TOPIC : THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND THE PEACE SETTLEMENTS

SUBTOPIC : THE FIRST WORLD WAR

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the subtopic, learners should be able to;
 Examine the causes of the First World War.
 Examine the events of the First World War.
 Evaluate the results of the First World War.
 Analyse the impacts of the First World War.

Introduction

A cartoon that depicts the end of peace in Europe

 Europe enjoyed political and economic power during the eve of the First World War and began
to practise vast influence on millions of people in different continents.
 This was through political decisions such as the Berlin Conference (1884-1885) or economically
through the Industrial Revolution.
 European politics was concentrated in the hands of a few “Great Powers” who had different
interests which often brought them into conflict.
 To protect their self-interests, these powers often betrothed in secret coalitions due to the
political doubts in Europe, which made isolation dangerous.
 The Great Powers include: Great Britain, German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, France,
Russian Empire and Ottoman Empire.

Causes of the First World War

The arms race and militarism (Brinkmanship)

 Before the First World War many nations started to define their national greatness militarily as
they thought that having a strong military army defined their greatness in Europe. In Germany
the army had an importance place as compared to other countries.
 To show greatness Germany increased her army to 5 million men while on the other hand other
countries were also doing the same for example Russia increased her army up to 50000 men by
1913 and France enlightened her military service from 2 to 3years.
 All major European countries had adopted the conscription (compulsory enlistment) system by
1874.
 There was a significant increase in military budgets and the developments in militarism meant
that when the conflicts reached its height in 1914 the countries readily declared war on one
another especially since the leaders of the various countries had become more emboldened and
practiced brinkmanship as a result of their belief in their military prowess.
 In 1904 to 1914 there was a dramatic increase in the amount many European countries spent on
their armies and navies. Various countries such as Britain and Germany competed to build
strong and powerful armies, navies and the manufacture of weapons.
 The increase race of armaments developed into arms race leading up to the First World War. As
noted above the race was mainly between Britain and Germany and Britain was keen to win this
race.
 Germany did her best to catch up with Britain (Britain had become the undisputed leading Naval
power when they had displaced the Spanish Armada centuries before) by expanding her own
warship production.
 The launching of the Dreadnought Battleships which were larger, faster by Britain marked the
beginning of naval race between Britain and Germany in 1906.Germany responded by
immediately embarking on a naval development program that seriously alarmed the British and
Germany maintained that the naval development was for protecting overseas trade and the
Germany empire thus Britain was not to interfere into the affairs of Germany.
 Britain saw the development of Germany as a threat to European peace. The race between
Germany and Britain continued up to 1914 and both countries increased their navies
significantly.

The alliance system

 An alliance in Europe were formal political, military or economic agreement between two or
more nations. During 19th and 20th century European nations formed, annulled and restructured
alliances and the alliance system divided the European powers into two rival military camps that
is the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.
 The existence of these two opposing alliances meant that war between two nations might mean
war between them all.
 Chain of friendship in Europe

 In 1700 alliances were used as a defensive measure or a political device, Kings and princes
regularly formed or re-formed alliances, usually to advance their own interests or isolate rivals.
Many of these alliances were short lived while others collapsed due to the emergence of new
leaders and others were nullified by new alliances.
 The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1800s ushered a brief period of super alliances as European
countries allied themselves either to support or defeat Napoleon.
 European countries formed about seven anti- Napoleonic coalitions around 1797 to 1815 and
these coalitions mainly included Britain, Russia, Holland, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, Spain and
Portugal.
 The defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo forced the European leaders to work with the aim of
restoring peace, normality and stability in Europe.
 The Congress of Vienna (1815) recognized an informal system of diplomacy and this system
defined national boundaries and hunted to prevent wars and revolutions and the collapse of the
congress system led to the rise of Imperial interests, changes in the government and also there
was the rise on national movement in Germany and Italy.
 These acts led to an increase in rivalries and tension thus nations began to turn to the alliance
system to defend and advance their interest.
 Some individual agreements signed in the mid to late 1800s include:

The Treaty of London (1839)

 This multi-lateral treaty recognized the existence of Belgium as an independent and neutral
state.
 Great Britain and Prussia were signatories to this treaty.
 Belgium earned statehood in the 1830s after separating from southern Holland. The Treaty
of London was still in effect in 1914, so when German troops invaded Belgium in August
1914, the British considered it a violation of the treaty.
The Three Emperors’ League Dreikaiserbund (1873)

 This league was a three way coalition between the ruling rulers of Germany (Bismarck),
Austria-Hungary (Emperor Franz Joseph I) and Russia (Tsar Alexandra II).
 The Three Emperors’ League was engineered and dominated by Otto von Bismarck, who
saw the league as the means of securing balance of power in Europe and he hoped that the
league would reduce disputes between Austria-Hungary and Russia over the Balkans.
 Disorder in the Balkans destabilized Russia’s commitment to the league, which collapsed in
1878. The Three Emperors’ League, without Russia, formed the basis of the Triple Alliance.

