yl:office administration

communication is taking place? I will now list

Communication
the different types and ask that you use your
textbooks to assist you to make notes on each.

Visual communication helps to make oral or

HYACINTH TUGMAN workers, but interviewers can use this medium
Contributor to discover much information about a matter by
asking appropriate questions. An interview can
also be used to evaluate performance, select
N MY last lesson, we saw that the work of
Letters – The letter provides a permanent
record of communication between organisations
and between individuals. It is perhaps the most
written communication more effective and
includes charts, graphs, video films, computer
graphics and transparencies.
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

I every office revolves around the information

which flows through it. Information, however,
is of no use unless it is given to the person who
candidates for promotion and get information.

Meetings – These may be formal or informal.

common form of external communication and is
used for a variety of purposes, including making
enquiries, advertising, lodging complaints,
One of the objectives in communication is for
students to be able to select the most
appropriate medium for sending specific
needs it, in a form he or she can understand. So, A formal meeting follows a set procedure in replying to complaints and confirming information. Hence, I will now look at the factors
as we communicate now, I hope you will which the topics to be discussed are set out, for information. to be considered when selecting a medium of
understand. example, in an agenda. An informal meeting is communication.
often unstructured and brief. Meetings are held Memoranda – The memorandum is less
Communication is a two-way process in order to examine important matters to obtain formal than a letter. It is used to communicate Urgency – If the message is urgent, the
between the sender and the receiver. In an office, ideas on issues with a view to reaching information within sections or departments of an communicator has to decide which method will
a message may be sent in order to: decisions on which action can be taken. organisation. The memorandum may be used produce the desired result: The following media
 Give or receive information for: are used for urgent communication:
 Praise Telephone calls – The telephone is used for  Sending suggestions to superiors.  Electronic mail
 Reprimand both internal and external communication.  Clarifying decisions taken.  Telephone
 Reinforce ideas Telephone calls are used for transmitting  Requesting assistance.  Facsimile transmission (fax machine)
 Get ideas information immediately, especially when an  Confirming conversations.
 Enquire instant response is required.  Providing instructions. Cost – A long-distance telephone call is
 Seeking information or advice. usually more costly than a letter. The employee
Whatever the purpose of the communication, who has to communicate with persons in
2. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION different countries should be familiar with the
the sender formulates the message and then Reports – In business, the written report is a
selects the method of communicating it and the Written communication is more formal than formal communication. A report may be a brief different rates for these services offered.
appropriate channel to use. oral communication. It provides the sender of witness of an incident, or a document compiled
the message with a written record. Written after thorough investigation. At times, it is Confidentiality – In business, it is not wise to
The three main methods of communication in communication includes letters, memoranda, necessary to submit factual information on a deal with matters of confidential nature on the
business are oral, written and visual. reports, notices and agenda. problem in the office. A report of this nature is telephone since the conversation may be
considered to be an occasional report. overheard. A letter will best serve this need and
the word CONFIDENTIAL should be marked on
1. ORAL COMMUNICATION both the letter and the envelope.
Notices – Notices are less
This is the most common formal as these are used
form of communication and it internally. For example, the Selecting the appropriate medium/media – In
includes conversations, Human Resource Department selecting the appropriate media, it is necessary
interviews, meetings and may place a notice on a to consider more than one factor. Very often, the
telephone calls. board to inform the staff of choice is between speech and the written word.
vacant positions.
CONVERSATIONS It should be noted that the medium of speech
SERVE THE PURPOSE OF: Agenda – An agenda is a is fast and it facilitates an immediate response,
guide indicating the matters to be but, on the other hand, there is no record of the
 Providing workers and employers with communication.
discussed at a meeting and the order in
information.
which they are to be discussed.
 Clarifying ideas.
 Offering suggestions. ACTIVITY
 Getting immediate reaction to a 3. VISUAL COMMUNICATION In addition to the means of communication
message. I am sure that many of you are listed above, give one other means as well as its
familiar with this kind of advantages and disadvantages.
Interviews – This is more communication, but how
formal and organised. You many of you realise that when Hyacinth Tugman is an independent contributor. Send
may know of the interview questions and comments to
you look at computer
being used to recruit kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
graphics or a chart,

10 YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017

 yl:principles of business
YVONNE HARVEY

Marketing – Part 4
Contributor

ERFECT COMPETITION is at one end of

P the market structure spectrum. At the other

end is monopoly. I will begin with a
definition.

DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES OF

MONOPOLY
A pure monopoly is a market structure where
there is only one firm in the industry, therefore,
the firm is the sole supplier of that good or
service. However, in the case where a firm
controls approximately 20% of a large market, it
is considered a virtual monopoly.

EXAMPLES OF MONOPOLIES IN THE

CARIBBEAN ARE:
 The Jamaica Public Service Company
(JPSCo)
 The National Water Commission (NWC)

CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF
MONOPOLY
1. As indicated in the definition, there is only
one firm in the industry. The importance of this
is that the demand curve for the firm’s good or
service will be relatively inelastic, allowing the
monopolist to exercise his monopolistic power
and restrict quantity, causing prices to rise
substantially. Consumers will either have to pay
the higher price or go without the good or
service altogether.
2. There are strong barriers to entry. A barrier Agriculture Minister Karl Samuda (stooping at right), plants a dwarf June plum tree at the Knockalva Agricultural School
to entry is anything that prevents a firm from in Hanover.
entering an industry in the long run. Barriers to
same good and/or charge different unit prices likely that if the firm was earning supernormal practice, there is no market which can be
entry in this case would include things such as
for successive units bought by a given buyer. profits in the short-run, it will maintain or classified as perfectly competitive, though I did
legal protection and government restrictions.
Those who price discriminate do so in order to continue to earn supernormal profits in the long give examples of a market approaching near
The importance of strong barriers to entry is that
earn increased profits. run. perfection. Where pure monopoly is concerned,
in the long run, new firms will be kept out of the
there are vey few markets that can be classified
industry.
If the firm had been earning subnormal profits as such in reality. Most markets, therefore, lie
3. Monopolies are price makers/fixers; that is, SHORT-RUN EQUILIBRIUM
in the short run, it will leave the industry in the between these two extremes. In other words,
since they face downward-sloping demand It is likely that the monopolist will earn long run and go into an industry where it can most markets are either under monopolistic
curves, they can choose what price to charge. supernormal profits in the short run. Monopoly earn at least normal profits. competition or oligopoly.
However, they are still constrained by the does not necessarily mean supernormal profits:
demand curve in that, having decided on price, some monopolies, at their profit-maximising These two market structures (monopolistic
they must allow the demand curve to determine output, face a situation where average cost (AC) HOMEWORK
competition and oligopoly) will be dealt with in
the quantity. A rise in price will lower the is everywhere above average revenue (AR). Your homework will be the simple task of next week’s lesson. Keep safe until it’s that time
quantity demanded. Thus, they are earning subnormal (less than discussing the advantages and disadvantages of again.
4. The product of the monopolist is unique, normal) profits. the monopoly market structure. Remember, you
therefore, no close substitute for it is being can use economics texts to research this area. Yvonne Harvey is an independent contributor. Send
produced by any other firm. questions and comments to
LONG-RUN EQUILIBRIUM
5. The monopolist may price discriminate; You will recall from our last lesson that, in kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
that is, charge people different prices for the Since there are strong barriers to entry, it is

