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BUCUREŞTI
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CADASTRAL SURVEYING METHODS
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SURVEYING METHODS
> Triangulation (with anglar measurement)
> trilateration
> traversing
Triangulation
In the past it was difficult to accurately measure very long distances, but it
was possible to accurately measure the angles between points many kilometres
apart, limited only by being able to see the distant beacon. This could be anywhere
from a few kilometres, to 50 kilometres or more.
Triangulation is a surveying method that measures the angles in a triangle
formed by three survey control points. Using trigonometry and the measured
length of just one side, the other distances in the triangle are calculated. The shape
of the triangles is important as there is a lot of inaccuracy in a long skinny triangle,
but one with base angles of about 45 degrees is ideal.
Each of the calculated distances is then used as one side in another triangle
to calculate the distances to another point, which in turn can start another triangle.
This is done as often as necessary to form a chain of triangles connecting the origin
point to the Survey Control in the place needed. The angles and distances are then
used with the initial known position, and complex formulae, to calculate the
position (Latitude and Longitude) of all other points in the triangulation network.
Although the calculations used are similar to the trigonometry taught in high
school, because the distance between the survey points is generally long (typically
about 30 kilometres) the calculations also allow for the curvature of the Earth.
The measured distance in the first triangle is known as the „Baseline‟ and is
the only distance measured; all the rest are calculated from it and the measured
angles. Prior to the 1950s, this initial baseline distance would have to be very
carefully measured with successive lengths of rods whose length were accurately
known. This meant that the distance would be relatively short (maybe a kilometre
or so) and it would be in a reasonably flat area, such as a valley or plain. The
triangles measured from it gradually increased in size, and up onto the hilltops
where distant points could be seen easily.
The angles in the triangles are measured using a theodolite, which is an
instrument with a telescope connected to two rotating circles (one horizontal and
one vertical) to measure the horizontal and vertical angles. A good quality
theodolite used for geodetic surveys would be graduated to 0.1 second of an arc
and an angle resulting from repeated measurements would typically have an
accuracy of about 1 second of arc, which is equivalent to about 5 cm over a
distance of 10 kilometres.
In triangulation the vertical angles are not needed, but they can be used to
measure the difference in height between the points.
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Angular Measurement: there are 360 degrees in a full circle. One degree
contains 60 minutes and each minute contains 60 seconds. So there are 3,600
seconds in a degree and 1,296,000 seconds in a full circle. These seconds or
minutes are often referred to as ‟seconds of arc‟ or ‟minutes of arc‟ to distinguish
them from seconds and minutes of time.
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Trilateration
Trilateration Network
The early EDM instruments could measure long distances with an accuracy
of about 5 parts per million (i.e. 5 mm for every km or to 150 mm over a 30 km
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line), but later versions were more accurate, able to measure with an accuracy of
about 1 part per million (1 mm per kilometre or 30 mm over a 30 km line)
These days there are also many types of accurate and compact EDM
instruments integrated with an electronic theodolite and known generically as a
„Total Station‟. These instruments can also measure with an accuracy of about 1
part per million, but generally only for shorter lines of about one kilometre.
Traversing
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the calculated position for this point is the misclose and indicates the accuracy of
the traverse measurements and calculations.
Traverse Diagram
Surveying Heights
Heights are usually shown on maps by contour lines or spot heights and they
give the height above Mean Sea Level (MSL) which can vary slightly with time
and from place to place.
In the past when a direct connection to Mean Sea Level was not possible, the
relationship between barometric pressure and height was used to calculate heights
above sea level. This is a complex process if the best possible result is wanted, but
it is the same principle used in an aircraft‟s altimeter.
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The pressure at sea level is about 1013 millibars (mb) and it decreases by
about 10 mb for every 85 metres of increased height (although this changes as you
go higher).
This is not the most accurate method of obtaining heights, but it is relatively
simple and can be improved by using several barometers simultaneously on points
of known height. Allowance can then be made for changing weather patterns, but
even at its best Barometric heighting will result in a height with an uncertainty of
about 10 metres.
With Triangulation and Traversing, horizontal angles are measured with the
theodolite and it is not much more effort to also measure the vertical angles
between survey points. Again using trigonometry, the difference in height can be
calculated from the vertical angles and the distances. This is called Trigonometric
Heighting.
When the distance between the observed points is more than about a
kilometre, corrections are also made for the curvature of the Earth and the
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refraction of the line of sight as it passes through the different atmospheric layers.
To cancel out much of the uncertainty due to refraction, vertical angles may be
observed simultaneously from each end of the line.
With care and applying all the necessary corrections, a difference in height
with an uncertainty of a few decimetres may be obtained over lines up to 30 or
more kilometres (a decimetre is one tenth of a meter).
Starting from a point of known height, the simple addition of the calculated
differences in height gives the height of each point above MSL.
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Trigonometric Heighting are eliminated. By repeating this process in a leap-frog
manner and adding up all the differences in height, the total difference in height
between two very distant points can be calculated. If the first point is a tide gauge
where Mean Sea Level has been measured, all the points will have known heights
above Mean Sea Level.
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Surveying Using GPS
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Longitude and Height) between the two points is calculated with special software.
Many of the uncertainties of GPS positioning are minimized in these
calculations because the distortions in the observations are similar at each end of
the baseline and cancel out.
The accuracy obtained from this method depends on the duration of the
observations, but is typically about 1 part per million (1 millimetre per kilometre)
so a difference in position can be measured over 30 kilometres with an uncertainty
of about 30 mm, or about 100 mm over 100 kilometres. Because the GPS satellites
are in a very high orbit (20,000 km) the ends of the GPS baseline can be hundreds,
or even thousands of kilometres apart and still observe the same satellites.
Although a single baseline from a known position is enough to give the
position at the other end of the baseline, additional GPS baselines to other points
are often measured to give a check on the results and an estimate of the uncertainty
of the calculated position.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadastre
http://www.linz.govt.nz
http://www.icsm.gov.au/mapping/
http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/v4860e/v4860e03.htm
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