Pre-war alliance network

The Dual Alliance (1879)

 Germany still hoped to maintain a three country alliance and this dual alliance became a
binding bloc between Germany and Austria Hungary and they agreed to come to each
other’s aid in the event of an attack by Russia.
 The dual alliance was signed soon after the collapse of the Three Emperors’ League and
during a period of Austro-Russian tension in the Balkans.
 The nationalists in Germany welcomed the alliance and believed that the Germany speaking
people in Austria were to be absorbed into greater Germany.

The Triple Alliance (1882)

 The Triple alliance was an extension of the dual alliance between Germany and Austria-
Hungary and this three way alliance between Germany, Italy and Austria Hungary was
driven by anti- French and anti – Russian feelings.
 The three signatories were committed to support each other mutually in the event of an
attack by any of the Great powers.
  Italy only joined the alliance to preserve its national security and the anger towards France
for seizing Tunisia.
 Italy in 1882 was newly formed and military weak was viewed as a minor partner in the
alliance moreover Bismarck believed that Italy was not going to play an important role if war
broke up in Europe.

The Franco-Russian Alliance (1894)

 The elapse of the Reinsurance treaty of 1887 which agreed on the neutrality of Germany
and Russia if there were clashes between France and Austria Hungary led to the formation
of the alliance between Russia and France and this military alliance restored cordial
`relations between the two countries.
 The Franco- Russian alliance was a response to the Triple alliance which aimed at isolating
France and this alliance became an unexpected development that crushed Germany’s plans
for mainland Europe and angered Berlin.
 The alliance also provided economic benefits for both countries that is Russia was now able
to access Fresh loans while France was now able to access Russian mining, industry and raw
materials.
 It was agreed that the Franco- Russian alliance was to exist as long the triple alliance
existed.

The Entente Cordiale (1904)

 This was a friendship agreement and it was a series of agreements between France and
Britain, the Entente cordial ended a century hostility between the two countries.
 The coalition also resolved colonial disagreements and other minor disputes between these
countries.
 The Entente cordiale was not a military alliance but it was seen as a first step towards an
Anglo-French military alliance.

The Anglo-Russian Entente (1907)

 Just like Britain and France, Russia was becoming more fearful of Germany’s intentions. The
agreement between Britain and Russia eased tension and restored and established new
relations between the two countries.
 Britain and Russia had spent much of the 19th century as rivals, going to war in the Crimea
(1853-56) and later reaching the verge of war twice.
 The Anglo-Russian Entente resolved several points of disagreement, including the status of
colonial possessions in the Middle East and Asia. The treaty did not involve any military
commitment or support.

The Triple Entente (1907)

 This treaty combined the Entente Cordiale and the Anglo-Russian Entente into a three way
agreement between Britain, France and Russia.
 The triple Entente was not a military alliance – however the three Ententes of 1904-7 were
important because they marked the end of British neutrality and isolationism.
Nature of the coalitions

 Alliances and ententes were formed behind closed doors leading to some nations conducting
negotiations without informing their other alliances for example Germany negotiated the
Reinsurance Treaty with Russia 1887 without informing Austria Hungary its major ally.
 Some of alliances which were signed contained secret clauses that were not known in public and
this secretiveness of the alliances raised suspicion and tension in Europe and it failed to restore
peace in the long term.
 The terms of the Dual alliance between Germany and Austria Hungary strengthened and
militarized alliances and increased the like hood of the war.

Colonial rivalry
 In the 19th century the rivalries in Europe were no longer confined in Europe alone, they also
extended outside Europe as the Great powers were expanding their influence and establishing
colonies overseas.
 Imperialism in Europe developed when the countries like Portugal, England and France began to
claim new discovered land in Americas.
 The spirit of imperialism was also fueled by the scramble and partition of Southern Africa and
the struggle for concessions, Britain, Germany, France, Italy, and Belgium turned to Africa to
expand their desire for land.
 By 1870 the whole of Africa was now controlled by the Europeans except for Ethiopia and
Liberia on the other hand there competition in Asia European countries such as Russia focused
on controlling China.
 Each of these countries had its own reasons for pursuing expansionist policies overseas and
these conflicting aims and ambitions created tension between the European Great powers as
well as clashes for example France and Britain over Egypt, France and Germany over Morocco
and France and Italy over Tunisia on the other hand in Asia Japan and Russia fought for the
control of China.
 In South Africa the British’s desire to control or expand its territories caused conflicts with
Germany which had territories in south- east and south-west of Africa.
 Clashes for colonies nearly caused the war and increased tensions between the triple entente
and the triple alliance.
 Japan and Britain signed the Anglo- Japanese treaty in 1902 a military agreement in which each
member assisted the other member in case of the war. This could have caused the war because
Britain who supported Japan or France who supported Russia was involved in the war.