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017 11

 yl:principles of accounts

Analysing and classifying transactions

ROXANNE WRIGHT SUMMARY OF TRANSACTIONS: WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Contributor
In the columns below, indicate the increase and decrease in
N THIS week’s presentation we will be preparing a new Transactions Account Effect on Account Effect on

I Debited Debit Credited Credit EACH account by placing a tick:

equation, since it would be cumbersome, costly and time-
consuming to use the previous asset = liability + capital after 1. Invested $140000in a Cash Increased Capital Increases
each transaction in an accounting period. A more efficient way is business asset capital
Debit Credit
to classify the transactions according to items in the balance 2. Bought equipment for cash Equipment Increased Cash Decreased
sheet and income statement. The increases and decreases will be asset asset

recorded by a type of item, in summary, known as an account. 3 Bought additional Equipment Increased Accounts Increase
equipment on account asset Payable Liability a. Capital increased
AN ACCOUNT 4 Paid $20000 for supplies Supplies Increased Cash Decreased
asset asset b. Cash decreased
An account is maintained for EACH item that appears in the
5. Received $10000 in fees Increased Fees income Increased
balance sheet as asset, liability and capital, while on the income asset income
statement it will be income and expenditure. An account is c. Increase Accounts Payable
6. Paid $30000 for salaries Salaries Increased Cash Decreased
defined as a record of the increase, decrease and balance in Expenses Expense asset
individual assets, liability and capital, revenue and expense items. d. Increase Rent Expense
7. Paid $50000 for rent Rent Increased Cash Decreased
The simplest form of an account is known as the ‘T’ account Expense asset
Expense
simply because it resembles a ‘T’. It is important to note the ‘T’ e. Equipment increased
account has three parts, as listed below: 8. Withdrew$10000 for Drawings Decreased Cash Decreased
personal use Capital asset
1. The name of the account f. Increase Fees Income
9. Paid $20000 on account Accounts Decreased Cash Decreased
2. The debit side ( left side) Payable Liability asset
3. The credit side (the right side) g. Drawings decreased Capital
10 Paid $30000 for gasoline Gasoline Increased Cash Decreased
Expense Expense asset
Increases are entered on one side and the decreases on the
other side.
THE TRIAL BALANCE SOLUTION FOR WORKED
p EXAMPLE
The diagrams below summarise the rule: At the end of an accounting period, a schedule known as the
trial balance is prepared to compare the total of all debit balance Debit Credit
and the total of all credit balances. This is made possible since
Dr. (Debit side) Asset and Expense (Credit side) Cr. every transaction results in an equal amount of debits and credits Ø
in the ledger. The total of the debit entries MUST equal the total of
the credit entries in the ledger. a. Capital increased Ø
To record an increase always debit To record a decrease always credit b. Cash decreased Ø
The procedure is as given below:
1. List account titles. c. Increase Accounts Payable Ø
Record the balance of EACH account:
d. Increase Rent Expense Ø
a. enter the debit balance in the debit column; and
b. enter the credit balance in credit column e. Equipment increased Ø
f. Increase Fees Income
2. Remember:
i. Asset and expense accounts are debited for increase and would have debit g. Drawings decreased Capital Ø
balances.
Dr. (Debit side) Liabilities, Capital (Credit side) Cr. ii. Liabilities, capital and income accounts are credited for increases and
would have credit balances. This is where we will end for this week. Join me next week as
we continue to complete the syllabus. Grasp the concepts and
To record a decrease always debit To record an increase always credit retain them. You will need them as you progress to excellence.
3. Add the columns and record the totals. See you next week.
4. Compare the totals to be sure they both have the same amount.
Roxanne Wright teaches at Immaculate Academy. Send questions and
comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

12 YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017

 yl:english language
2. The book that Jonathan read is on the

Types of sentences
MELISSA MCKENZIE 6. D Complex – This sentence contains an
shelf.
3. The house which my mother was born in is
still standing.

Each sentence above has what is known as an

Contributor
N THIS week’s lesson, we will focus on types
adjectival clause. Please note that the adjectival
clause has been underlined.
7. D independent clause that is joined by at least one
8. B subordinate/dependent clause. A complex Compound-Complex – A compound-complex
9. B sentence always has a subordinator/

