the health of the charge-air cooler. The comparison of means
0.25
cannot be performed for residuals generated for faults grade-2
Test fault data: f4 and higher, because these error distributions are not normal. The
0.2
spread of residual distribution increases with the increase in fault
magnitude. As shown in Fig. 10, the spread and nature of the
0.15 error distribution for grade-4 fault are completely different from
the grade-1 fault. In these cases, goodness of fit tests can also be
0.1 used to assess the health of the charge-air cooler.
The existing fixed threshold on the residuals to detect a high
0.05 intake manifold temperature symptom is at approximately 45◦ F.
From the boxplots and the pdf of the residuals generated from
0
−5 0 5 10 15 the fault data it can be seen that the proposed model is able to
Intake Manifold Temperature Residuals (oF) detect the departure from the nominal behavior when the mean
of the residuals shifts from zero to 3◦ F. This is a much tighter
Figure 10. Probability density function estimates for intake manifold tem- bound on the nominal behavior of the engine than the existing
perature residuals to evaluate the state of charge-air cooler. fixed threshold on residuals.

it can be concluded that the residuals are almost zero mean Gaus- GENERAL APPLICABILITY OF THE PROPOSED AP-
sian when the engine is running healthy. However with increas- PROACH AND MODEL
ing magnitude of CAC failure, a significant shift in the mean and The nonlinear time-series analysis techniques proposed in
variance of residuals is observed. Figure 9 shows the boxplot this paper are also applied to model the healthy IMT of a Cum-
of temperature residuals for various datasets used in training and mins ISB 2007 (6.7 liter, 6-cylinder, inline) engine for diagnos-
testing the proposed model [30]. The centerline of each box rep- ing faults in the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) cooler. The
resents the median on residuals. The ends of the box represent engine was run with a supplemental emission test (SET) drive
the interquartile range of the residuals. The end-lines represent cycle. The SET is a 13-mode steady-state drive cycle different
the extremes of these residuals. The boxplots are a convenient from AVL-8 mode cycle. More information about the SET can be

9
 70
70
60
60
Tim ( C)

Tim ( C)
50
o

50

o
40
40

30 Measured 30 Measured
Simulation Simulated
20 20
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s) Time (s)

5 10
( C)

( C)
o

o
5
im

im
Residuals of T

Residuals of T
0 0

−5

−5 −10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) Engine without fault (b) Engine with 40% restriction in the coolant path of EGR cooler

Figure 11. Solid line in upper row of figures is actual intake manifold temperature measurement and dashed line is the response of local linear regression
model predicting healthy signal behavior when ISB 2007 engine and the model are driven by the same torque-speed points defined by SET drive cycle.
The lower row of figures shows residuals generated by comparing actual signal and predicted healthy signal by the solid line and the dotted lines indicate
median, 10th and 90th percentile for the residuals.

found in reference [18]. Datasets were acquired with and with-
out restrictions in the EGR coolant path to simulate EGR cooler
degradation. Nonlinear time-series analysis techniques applied
to newly acquired data indicate that the same model structure
given in Eqn. (4) is a valid model to predict healthy IMT of the
new engine. More information about this analysis can be found
in reference [31]. From Fig. 11(a) (upper row), it can be seen that
when the engine is running without a fault condition, the mea-
sured temperature signal and the response of the model simulat-
ing healthy temperature are almost equal. Figure 11 (lower row)
shows residuals generated by comparing the predicted healthy
response and the measured intake manifold temperature. Dot-
ted lines for median, tenth percentile, and ninetieth percentile of
residuals are also shown. From Figure 11, it can be concluded
that the residuals are almost zero mean Gaussian when the en-
gine is healthy. However with a 40% restriction (introduced by
a ball-valve) in the EGR coolant path, a significant shift in the
mean and variance of residuals is observed.
The estimated parameters of the models to predict healthy
IMT of ISB 1998 and 2007 engine models are not identical due
to inherent differences in these engine platforms. The ISB 2007
engine is equipped with an EGR cooler that affects its healthy
IMT in a different way compared to the healthy IMT of the ISB
1998 engine, which does not use EGR. However, the models to
predict healthy IMT of two different engines driven with two dif-
ferent drive-cycles are identical up to the order and the structure
of the model. This clearly demonstrates the general applicability
of the approach and the model proposed in this research work.
CONCLUSIONS
A three-step procedure of nonlinear time series analysis con-
sisting of time parameter estimation, embedding, and map re-
construction is successfully applied to monitor the health of a
charge-air cooler using intake manifold temperature. A thirteen
dimensional temperature vector is required to construct the state-
space of intake manifold temperature that could be unambigu-
ously tracked by torque, speed, and bhp of the engine, all em-
bedded in the original fifty-dimensional space. The resulting lo-
cal linear model shows a root mean squared error of 1.4479 and
1.8477◦ F on average in training and testing the healthy engine,
respectively. The root mean squared error increases gradually
(2.7812, 3.3344, 5.1810, and 10.0785◦ F) while the magnitude of
the CAC fault increases. The location of the median and mean on
the residuals shifts to the positive side, and an average increase
in the spread of residuals is observed after inspecting the box
plots and the probability density function estimates of the resid-
uals. The proposed model is able to detect the departure from the
nominal IMT behavior when the mean of the residuals shifted
from zero to 3◦ F. This is a much tighter bound on the nominal be-
havior of the engine than the existing fixed threshold of 45◦ F on
the residuals. These results confirm that the proposed local linear
model is an accurate representation of the healthy behavior of the
intake manifold temperature. The root mean squared error, visual

10
inspection of boxplots, and hypothesis test to check the location
of the mean of the residuals of intake manifold temperature serve
as excellent metrics to assess the health of the charge-air cooler.
The general applicability of the model is demonstrated by suc-
cessfully diagnosing the EGR cooler degradation of a different
engine.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are thankful to Cummins Inc. for supporting this re-
search work.
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