The First Moroccan crises [Crises of Tangier]

 Moroccan crises (1905–06, 1911), these were international crises centering on France’s
attempts to control Morocco and on Germany’s synchronized attempts to stem French power.
 France concluded a secret treaty with Spain in 1904 concerning the partitioning of Morocco at
the same time agreeing not to oppose Britain’s moves in Egypt in exchange for a hand in
Morocco.
 Germany, insisted upon an open-door policy in the area; and, in a dramatic show of imperial
power, the emperor William II visited Tangier and, from his yacht on March 31, 1905, declared
for Morocco’s independence and integrity.
  The resultant international panic, the First Moroccan Crisis, was defused in January–April 1906
at the Algeciras Conference, where German and other national economic rights were upheld
and France and Spain were entrusted with policing of Morocco.
 The Franco-German agreement of 1908 reiterated Morocco’s independence while recognizing
France’s “special political interests” and Germany’s economic interests in North Africa.
Germany’s interference in the matter of Morocco was a clear challenge to Britain and France in
the hope of dividing them over the issue and improving Germany’s prestige in the World.
 The second Moroccan crises was hastened in 1911 when the Panther a German gunboat was
sent to the Moroccan port in Agadir as a way of undermining the French power in the religion,
the Agadir incident sparked and Britain saw the incident as a dangerous use of German’s navy.
 International negotiations were carried out, and the crisis subsided with the conclusion of the
convention of Nov. 4, 1911, in which France was given rights to a protector ship over Morocco
and, in return, Germany was given strips of territory from the French Congo. Spain at first
objected; but, through the interference of Great Britain, a Franco-Spanish treaty was concluded
on Nov. 27, 1912, slightly revising the previous Franco-Spanish boundaries in Morocco.
 The talks of 1911–12 between the powers also led up to the eventual internationalization of the
Tangier zone, consisting of Tangier and its vicinities, in 1923.

Nationalism

 Nationalism which is as a sentiment based on common cultural that binds a population and
produces a policy of national independence also was part of the cause of the First World War.
 The growing nationalism in 1900 created a fierce competition and rivalry between the European
countries as they competed to be the greatest nations.
 As the desire to be independent the major cause of the WW1 was the Balkan nationalism, the
Slavs inhabiting the Balkan Peninsula wished to have countries of their own without the control
of Turkey and Austria.
 Towards the end of the 19th century Turkey’s weak control led to an increase in nationalism,
there were few frontiers to form new boundaries of the new countries and it was a region of
different racial groups, cultures and religion.
 The Balkan states that included Bulgaria, Montenegro and Serbia agitated freedom from the
Turkish rule while at the same time they fought amongst themselves. Austria- Hungary saw the
situation in the Balkans dangerous but at the same time the situation came as an opportunity to
form a powder vacuum that each country wanted to fill.

Bosnian Crisis

 The Bosnian Crisis of 1908-09 added to the multifaceted mix of events that led to the eruption
of the First World War and period is often known as the period of “Balkan Powder Keg” - when
this turmoil became entangled with imperialist ambitions and alliances it ignited conflict in
Europe. The Bosnian Crisis was sparked by anger over the annexation of the Balkan regions of
Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary thus the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in
1908 led to controversies between the Dual Monarchy and Turkey.
 Bosnia was conquered by the Turks in the 15th Century and was at the core of the Austrian-Serb
rivalry as both the countries desired to control Bosnia.
 In 1878 Bosnia and Herzegovina were part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire but at the Congress of
Berlin in 1878, Bosnia was placed under the administration of Austria Hungary and thus Austria
 began to fear the impacts of the movement of the Young Turks in Bosnia thus in 1908 Austria
Hungary announced its decision to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Ottoman Empire
criticized the move while Britain, Russia, Italy, France, Montenegro, Serbia and Germany saw
this move as a violation of the treaty of Berlin and became entwined in the crisis.
 Following the Austria- Hungarian announcement, Bulgaria declared its independence from the
Ottoman Empire and the Turks who had ruled Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina were
unsurprisingly displeased with the annexation and the declaration of independence by Bulgaria.
Since the Ottoman Empire military and domestic power had declined in the past decades so
they failed to take any action towards the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 The annexation caused international tension especially in Russian and Serbia thus a strong
opposition towards the annexation developed especially in Russia. Russian and Serbia protested
immediately leading to threats by Germany towards Russia if she intervened in the matter and
this forced Russia to step down.
 On the other hand in Serbian terrorist groups began to emerge and aimed at carrying out
terrorist activities to liberate Bosnian and this generally formed the background to the Sarajevo
incident.
 Serbia demanded Austria to give a portion of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia, Izvolsky was
pressured by anti- Austrian opinion in Russia was forced to support the Serbian claims thus to
respond to the matter Austria threatened to invade Serbia.
 Since Germany was an Austrian ally thus Russia wasn’t prepared to risk a war for the sake of
Serbia. In 1909 March Germany was notified that Russia accepted Austria’s annexation.
Although war was avoided the Bosnian crisis embittered the relations between Serbia and
Austria Hungary.