I
sentence contains two or more independent
of sentences. It is important for you to be 10. D subordinating conjunction such as since, after, clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
reminded of these types of sentences so that although, when, while, until, if, because, where,
your own written expression will improve as a We will now explore the different kinds of before or as, or a relative pronoun such as that,
sentences. who, or which. EXAMPLES
result of the variety of sentences that you are
able to produce in extended writing. 1. Although I like to go camping, I haven’t had
the time to go lately, and I haven’t found anyone
TYPES OF SENTENCES INDEPENDENT (MAIN) AND
First, allow me to share the answers to last to go with.
Simple – It has a subject and a verb, and it SUBORDINATE (DEPENDENT) CLAUSES 2. While my father was in the hospital, he quit
week’s activities.
expresses a complete thought. It can also be Every clause has a subject and a verb. An smoking, and he lost several pounds.
referred to as an independent clause. It may independent clause expresses a complete 3. When a person hurries too much, mistakes
ACTIVITY # 1 have a compound subject, a compound thought and, as mentioned earlier, can be are made and accidents can happen.
1. D predicate or both. referred to as a simple sentence. A
2. B subordinate/dependent clause, on the other Compound-complex sentences are very
3. B EXAMPLES hand, can only be a part of a sentence and does common in English, but please ensure that you
4. C not express a complete thought. In the have mastered writing simple, compound and
5. A 1. Some people like to exercise in the sentences below, the independent clause is complex sentences before you attempt them.
6. B evenings. enclosed by brackets and the dependent clause
7. D 2. Lisa and Michael go to the supermarket is underlined. Here is a follow-up activity.
8. C every weekend.
Identify each of the following sentences as
9. C 3. Tim reads and writes for fun.
EXAMPLES simple, compound, complex or compound-
10. B complex.
The three examples above are all simple 1. When he opened the door, (he was
surprised to see his mother). 1. Reading improves written expression.
sentences. Note that sentence 2 contains a
ACTIVITY # 3 2. (The teacher returned the homework) after 2. Tiffany loves to read but Joy prefers to
compound subject (Lisa and Michael), and
she noticed his poor penmanship. dance.
1. Engrossed sentence 3 contains a compound predicate
3. (The students are practising) because they 3. If you doubt your abilities, you will never
2. Temporary (reads and writes for fun).
have a match tomorrow. achieve much.
3. Sullen
4. After they won the match, (the students 4. Edith laughed and jumped happily when
4. Hostility Compound – This sentence contains two
celebrated). she got her CSEC results.
5. Remote independent clauses joined by a
5. (Derek and Jane went to the mall for ice 5. I scheduled a physics class; Joe chose
6. Expert coordinator/coordinating conjunction. The
cream) after they finished studying. biology because he prefers the natural sciences.
7. Oppression coordinators are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (A
6. It is not late so we don’t have to go to bed
8. Incessantly great way to remember these coordinators is by
When a complex sentence begins with a early.
9. Impulse using the mnemonic FANBOYS.) Also, each part
subordinator such as sentences 1 and 4, a 7. Jake and Jack laughed and talked
10. Spasmodically of a compound sentence has its own subject and
comma is needed at the end of the dependent incessantly.
11. Taut predicate. Additionally, except for very short
clause. When the independent clause comes 8. After he completed his assignment, he went
12. Diffidence sentences, coordinators are always preceded by
before the subordinate clause, as seen in to bed.
13. Exorbitant a comma. I tried to write a persuasive essay, and
sentences 2, 3, and 5, no comma is required. If 9. While I was on vacation in Ocho Rios, I
14. Benevolence my friend tried to write a short story. This
a comma is placed before the subordinate experimented with the local cuisine and my
15. Berated sentence can also be joined by a semi-colon.
clauses in sentences 2, 3, and 5, it is wrong. husband visited historical monuments.
Therefore, the position of the comma in the 10. The plan that he has suggested makes no
ACTIVITY # 4 EXAMPLES following sentence is wrong: The students are sense.
1. C 1. Kyle watched the children, so Maria could practising, because they have a match tomorrow.
2. B go shopping. CONTINUED ON PAGE 24
3. C 2. Your singing is good but it could be better.
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES
4. D 3. You are expected to register on Monday, or
1. The woman who called my mother sells
5. A you will not be admitted.
furniture.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017 13

 yl:english literature

‘To Kill a Mockingbird’

BERYL CLARKE
Contributor

LAD YOU have joined me again. The study of literature

G gives us the opportunity to not only learn about other

cultures but also to increase our knowledge of human
nature. This week I invite you go with me, later, on a walk through
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. What is a mockingbird?
This is a question we need to answer right away. A bit of research
into the historical, geographical and cultural background of the
story, in addition, will arm us with knowledge that will help us
greatly as we explore this work. Let me tell you from now, though,
that our only true source of information is the text itself! Once you
find out what a mockingbird is, you must remember it, and then
identify who in our story qualifies as one.

Now we need to ‘talk’ about what a novel is, as this is the first
one on our syllabus that we are tackling. The novel is an extended
narrative. In other words, a long story with several characters.
Some of these characters, including the protagonist, or leading
one, and the antagonist, whether human, animal or situation, can
be properly developed in a long story. The writer decides his
creations’ colour, race, size, level of education, faith, family
background, temperament and, eventually, fate, among other
things. In this way, readers, you can get a full understanding of
these characters and can, therefore, make informed judgements
about them. The novel also allows the author, whose characters
come out of his imagination, to place them in realistic settings or
fantastic situations as he/she chooses.
ELEMENTS OF A NOVEL
 Plot: The plot is the basic foundation on which the story of
the novel is built. It is the combination of events that occur in the
novel and the way they relate to each other. The plot includes
conflict(s), how they come about, between which characters they
exist, what actions and attitudes contribute to their development,
and how they are settled. The author, in ‘plotting’, may also decide
to use devices such as foreshadowing or flashback.
 Characters: Novels must have characters who tell the story
and around whom action is built. As you read a novel, you must
make yourself aware of the charcteristics of each person and
particularly of the leading ones. Are they kind, racist, pleasant,
articulate, religious, hardworking, trustworthy, evil, malicious, and
so on. Please pay attention to how characters interact with each
other, with nature or with children. Decide, too, whether
characters are well developed or flat.
 Setting: The setting is not just where, that is, in what city,
town, village or in what country the story is set. Setting includes
time period. For example, a story set in the 21st century with all
its modern scientific and technological advances must be different
Students of Montego Bay High School delivering the winning performance during the Tourism Song
Competition.
from one set in the 12th century. The climate, as well, affects how
the story moves and affects the characters and their relationships,
and you will, therefore, have to pay attention to the setting of the
novels you will be studying.
 Themes: There are themes in each literary genre. A theme is
an idea that recurs and is apparent throughout a work of literature.
A story, poem or play may and usually does have more than one
theme, with one or more being more prominent than others. Now,
your duty is to identify the main theme, among all the others, see
how it is supported in the novel, and decide whether there is a
link between the title and the theme.
 Point of view: Here we are considering the storyteller(s).
Point of view refers to who tells the story; in other words, from
whose perspective do we get the story? Is it being told by a man
or a woman, a sick or a healthy person, an accused, a child or a
mature person? You have to think about the person’s position and
experience and how these affect what is said. Then there is the
matter of whether the story has a first- or third-person narrator. Is
the narrator part of the action or a fringe character? Is the narrator
trustworthy, making unbiased comments, true observations, or is
the narrator dishonest and biased? There is also the subject of
whether the narrator understands what he/she is saying. These are
matters that you have contemplate.
 Other general elements: Authors employ several techniques
in their works. I know that you can recognise irony and symbols
where they occur. You are not only to be able to know them but,
as with all other devices, to discover the reasons for their
inclusion in the work. You need also to pay attention to style, the
word choice, satire, motif, use of slangs, humour and how it is
created.
When was the last time you read a novel? There are so many
different types and reading is such great fun. There are horror
stories, supernatural, scientific, romantic, historical, mystery,
detective and others. I believe you will enjoy those on your
prescribed list. Finally, I want to share the following with you and
hope that you will think seriously about it.
“Perhaps the most valuable result of education
is your ability to make yourself do the thing you
have to do, when it ought to be done,whether
you like it or not.”
– Walter Bagehot.
Walk tall and God bless!
Beryl Clarke is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