First Balkan War

 The First Balkan War of 1912 was started by an alliance made up of Balkan states that is
Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro. The main aim for the formation of the alliance was to
liberate their kinsman as well as responding to the oppressive policies introduced by the Turkish
rule.
 During the same year in March Serbia and Bulgaria signed a treaty that enabled them to
distribute northern and southern Macedonia they also anticipated war against Austria and
Turkey destroying their status quo while Greece and Bulgaria signed a similar treaty making
military action against Turkey.
 Montenegro attachment to the Balkan League was secured by an informal arrangement with
Bulgaria and Greece and the relationship was concluded with a treaty with Serbia in September
1912.
 The following month Montenegro declared war against the Turks and the allied powers joined
the War ten days later and Turkey was pushed to uphold the defense Constantinople.
 Albania, Epirus, Macedonia and Thrace were now properties of the Balkan States on the other
hand Serbia reached the Adriatic at Durazzo which gave them sea port.
 Italy and Austria were against this idea as they feared that the Serbian port might also become a
Russian port which might become threat to the Hapsburg Monarchy.
 After the defeat of Turkey, the Treaty of London was signed in December was signed to end up
the First Balkan war, Turkey ceded all its possessions and the Great Powers observed the new
lines of the Balkan States. Turkish dominion over Crete was withdrawn uniting the state with
 Greece while Aegean which was occupied by Greece was given left in possession of the Great
powers.

Second Balkan War

 Disagreements appeared among the members of the Balkan League on the issue of sharing the
territories surrendered by the defeated powers in the First Balkan War especially concerning
the division of Macedonia.
 Bulgaria attacked Serbia due to different idea on the partitioning system that seemed unfair to
her unfortunately Bulgaria was defeated by a combination of Serbians, Greeks and Romanians
marking the end of the second Balkan War which was completely ended by the treaty
Bucharest in August 1913.
 Through this treaty Serbia was given northern and central Macedonia, Greece was given the
port of Salonika while Bulgaria was given eastern Macedonia and part of Thrace.
 The second Balkan war worsened the relation between Serbia and Austria-Hungary as this
emphasised the gains which could not be won within a short space of time and the Serbian
expansionism threatened Austria, especially her demands for a Yugoslavia which could tear
Austria apart. Therefore Austria became determined to strike Serbia at the earliest opportunity,
if an excuse could be found.

Assassination at Sarajevo

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife

 This was an event that occurred at Sarajevo the capital of Bosnia which brought about fatal
clashes between Austria and Serbia at the same time triggering the First World War.
 Archduke Franz Ferdinand was a heir to the throne of the mighty Austro- Hungarian Empire, in
1914 he and his wife (Sophie) made a provocative visit to the troubled province of Bosnia and
unlikely they were attacked by terrorist on 28 June 1914 at Sarajevo but were left unharmed.
 Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a nineteen year-old Bosnian
Serb using a shotgun at Sarajevo and died minutes later, it is believed that Princip was one of
the members of Serbian nationalist group which fought for the independence of Slavs.
  Princip was arrested at the crime scene but Austria blamed Serbia for the murder and issued an
ultimatum on her to be responded to within 48 hours.
 Bosnia was once ruled by the Turks due to the rise of nationalism Bosnia broke free from the
Turkish rule but instead of getting full independence she was taken over Austria Hungary, this
enraged Bosnian nationalist like Princip and the assassination of the royal family came as a
dramatic way of telling the Austro- Hungarian government that the Bosnian wanted their
independence.
 In this case the Austro- Hungarian government saw the assassination as just more than a
Bosnian matter and they believed that the terrorist were sent by the neighboring Serbia thus
the rulers of Austria- Hungary loathed Serbia.
 The annexation of land by Serbia during the Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913 threatened the
Austro- Hungarians and it was also provoked by Serbia’s support for Bosnian nationalist and its
close political and ethnic relations with Russia.
 Austria- Hungary used the assassination as an excuse for confronting Serbia and on the other
hand Germany gave the project her full support thus in July 1914 Vienna sent an Ultimatum
which could have made Serbia an Austro- Hungarian province if accepted within 48hours.
 Russia mobilised her armed forces due to her friendship with the Balkans, the refusal of Serbia
to accept all the clauses of the Ultimatum forced Austria- Hungary to declare a war on Serbian of
July 28 1914.
 This incident therefore fuelled a chain of reaction as the Tsar of Russia stepped up his
preparation and his refusal to back off led to German’s declaration of war on France, his
advancement to Belgium and the following day Britain joined the war to assist France and
Belgium.

Events of the First World War 1914-1918

Maps demonstrating the theatres of the First World War

The Western Front
 In this font the war was fought situated to the West of Germany and the countries which
participated on this front included Germany, France, Britain, Belgium and United States of
America.
 The Western Front was the main theatre of the First World War. The Franco-German border and
Belgium were the first parts to be affected by the First World War as the war broke out in
accordance of the Schlieffen plan which was a German war plan devised by general Alfred Count
von Schlieffen in 1905.
 The plan was based on the assumption that Germany was to fight war on two fronts against
France and against Russia concurrently.
 They made use of railways to move troops and in this case Germany was to invade France
through Belgium / Holland and Luxembourg.
 The Germans were to march through Belgium within two weeks at the same time the plan
aimed at a swift victory against France in the west thus the defeat of France was to take six
weeks and she was to be defeated before Russia mobilised her troops.
 On the other hand German also made it an aim that she will capture Paris and encircle French
armies and attacking Alsace-Lorraine which was under the French control before Russian
mobilisation was complete.
 After the complete defeat of France, German troops were to be moved to the East to fight
Russia avoiding to fight on two fronts as it might weaken the French army and on the Eastern
Russia was to be defeated within six months.
 They also devised a plan that German forced had to occupy the Channel ports to avoid the
landing of British reinforcements.
 Schlieffen Plan

 The war broke out in 1914 and Germany implemented the Schlieffen plan opening the Western
Front by invading Luxembourg and France. But they met resistance from the Belgians and the
British Expeditionary Forces [BEF] and were held for three weeks delaying their plan of striking
against France.
 The British came to support the French defences a little earlier than Germans expected as a
results the army was divided into two parts to fight the Russia on the East.
 Since the Germans were temporarily stopped by allied counter attacks it disturbed the plans of
the Schlieffen plan.
 The French army was sent to deal with German invasion instead of invading Alsace-Lorraine thus
German was forced to make some changes to the plan.
 Germany used a shorter route on the East of Paris to send the troops but the French and British
checked German troops at the River Marne pushing them back to river Aisne.
 Due to these strategies the Germans failed to penetrate into West of Paris leading to the
collapse of the plan and German High Command lost contact with the operation thus they
retreated 60km and began to dig trenches.
 The plan motivated German’s declaration of war on Russia and France and they were able to
enter Belgium even though they faced resistance.
 Paris could not be encircled as originally intended and the tide of the advance was intensely
twisted with the battle of the Marne.

The Battle of Marne 1914

 This battle Marne also known as the Miracle of Marne was fought between Germany and
France in September 1914.
  France was invaded by Germany and on September 6th 1914 the French commander made a
counter attack and the forces were rushed from Paris to participate in the war and about 1300
000 French soldiers took part in this battle.
 The French forces were able to push the Germans 48km but after a heavy loss of 600 000
French soldiers and they could not make a follow up thus they took advantage of the victory
compensating with their human and material loses.
 The defeat by France was a setback for the Central powers and the French victory meant that
the Germans were to re-strategize their tactics especially after the failure of their so called
Schlieffen plan.

The Battle of Ypres

 It was between Germany and Britain and the battle included three battles. The town of Ypres in
Belgium was always under attack as it blocked the Germans from the English Channel.
 The first battle of Ypres was fought in Belgium in October and November 1914, the British,
Belgian troops were outnumbered by the Germans who were trying to get to the English
Channel.
 The allies won the battle after 34 days of fighting. The second battle was fought between April
and May 1915 and they made use of poisonous gases with the Germans and the Germans used
their Zeppelin (air ship) for the first time.
 France and Britain defenders accomplished to maintain control of the Channel ports and war
became bogged down in trenches.

The Trench Warfare

Trench Warfare
 The trench warfare was devised by German soldiers, German soldiers were defeated at Marne
and retreated beyond river Aisne and began to dig trenches.
  The French and British forces also implemented the idea of trench warfare and they began to
operate as well as fighting their battles on these trenches.
 These trenches became protectors from machine gun fire and the explosions of artillery shells
and were extended into intricate systems of defence and communication.
 There were millions of soldiers on each side, confronted each other below ground level and in
between these soldiers lay the “no man’s area”.
 Conditions in the trenches were shocking soldiers were to live in there in all kinds of weather
thus most soldiers were affected by the trench-foot and even diseases. Frontline soldiers were
expected to advance across no man’s land towards the enemy’s frontline trenches, in the face of
shelling, machine gun fire and barbed wire defences.
 The trench warfare resulted in a deadlock and this prolonged the war and attempts were made
to end this dreadlock of trench warfare including the use the introduction of poisonous gas
attacks and tanks.
 This meant that from December 1914 to November 1918 the Western front was a scene of
impasse.
 In October 1915, Bulgaria joined the war on the side of Germany while Romania joined the
Entente powers but they were quickly defeated by the German and Austrian troops.