14 YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017


Acid bases and salts
FRANCINE TAYLOR-CAMPBELL
Contributor
1. WHAT ARE ACIDS AND BASES, AND HOW ARE
THEY FORMED?
An acid is a substance which dissolves in water or aqueous
solution to produce H+ ions. An acid is formed when an acid
anhydride (acidic oxide) dissolves in water.
Sulphur trioxide + water = sulphuric acid
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq)
A base is a substance that produces either oxide (O2-) or
hydroxide ions (OH-) to react with the H+ ions in an acid. Bases
are usually the oxides and hydroxides of metals (e.g., sodium
oxide, sodium hydroxide).
Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis (e.g.,
sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide).
Na2O (s) + H2O (l) 2NaOH
NaOH (aq) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
2. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN ACIDIC, BASIC,
AMPHOTERIC AND NEUTRAL OXIDES. GIVE
EXAMPLES.
Non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic oxides (e.g.,
sulphur trioxide and carbon dioxide), while metals react with
oxygen to form basic oxides (sodium oxide and calcium oxide).
Amphoteric oxides show both basic and acidic properties (e.g.,
aluminium oxide and zinc oxide), while neutral oxides show
neither acidic nor basic properties (e.g., carbon monoxide and
nitrogen monoxide).
3. HOW IS THE PH SCALE USED?
The pH of a substance indicates how acidic or basic (alkaline)
its aqueous solution is. The pH scale goes from 0-14, with a pH
less than 7 described as acidic and a pH greater than 7 described
as basic or alkaline.
4. WHAT ARE THE GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
AND BASES?
5. HOW ARE INDICATORS USED TO DISTINGUISH
BETWEEN ACIDS AND BASES?
Indicators are substances which change colour when placed in
acidic or basic solutions. pH paper (litmus) or indicator solutions,
such as methyl orange and phenolphthalein, can determine
whether substances are alkaline or acidic depending on the pH
scale.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017
yl:chemistry
In acid solutions, litmus and methyl orange become red and
phenolphthalein becomes colourless. In basic solutions, litmus
becomes blue, methyl orange is yellow and phenolphthalein is
pink.
6. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF ACIDS?
Acids may be grouped as mineral acids and organic acids.
Mineral acids are formed from inorganic compounds, for
example, hydrochloric and sulphuric acid. Organic acids are
found in living systems, for example, ascorbic acid and citric
acid.
Acids can also be classified based on the number of hydrogen
ions (H+) produced when the acid is ionized (dissolved in water).
This is called the basicity of the acid.
Monobasic acids produce one mole of H+ ion in solution (e.g.,
HCl and CH3COOH (ethanoic acid)).
Dibasic acids produce two moles of H+ ions in solution (e.g.,
H2SO4 and H2CO3). Tribasic acids produce three moles of H+ ions
when ionized (e.g., H3PO4).
HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) - monobasic
H2CO3 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) - dibasic
H3PO4 (aq) 3H+ (aq) + PO43- (aq) - tribasic
7. WHY WOULD A SOLUTION OF HYDROCHLORIC
ACID BE CONSIDERED STRONG WHILE THAT OF
CARBONIC ACID IS SAID TO BE WEAK?
The strength of an acid depends on how completely it ionizes
or breaks up into ions when in solution. Mineral acids such as
hydrochloric, sulphuric and nitric acids completely dissociate in
solution and are called strong acids.
For weak acids, a large number of their molecules remains
undissociated in solution, hence ionization is incomplete. Organic
acids are generally weak (e.g., ethanoic (acetic) acid).
The strength of an acid can be determined based on the
number on the pH scale or the colour obtained in an indicator
solution.
Alkalis can also be strong or weak. NaOH is a strong alkali,
while aqueous ammonia is weak, as it is only slightly dissociated
in aqueous solution.
Francine Taylor-Campbell is an independent contributor. Send questions and
comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
15
 yl:biology

Planning and design – Part 2

MONACIA WILLIAMS
Contributor

“Our greatest weakness lies in giving up. The most certain way to
succeed is always to try just one more time.” – Thomas Edison

AST WEEK, we looked at the requirements for acquiring

L planning and design skills. We also looked at a few ideas

that could be used for practising the skill, and which could
be further developed and carried out as your investigative project.
Please feel free to use or adapt any of these!

This week, I will be sharing with you an actual example of a

planning and design exercise.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
HYPOTHESIS
Plants growing in shaded areas have leaves that have more
chlorophyll than plants growing in open areas.
Holy Trinity High school’s football team coach Devon Anderson (right) makes a demonstration during a
AIM recent training session at the school’s playing field.
To compare the amount of chlorophyll present in leaves 7. Place labelled tubes into the water bath for the same amount
growing in shaded and open areas. of time. Look at the method, notice that it is written in the present
8. After the time has passed, remove from the water bath. tense? This is because, as said before, the method forms the
VARIABLES 9. Use the colorimeter to compare the intensity of the colour in instructions for the experiment that is to be done. Did you notice
both sets of liquid. that every piece of apparatus/material that will be used in the
Manipulated variable: leaves from two plants
10. If no colorimeter is available, hold the tube against the experiment was accounted for in the list of apparatus/materials?
Controlled variables (variables to be held constant): mass of
white paper to compare the intensity of the green colour of both Did you notice also that you will need to do some research
leaves, volume of alcohol.
sets of liquid. because your expected results must be based on scientific facts?

APPARATUS AND MATERIALS
Six leaves from shaded plant, six leaves from plant growing in
open area, graph paper, pencil, mortar and pestle, measuring
cylinder, alcohol, two boiling tubes, water bath, colorimeter, white
paper, timer.
METHOD
1. Use graph paper to measure the surface area of the two sets
of leaves.
2. From the measured leaves, collect equal masses of both sets
of leaves.
3. Use the mortar and pestle to separately grind both sets of
leaves (after grinding the first set of leaves, ensure that the mortar
is properly rinsed and dried before grinding the second set. This
is a precaution.)
4. Label the two boiling tubes ‘open area’, ‘shaded area’.
5. Transfer the ground leaves to the appropriate boiling tube.
6. Add equal amounts of alcohol to each tube.
EXPECTED RESULTS
The leaves taken from the plant grown in the shaded area will
produce a more intense green liquid than the leaves from the
plant in the open. The more intense the colour, the greater the
amount of chlorophyll present and, hence, the leaves of the plant
growing in the shade have more chlorophyll.
ASSUMPTIONS
 All the green colour of the leaves come from chlorophyll.
 The degree of grinding was the same for both sets of leaves.
LIMITATIONS
 The amount of chlorophyll present in the leaves may differ
even among the leaves of the same plant.
 The volume of alcohol chosen to dissolve the chlorophyll
may not have been adequate to dissolve all the chlorophyll for the
mass of leaves used.
Let’s suppose you were asked to design an experiment to
investigate how light intensity affects the pupil of the human eye.
How would you go about doing this? Do you think that you have
been provided with sufficient help to enable you to do this? What
could you write as a limitation? Here are two suggestions:
 The light intensities used were limited by the fact that light
above certain intensity is damaging for the eye.
 It was difficult to measure the diameter of the pupil.
The concept of limitations does require some thought and
practise in order to prevent confusion with sources of error.
Therefore, as you carry out your experiments, always remember to
seek to identify the limitations of your study.
Now, go and practise! See you next week!
Monacia Williams is an independent contributor. Send questions and
comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

16 YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017


Natural systems
WEATHER, CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND
SOIL
FOCUS QUESTION:
 How does the climate impact the
ecosystem?
So far, we have learnt that life forms in
ecosystems compete with one another to
become the most successful at reproducing and
surviving in each niche or environment.
Two main components exist in an ecosystem:
abiotic and biotic.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
The non-living or physico-chemical factors
like:
 Air
 Soil
 Water
 The basic compounds and elements of the
environment.
Abiotic factors are classified broadly under
three categories:
 Climatic factors, including the climatic
regime with physical factors in the environment,
such as light, atmospheric temperature, wind,
humidity.
 Edaphic factors, which relate to the
composition and structure of the soil, like its
chemical and physical properties – such as the
soil type, soil profile, organic matter, minerals,
soil water, and soil organisms.
 Inorganic substances like water, carbon,
sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, and so on.
Organic substances like proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates, humic substances, etc.
Biotic Components consist of the living parts
of the environment which include:
 The populations are those of.
 The animal community.
 The plant community.
 The microbial community.
The biotic community is divided into:
 Autotrophs
 Saprotrophs
 Heterotrophs
Autotrophs are called producers, transducers
or convertors as well.
Autotrophs form the core of all biotic
systems.
Now, climate is an important environmental
influence on ecosystems, so let’s look closer.
Changing climate affects ecosystems in a
variety of ways:
 Warming may force species to migrate to
higher latitudes or higher elevations where
temperatures are more conducive to their
survival.
 As sea level rises, saltwater intrusion into
a freshwater system may force some key species
to relocate or die, thus removing predators or
prey that are critical in the existing food chain.
The two most important climatic factors for
ecosystems are sunlight and water.
SUNLIGHT
 Is necessary for plants to grow.
 Provides energy to warm the earth’s
atmosphere.
 Controls plant growth via light intensity.
 Affects plant flowering and animal/insect
habits through light duration.
All living organisms require some amount of
water.
 Organisms in dry ecosystems are adapted
to the conditions by storing water for use over
long periods or becoming less active. At the
other maximum, some plants and animals only
survive by being submersed in water.
IN THE LAST 100 YEARS:
 Average global temperature has increased
by 0.74°C.
 Rainfall patterns have changed.
 The frequency of extreme events increased.
Change has not been uniform on either a
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017
spatial or temporal scale, and the range of
change in terms of climate and weather has also
been variable.
Change in climate has consequences on the
biophysical environment, such as:
 Changes in the start and length of the
seasons.
 Glacial retreat.
 Decrease in Arctic Sea ice extent.
 A rise in sea level.
These changes have already had an
observable impact on
1. Biodiversity at the species level in term of
 Phenology
 Distribution & populations
2. Ecosystem level in terms of
 Distribution
 Composition & function
Many changes have been reported in the
distribution of species.
In general, many species have expanded their
ranges:
 Poleward in latitude.
 Upward in elevation.
Populations of many species have declined,
and although in some cases climate change is
believed to have contributed to the decline,
attributing this is fraught with difficulty as it is
likely to be only one driver amongst many.
At the species level, changes observed that
can be attributed to climate change involve
those surrounding phenology (the timing of
events).
Many birds and insects are showing changes.
 Earlier onset of migration.
 Egg-laying.
 Breeding.
In terms of ecosystems, there has been some
evidence on changes in distribution:
 Desert ecosystems have expanded.
 Tree lines in mountain systems have
changed.
yl:geography
Changes in the composition of ecosystems
have also been observed.
 Increased lianas in tropical forest.
These changes may affect ecosystem function
and the ecosystem services they provide.
Changes in biodiversity and ecosystem
services due to climate change are not all
negative, with some species either thriving or
adapting.
Future projected changes in climate are much
larger.
 Approximately 10% of species assessed
so far will be at an increasingly high risk of
extinction for every 1°C rise in global mean
temperature.
 Aquatic freshwater habitats and wetlands,
mangroves, coral reefs, arctic and alpine
ecosystems, and cloud forests are particularly
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
 Montane species and endemic species
have been identified as being particularly
vulnerable because of narrow geographic and
climatic ranges, limited dispersal opportunities,
and the degree of non-climate pressures.
 Potential impacts of climate change on
genetic diversity are little understood, though it
is thought that genetic diversity will increase the
resilience of species to climate change.
The study of the potential impact of climate
change on species indicates:
 Poleward shifts.
 Changes in altitude.
 Range expansions or contractions
corroborating the current evidence in the most
part.
The studies highlight the individualistic
nature of species’ responses to climate change,
which is likely to have a large impact on
 Future composition of ecosystems.
 Structure of ecosystems that may also
change.
 The ecosystem functions.
1. For example, increases in net primary
production in northern Europe but decreases in
areas where water is a limiting resource.
2. Changes in productivity are likely to
change services such as nutrient cycling due to
changes in litter fall.
Other potential changes to ecosystem
CONTINUED ON PAGE 24
17