The Battle of Verdun (February 1916)

 The battle was between France and Germany and in this case the Germany army devised a
strategy to frustrate the allied powers on the Western Front.
 It was of the longest battles, Germany attacked an important French town known as the Verdun
and it was meant to weaken the French army and Verdun was a very important French fortress
and the hub of the French defensive system which threatened the German lines of
communication.
 Falkenhayn hoped to destroy the forces, capture Verdun and knock France out of war and this
act was going to force Britain to berg for peace.
 In the first of the war Germany was able to win due to the unpreparedness French, the fall of
Verdun was imminent with high casualties thus the Britain came to rescue their ally along with
Russia and Italy.
 The British under the commander Haig took control of the French Arras sector and they raised
the offensive up until Germany withdrew from the war and retreated to their trenches.
 Despite the retreat both countries experienced losses and France suffered immense pressure at
Verdun and encouraged Britain to open another front at Somme.

The Battle of Somme [July 1916]

 The Somme battle was launched by to ease the pressure on the French at Verdun and this battle
was pioneered by Haig who at breaking the German defence force and capture its fortress at
Cambria and Bapaume.
 The battle was a series of attacks and many soldiers lost their lives leading to loss of morale
especially the German soldiers as they failed to invade Verdun and moreover France and Britain
failed to defeat her.
 The led to changes of generals for example replaced General Joffre, with General Neville while
British Haig was replaced by active generals who worked with Neville so as to complete the
Germans.
  There was the use of tanks on the side of Britain towards the Germans and the same battle
discredited Douglas Haig and well as the resignation of Asquith the British Prime Minister and
his place was taken up by George Lloyd.
 The allied powers abandoned the battle after heavy losses on both sides but no one won the
war and Japan joined the war on the British side.

The Battle of Jutland (31 May 1916)

 This was a French- German battle and it was the main battle of the First World War as it was the
only truly naval battle.
 The German Admiral tried to lure the British Fleet out of its base so that it could be destroyed by
the superior Germans.
 However, the target failed since Britain released more ships than he had anticipated, and
Germans decided to retire to their base firing torpedoes as they went.
 The importance of the battle was that the Germans had failed to destroy British sea power even
it suffered heavy losses.
 This battle was followed by the battle of Passchendaele July 1917 between Britain and Germany
and it was a mud battle.
 Britain won the war and this meant that Germany was defeated.

The Eastern Front

 On the western Front the war was against Russia and Germany with Austria Hungary and the
front was opened the invasion of East Prussia by Russia resulting in coming of German forces by
Moltke from the Western front.
 Russia mobilised her forces than Germans had expected thus she was forced to divert his troops
to the Eastern Front thus in this case he began to fight the war in two fronts.
 On the Eastern part the soldiers were under the leadership of Hindenburg who was replaced by
Ludendorff after he retreated.
 The Battle of Tannenberg August 1914 was between Germany and Russia however in this battle
the Russia was defeated Russia was defeated.
 German diverted her forces away from the Western front in 1915 to assist the Austro-
Hungarians and in September Russians were driven to the Bukovina, Carpathians and away from
the Austrian territory.
 Turkey joined the war on the side of Germany and closed the straits and it became difficult for
France and Britain to support Russia their western ally and Russia suffered from ammunition ad
food shortages.
 This led to riots in Russia and the Tsar was overthrown.

The Austro-Italian Front

 The counties which fought on this front were Italy, Germany and Austria Hungary. Italy declared
war on Austria Hungary and both were members of the Triple Alliance.
 Due to the treaty of London with the Allied powers Italy was promised her Istria, the city of
Trieste, Trentino, Southern Tyrol and some Dalmatian Islands he was forced to fight on the side
of the allied powers.
 Italy fought the Austrians at Isonzo, North of Trieste however in October 1917 combined
German and Austrian forces defeated Italy at the battle of Caporetto and she lost more soldiers
but still remained in the war.
The Turkish Front
 In November 1914 in the Eastern Front Turkey entered the war in favour of Germany and
Austria Hungary and his western allies who had helped in the war could not continue supplying
him with resources.
 Russia in this case was starved with ammunition, weapons and food thus he was forced to move
out of the war in1917.

Battle of Gallipoli

 This was generally a campaign engineered by Winston Churchill a British Prime Minister and he
aimed at knocking Turkey out of the war
 The failures of the allied powers to supply Russia with resources was due to the desire that the
allied powers wanted to open up direct interaction with Russia through the straits and the Black
Sea.
 Moreover they aimed at winning Bulgaria over the allied thus at first they entered through
straits and Sea of Marmora as well as bombing Constantinople to weaken the Turkish Empire/
government but these attempts failed.
 The allied powers went on to implement the second strategy thus by combining British,
Australian and New Zealand troops to land on the Gallipoli peninsula and these troops
destroyed the forts to clear the way for ships.
 The Turks were helped by the Germans under Liman Von Sanders leading to the defeat of the
allied troops also leading to loss of moral among the soldiers.