The economic revolution
DEBBION HYMAN
Contributor
THE SHIFT FROM TOBACCO TO SUGAR PRODUCTION
& ITS CONSEQUENCES
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define the phrase ‘sugar revolution’.
2. Discuss three reasons for the change from tobacco
cultivation to sugar cultivation.
3. Describe one social, one economic and one political change
that accompanied the transition from tobacco cultivation to sugar
cultivation.
RICARDO MAKYN/MULTIMEDIA PHOTO EDITOR
Wolmer’s player Ramone Lewis moves away from
Tivoli High’s Rohan Brown and Wyan Nicholson
during their recent Manning Cup encounter at
Wolmer’s. Akeem Virgo netted in the 48th minute,
handing Wolmer’s the top spot with 25 points in
Group A, ahead of Tivoli, 21, in the ISSA/FLOW
Manning Cup.
18
The colonised British Caribbean experienced the sugar
revolution beginning in the 1600s. With the decimation of the
indigenous population and the difficulties with European bonded
workers, European planters sought a new source of labour for
their agricultural goods. The end result was the use of Africans as
chattel slaves. There are two schools of thought as to why the
Africans were used as chattel in the Americas. The first centred on
the fact that they could be sourced quite cheaply and their labour
was easily accessible. You can tie into this assertion as well the
fact that slavery was already practised in several African societies.
One commodity traded in the trans-Saharan trade was slaves.
Slavery was punishment for debt or crime, or the result of inter-
tribal war. However, West African slavery, prior to the arrival of
Europeans, was relatively mild, disorganised and localised.
The other school of thought centred on the pigmentation of the
Africans. The Africans, due to their darker hue, were viewed as
subservient. Additionally, their customs, whether food, dance,
languages, music, religious practices, differed significantly from
the Europeans. This ‘un-European-ness’ made them ‘ideal’
candidates for servitude in the same measure that this
‘Europeanising’ them was done to the indigenous peoples of the
Americas. Thus, there is the economic or the racial argument
purported for the enslavement of Africans in the Caribbean.
THE SUGAR REVOLUTION
The ‘sugar revolution’ refers to the large-scale shift from
tobacco to sugar cane cultivation occurring by the mid-1600s.
The revolution began in the English islands of St Kitts and
Barbados, and the French islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique.
THE SHIFT FROM TOBACCO PRODUCTION TO SUGAR
CANE PRODUCTION
Early European settlers experimented with crops and products
such as cotton, coffee, indigo and spices. By the mid-16th
Century, however, tobacco had become the chief crop in many of
the islands. Tobacco became the chief crop as it was (a) an ideal
export crop, since it was not bulky, and (b) it was in great demand
in Europe. However, there would be a decline in demand for the
product and Caribbean planters needed to find a more feasible
crop. These reasons combined were responsible for the
introduction of sugar cane as a ‘replacement’ crop for Caribbean
planters. They included:
 Growing unprofitability of Caribbean tobacco. In Virginia
(British North American colony), John Rolfe mixed several strains
of tobacco to create a more potent form. The demand for the
product grew, leading to a decline in the need for the Caribbean
product.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017
yl:history
 Growing demand for a cheap, alternative sweetener. Since
there was the increased popularity of tea and coffee drinking in
Europe, there was an increase in the need for confectioneries.
Sugar was a cheap alternative to the more expensive honey which
was the popular sweetener at the time.
 The commercial viability of sugar. There were many advantages
to selling sugar as it was: (a) not too bulky, (b) it could be transported
in small ships, and (c) it was not a perishable product.
CONSEQUENCES OF THE SUGAR REVOLUTION
There were several fundamental changes in the Caribbean as a
result of the sugar revolution. The changes were extensive and
far-reaching. They profoundly affected the economic conditions,
the social structure and the political organisation of the islands.
They included:
1. There was a dramatic shift in the racial demographic of the
Caribbean islands. Before the sugar revolution, the population of
the islands was predominantly white. It comprised many
Europeans who had worked as indentured servants (the French
referred to them as engagés) on the tobacco holdings. However,
with the introduction of sugar cultivation and the increased
demand for workers, enslaved Africans were used on the
Caribbean plantations. Thus, the racial composition shifted from
being majority white to a majority black (enslaved Africans)
population.
2. There was the dramatic increase in the size of Caribbean
landholdings. Before the sugar revolution, many farmers
produced tobacco, which could have been done on a small parcel
of land. However, sugar cane production was different as large
lands were needed to undertake its processing – sugar required
expensive buildings, livestock and machinery, and large
quantities of land for production. For optimum usage of the large
investments in expensive factory equipment, a large supply of raw
cane was necessary. With the increase in the size of landholdings,
this meant that many smallholders’ lands were condensed and the
amount of landholdings in the various Caribbean islands declined
dramatically.
3. The system of government changed from proprietorship to
representative system. Under proprietorship government, an
individual or group was granted full rights of self-government.
The new system – representative government – differed
dramatically as there was the introduction of a governor,
appointed by the British government, who administered the
colony with officials appointed by him (the governor). This meant
that the British government had a direct influence on governance
in the various colonies.
Debbion Hyman is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments
to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