The Balkan Front

 A number of countries were involved in this from the likes Romania, Serbia Albania,
Montenegro, Russia, Greece, Britain, and France fought Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria-Hungary.
 Moreover the war at this marked the American entry into the First World War as well as the use
of German Submarine/ German U-boat campaign.
 As mentioned above the war was ended by the entry of America on the side of the allied powers
and removed herself from isolation.
 In December 1916 Woodrow Wilson intermediated between the allied powers and the central
power aiming at ending the war for the sake of peace but both parties were unwilling to end the
war.
 The British had imposed a strict naval blockade, designed to starve Germany from important
products like rubber, cotton and crude oil which in this were important for the war however
Germany to this blockage responded with submarine warfare or the U-boat campaign which was
implemented to destroy British shipping making her starve by sinking her merchant ships.
 The German U-Boat was introduced by Admiral Scheer of Germany in 1915, therefore German
that the around the British Isles were a war zone threatening the ships of neutral countries.
 The prowling of British merchant ships by Germans caused chaos in Britain, Germany’s desire to
control the seas led to the sinking of the British ships with a number of Americans.
 This act by Germany angered the United States President, Woodrow Wilson who warned her
that a second act will lead serious consequences.
 USA went on to protest against Germany Barbarism and in response Germany stooped the U-
boat attacks since she lacked sufficient U-boats and also wanted to avoid the intervention of
America.
  In 1916 Germany resumed the unrestricted U-boat campaign and attacked both neutral and
enemy ships /vessels alike and she thought that his U-boats were now enough to make him win
the war before the intervention America.
 It was a successful blockade on German supply lines which forced the German High Command to
accept Admiral Scheer’s demand for a renewal of unrestricted U-boat warfare.
 With his desire to win the war he went on in March 1916 to sunk another British ship, the
Sussex, which also had a number of Americans.
 The Submarine was successful as it was able to starve Britain as well as destroying its ships and
many people died. Britain introduced a radar and convey system that was meant to reduce
losses in the sea.
 This time German had crossed the limits thus on the 6th of April USA responded to German
submarine warfare by declaring war on her as well as her allies and also to make matters worse
Japan also gave her assistance to the allied powers.
 As usually the Germans miscalculated the moves of the Americans that it will take long to
mobilize its troops.
 The Germans also sent a telegram to Mexico with the intention of allying with Mexico German,
the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona which the United States had occupied in 1848 and
this was also another factor that forced the intervention of America into the war.
 American industries by 1918 were manufacturing armaments that were to be used in the by
both America and the Allied powers and also fresh American troops also armour-plated the
exhausted allied powers forces.
 The use of the US navy enabled naval the blockade on Germany and its entrance motivated the
allied powers, they firstly arrived on the western Front (France) and they did swig the balance of
power against Germany.
 On the other hand the American entry revived Italy thus he began to attack Austria Hungary in
the South and Germany became independent in the battle without the support of her allies.
 Despite the situation the Germans fought courageously but they lacked resources since the
energetic America continued to attack and I became impossible for Germany to win the war.
 Germany surrendered on 11 November 1918, and this marked the end of the First World War
One.

Factors leading to the defeat of Germany

 USA joined the war at a later assisting the weak allied power but destroying the German and it
had a powerful navy.
 The tanks which were provided by USA also weakened Germany who had long journey in the
War.
 USA also provided the allies with food, weapons and ammunition to ensure the defeat of
Germany.
 Germany also had weak allies and also he fought on a number of fronts against Russia, France
and Britain.
 The allied powers also came from different angles outnumbering the central powers.
 The use of the US navy help to effect the blockage on German and increased the scope of the
war.

Weaknesses of the Central Powers

  Austria-Hungary and Turkey were weakened by nationalist revolts at home thus they could not
give German maximum support and also Germany faced some revolts at home.
 Germany fought war on many fronts and this divided his resources to different areas.
 The German revolt at home by the socialists led to its defeat.
 The failure of the Schlieffen Plan as Germany miscalculated the course of the war.
 The failure of the U-boat campaign which failed to overpower those of the allied powers.
 Poor communication due to inexpert soldiers and commandants.
 The disintegration of Austria-Hungary in 1918 also fuelled to the defeat of the central powers.

Strengths of the Allied Powers

 Competent leadership.
 Italy who was of the members of the Triple alliance joined the war on the side of the allied
powers.
 In implementing the Schlieffen plan by attacking Belgium resulted in resistance on the Belgians.
 The allied powers were united.
 The allied powers outnumbered the central powers.
 Britain’s superiority at sea which Germany failed to break led to her defeat.
 The entrance of USA into the First World War resulted in the defeat of Germany.

Impacts of the First World War

 The First World War had far reaching consequences on the subsequent history of Europe in
particular and world in general. The war generally produced catastrophic consequences which
were political, economic and social.
 The war led to political instability especially in the war ravaged countries as their governments
failed to solve the post war economic and social problems leading to rise to the rise of
totalitariate countries in Europe. There was greater political instability in the war ravaged
countries as their governments were unable to solve the post-war economic and social
problems.
Political impacts
 Establishment of Democratic Republics: After the defeat, Germany established the Weimar
Republic which replaced the old monarchical system while Austria also become a democratic
republic while at the same time the establishment of the league of nations raised the
democratic republics to another level that is threatening World peace.
 The First World War resulted in the collapse of different empires for example Tsar Nicholas 11
of Russia 1917, Kaiser William 11 and Emperor Charles of Austria and these collapse of the old
empires led to the creation of new nations on the basis of self-determination proclaimed by
Wilson’s 14 points.
 Austria-Hungary formed the independent republics of Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, and
also parts of Italy, Poland, Rumania and Yugoslavia. Russia and Germany also gave up territory
to Poland. Finland and Baltic states-Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania gained their freedom from
Russia.
 On the other hand most Arabian lands in Ottoman Empire were placed under the control of
Britain and France and this led to the restructuring of the map of Europe.
 The First World War also led to the emergence of dictators in Europe as most countries were
devastated due to the results of the First World War. For example most countries in Eurpe their
 governments were based on coalitions with narrow majorities and this weakened the republics
as they failed to deal with economic problems affecting people.
 This there led to the rise of Mussolini in Italy, Stalin in Russia, Hitler in Germany, Tojo in Japan,
General Franco in Spain, Portugal (Dr. Salazar) and Turkey (Mustafa Kemal Pasha).
 The First World War and peace settlement demolished the old balance of power in Europe,
Communist Russia withdrew into separation. The Turkish and Austrian Empires were broken up.
The new nations which arose out of the peace settlement, such as Czechoslovakia and
Yugoslavia were not strong enough to fill up the power vacuum created in Europe. When
Germany grew strong again under Hitler she was able to dominate the new Europe more easily.
 A legacy of hatred, bitterness and suspicion was left among nations which helped to bring world
war two.
 New methods of warfare were introduced, for instance, trench warfare as well as the
introduction of new weapons of mass destruction, for instance, tanks, bombs, aeroplanes,
machine guns and gas.

Social impacts
 Children lost their parents and women became widows due to the great loss of human lives in
the war for example German lost 1900000 soldiers.
 There was erosion of class and sex barriers as men of all classes had shared the same hardships
in the trenches and had been forced into conduct.
 There was an outbreak of incurable diseases like influenza.
 Creation of homeless societies.
 There was widespread poverty and destitution.
 Introduction of communication technologies such as radios, televisions and the code language.
 The technological developments that occurred during the war benefited the people in Europe
and these benefits were seen when many countries introduced tariffs against the American
goods.
 There was equality between men and women as they both worked in ammunition factories.
 There were poor living and hygienic conditions.

Economic impacts
 The war gave a commercial advantage to industrialised nations outside Europe such as USA and
Japan.
 America got the largest share pertaining the trade issues.
 There was an increase in taxation as the Europeans had become poor and there was need to pay
reparations.
 Many countries became independent for example India began to build its own industries.
 Unemployment was rife at the same time workers earned low wages.
 In other countries there was an increase in production and there was availability of cheaper
goods.
 Degradation of land due to the activities of war for example the trench warfare.
 Inflation was high.
 Destruction of infrastructure as some of these industries and farms turned into battle fields
 There was economic depression since the British and French industries concentrated mostly on
the war rather than supplying their customers with goods and services.
 Europe lots its lead in industrial development.
  Loss of raw materials to newly formed states.
 Many countries were left with war debts especially Germany through the treaty of Versailles.
 There was bankruptcy in Europe.
 There were strikes, lockouts and demonstrations in Europe due to the need for better working
conditions.
 Construction of railway lines which made the transportation of goods easier.
 Hydro-electric power plants were incepted as well as improved communication through the use
of radios and other new means of communication.

Benefits of women after the world war

 The War situation in Europe created jobs for several women as they now worked alongside with
men in the factories.
 Women took up tasks in industries, military and proving wrong the notion that women were
weaker and inferior.
 Women also took part in the elections especially in USA, France and Britain thus making
participants in the day to day running of the state.
 The war eventually promoted women as they became free to own properties such as cars as
well as discussing openly without accompaniment by men.
 However even though women benefited after the world war some women were left widows and
took up roles of bread winners and at the same time not all women were given franchise.
 Moreover the return of men from war meant that some women lost their jobs.