Social issues worth solving
MAUREEN CAMPBELL
Contributor
“Why should we study social problems/issues?
People should study social problems/issues to
attempt to learn about how to prevent or correct
the perceived social problem/issue. It is equally
important to promote the education of social
problems/issues in a way that encourages
people, communities and governments to work
together rather than point blame.”
– Ashley Aubrey
OBJECTIVE
Formulate strategies for dealing with
contemporary social issues that influence
Caribbean family life.
SUBSTANCE ABUSE
While it’s practically impossible to prevent
anyone and everyone from using drugs, there
are things we can all do to avoid drug and/or
alcohol abuse. By sharing this knowledge with
those closest to you, you may be able to prevent
them from doing drugs.
1. Effectively deal with peer pressure. The
biggest reason teens start using drugs is
because their friends utilise peer pressure. No
one likes to be left out, and many individuals
find themselves doing things they normally
wouldn’t do, just to fit in.
2. Deal with life pressure. People today are
overworked; they feel underpaid and weighed
down, and often feel like a good break or a
reward is deserved. In the end, however, drugs
only make life more stressful and in most cases,
many of us all too often fail to recognise this
until it becomes too late.
3. Seek help for mental illness. It is believed
that many cases of mental illness and substance
abuse often go together. Those with a mental
illness may turn to drugs to ease the pain.
4. Keep a well-balanced life. People take up
drugs when something in their life is not
working, or when they’re unhappy about their
lives, or where their lives are going. Get
counselling and choose your friends wisely.
Keep thinking drugs is not the answer, and find
an answer that will last a lifetime, not for the
moment.
JUVENILE DELINQUENT
A juvenile delinquent is born when a juvenile
(someone under the age of 18) commits an act
that would be criminal if committed by an adult.
Delinquent acts may include crimes against
persons, crimes against property, drug offences,
and crimes against public order. The task is to
put forward delinquency-prevention efforts
which seek to redirect youth who are considered
at risk for delinquency, or prevent those who
have committed a delinquent offence from
deeper involvement in the juvenile justice
system.
WHAT CAN WE DO?
1. Establish a one-to-one mentoring
programme that takes place in a community
setting. Provide at-risk youth with positive and
consistent adult or older peer contact to promote
healthy development and functioning by
reducing risk factors.
2. Aim to reduce bullying and victimization in
school settings, as this seems to be where many
delinquents emerge.
3. Put in place deterrence-oriented
programmes that involve organised visits to
adult prison facilities for juvenile delinquents
and youth at risk, as this may prevent many from
becoming delinquent.
4. Set up juvenile boot camps, also called
shock or intensive incarceration programmes,
which are short-term residential programmes
that resemble military basic training facilities
and target adjudicated juvenile offenders; it
seems to work to an extent.
5. Organise mass media campaigns
concentrated on preventing, reducing or
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017
stopping the illicit drug use of young people
because, it is argued, that initiation of substance
use typically begins during adolescence or
young adulthood.
In addition, the following may be
implemented in our schools:
 Classroom and behaviour management
programmes.
 Social competence promotion
curriculums.
 Conflict resolution and violence prevention
curriculums.
 After-school recreation programmes.
 Mentoring programmes.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are
infections that can be transmitted through sexual
contact with an infected individual. These are
also termed sexually transmitted infections, or
STIs. STDs can be transmitted during vaginal or
other types of sexual intercourse, including oral
and anal sex.
The primary prevention strategy/aim is to
prevent the acquisition of infection and disease.
This can be done by promoting abstinence, safer
sexual behaviour, and the use of condoms for
penetrative sexual acts. We live in a world where
people in many cases tend to live on the edge,
do the things they should not do, and take
chances. Individuals may want to but as
humanitarians, we cannot leave them up to their
whims and fancies, so we do the following:
 Inform that many STDs can be treated and cured.
 Inform that early treatment is necessary to
avoid complications and permanent damage.
 Inform that symptoms and signs may not
be noticed, particularly in women, until
complications appear.
 Give needed description of recognizable
signs and symptoms.
 Inform and encourage people to visit
places where STD advice may be obtained (i.e.,
basic health-care services) and, where available,
STD clinics and voluntary counselling centres
may be found.
 Give individuals the assurance that
yl:social studies
wherever services are obtained in the public
sector, privacy, confidentiality and respect are
guaranteed.
CHILD ABUSE
Child abuse is defined in the Children, Young
Persons and their Families Act as
“The harming, whether physically,
emotionally or sexually, ill-treatment, abuse,
neglect or deprivation of any child or young
person.” This child ill-treatment is a serious
problem that can have lasting, damaging effects
on victims.
 The objective for child maltreatment
prevention is clear: to stop child abuse and
neglect from happening.
 Child abuse is a complex problem rooted
in unwholesome relationships and
environments. Safe, stable and nurturing
relationships and environments for all children
and families can prevent child abuse.
 We can stop child abuse and neglect from
occurring by reducing the risk of it happening
and increasing the factors that protect children,
such as enforce stringent laws.
 This prevention of child maltreatment
entails influencing individual behaviours,
relationships among families and neighbours,
community involvement, and the culture of a
society.
 Prevention strategies include effective
programmes that focus on individual behaviour
and attitude change, and also efforts that change
policies and societal norms to create
environments that support safe, stable, nurturing
relationships for children and families.
“We need to implement effective prevention
strategies to stop child abuse and neglect before
it happens and to foster commitment to social
change.”
Explain the statement above. Using the
statement, suggest THREE reasons for child
abuse, then state and explain THREE strategies
that may be used to reduce child abuse in the
Caribbean.
Maureen Campbell is an independent contributor? Send
questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
19

Hardware specification
NATALEE A. JOHNSON
Contributor
OOD DAY, students. This is lesson seven
G
in our series of lessons. In this week’s
lesson, we will be looking at hardware
specifications and terms associated with storage
devices. At the end of this lesson, you will be
able to define key terms associated with storage,
such as tracks and sectors; identify different
storage capacities of a hard drive or main
memory (RAM); and determine the speed of a
given processor.
Whenever you decide to buy a new cell
phone, laptop or even a desktop computer, one
of the first things you will consider and will ask
the sales clerk is: What are the specs? In other
words, you will ask about the storage capacity,
memory size and speed of the processor.
THE PROCESSOR
The processor is measured by its clock speed
in megahertz (MHz) or, most recently, in
gigahertz (GHz). The faster the clock speed of
the processor, the faster is the execution of an
instruction, task or command you give the
computer. Examples are shown below of a few
processors and their respective speeds.
 Intel (R) Pentium (R) CPU B970
@ 2.30GHz
 Pentium 4 processor 540 w/HT technology
@ 2.8GHz
 AMD FX 4-Core Black Edition @ 3.8GHz
MEMORY
When we refer to random access
memory/main memory, we do not necessarily
speak about what speed it is measured in, but
rather about its size. The size of RAM can be
measured in megabytes (MB) and gigabytes
(GB). There are two main types of RAM:
dynamic RAM (DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM)
but you may also see a combination called
SDRAM. Similar to the processor’s clock speed,
it is better to have more memory as the better
the memory, the better the performance of your
20
computer. Examples are shown below of three
types of memory and their respective sizes.
 2GB DDR 2
 4GB DDR3 SDRAM
 8GB DDR4
Note: DDR means Double/Dual Data Rate
HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)
In comparison to RAM, main memory
processing speed is faster than the hard drive.
Information is generally swapped between main
memory and the hard drive. The size of a hard
drive is measured in gigabytes (GB) and more
recently in terabytes (TB), and the larger the
hard drive capacity, the more data and
information can be stored.
Access time for the HDD is measured in
milliseconds (ms) and its speed, which is the
revolutions per minute (RPM), ranges from
5400 to 12000RPM. The two main types of hard
disk drives are IDE hard drives and the SATA
hard disk drive, which is determined by the
device interface cable used. The hard drive you
are likely to purchase now is the SATA hard disk
drive. Examples of hard disk drives and their
respective sizes are shown below.
 500GB SATA hard disk drive (5400RPM)
 3.0TB SATA hard disk drive (10000RPM)
Let us now look at some key terms associated
with storage devices.
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH STORAGE
DEVICES
Before we look at the terms associated with
storage devices, let us first look at how data is
stored on a diskette.
Data is recorded on a thin circular plastic
disk, coated with magnetic material. Like other
magnetic disks, the diskette must be formatted
(prepared) or divided into areas (tracks and
sectors) before data can be read or written to it.
Without formatting, there would be no way to
know what data went with what. Thus, in
formatting your diskette, your files can be placed
in an organised fashion.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017
yl:information technology
TERMS reduces the time needed to access records in a
particular sector on a track.
 Track – A track is a concentric circle on the
disk where data is stored. On a diskette there are
80 tracks on each surface top and bottom. The
blue-shaded portion of Figure 1 shown below is
an example of a track.
 Sector – A sector is a pie-shaped part of a
track. Data is recorded along a track within a
sector. Each track sector is identified by a
unique address so that every recording location
can be identified.
 Cluster – A cluster is a set of track sectors,
ranging from 2 to 32 or more, depending on the
formatting scheme used.
 Cylinder – A cylinder is similar tracks on a
platter of disk.
Figure 2
Below is a diagram (Figure 1) to illustrate
some of the terms defined above.
7UDFN
6HFWRU
2QH3LHVKDSHG
7UDFN 6HFWRU
Inside the Hard Disk Drive
 Access time – After formatting the disk, the
read/write heads need to access the stored data
 Read/Write head – This is a device that in as short a time as possible. Heads are
reads data from and writes data on to a storage mounted on access arms that are positioned
media. (You were introduced to this term in the between the platters. The access time of a
previous lesson but it is now being highlighted read/write head depends on the following:
as one of the key terms associated with storage  Seek time – The time taken to move the
devices.) head to the particular track.
 Movable-heads disk drive – These are disk  Rotational delay – The time it takes the
drives that have one read/write head for each disk to rotate to the particular sector.
surface. The access arms move in and out in We have come to the end of this lesson. See
order to access the desired track. you next week. Remember, if you fail to prepare,
 Fixed-head hisk drive – These are disk you prepare to fail.
drives that have one read/write head per track.
Natalee A. Johnson teaches at Ardenne High School.
Therefore, if a disk pack has 10 tracks, then each
Send questions and comments to
surface would have 10 read/write heads. This kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

Revision
CLEMENT RADCLIFFE
Contributor
E WILL continue to review some basic
W topics which should not provide
challenges for grade-11 students. It is
important to develop the skill of showing
working. This skill includes presenting the
important steps in logical order.
The following is the solution to the homework
given last week.
1. $750,000 is divided among three
daughters in the ratio 5:8:2, respectively.
Calculate the amount each received.
SOLUTION
As $750,000 is divided in the ratio 5:8:2, then
the total is represented by 5 + 8 + 2 = 15,
therefore, the respective fractions are 5/15 = 1/3,
8/15 and 2/15.
THE ANSWERS ARE:
(a 1/3 x $750,000 = $250,000
(b) 8/15 x $750,000 = $400,000
(c) 2/15 x $750,000 = $100,000
It is always a good practice that in cases, as
above, where the total is known, we should
check the answer. In this case, $250,000 +
$400,000 + $100,000 = $750,000
2. Find the following numbers correct to two
decimal places.
a) 4.0287 b) 0.055 c) 6.99933
SOLUTION
(a) 4.0287 = 4.03 (b) 0.055 = 0.06 (c)
6.99933 = 7.00
POINTS TO NOTE:
 In a) 1 is added to 2 as 8, the value
holding the third place, is greater than or equal
to 5.
 In b) the method directs that the zero after
the decimal point is counted in the number of
decimal places.
 Your answer always has two digits after the
decimal point.
3. Divide 56 by 13. Give your answer correct
to three decimal places.
SOLUTION
56 ÷ 13 = 4.30769. The answer to three
decimal places is therefore 4.308
4. Express the number 15.7064 correct to the
number of significant figures stated below.
a) 3 b) 1 c) 2
SOLUTION
a) 15.7 (b) 20 (c) 16
NB: Some students are inclined to give the
answer to (b) as 2. The reason is that while 2 is
correct to one significant figure, you should
always note that 2 is not an approximation of
15.7064. It is clear that 20 is. You should always
check that the number and the answer are
approximately equal. Note also that in
significant figures, the zero(s) before the
decimal point is not counted.
5. Express 493.3785 in scientific notation.
SOLUTION
4.93 x 102
You should, when possible, expand to verify
that your answer is correct. In this case, 4.93 x 102
= 4.93 x 100 = 493, which is approximately
equal to 493.3785.
We will complete this lesson by reviewing a
very interesting area, ALGEBRA.
The important areas which will be considered
for the syllabus content are:
 Apply the distributive law to factorising or
expanding algebraic expressions.
 Simplify algebraic fractions.
 Solve linear equations in one unknown.
 Change the subject of formulae.
 Solve a simple linear inequality in one
unknown.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017
 Solve simultaneous linear equations in two
unknowns algebraically.
 Factorise algebraic expressions, for
example, a2 - b2, a2 ± 2ab + b2, ax + bx +ay + by
and ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are integers
and a ≠ 0.
Students, you will recall that many of these
topics were done in the lower forms and are not
usually effectively revised. I must, again, remind
you of the need to include these in your revision
syllabus.
PRODUCT
The product of a x (p + q) is found by
multiplying a by each term in the bracket and
adding both products.
a x ( p + q) = ap + aq
EXPANDING TWO BRACKETS
The product of (a + b) (x + y) is found by
multiplying each term in the first bracket by the
terms in the second, and then adding the four
products. This is the way to do it.
(a + b) (x + y) = ax + ay + bx + by
As usual, we will look at some examples.
EXAMPLE 1
Expand 3x x (4x + 3y)
SOLUTION
3x x ( 4x + y) = 3x x 4x + 3x x y = 12x2 + 3xy
NB : The 3x must multiply both terms in the
bracket.
Also, I am sure you agree that 2a x ( 3n - 2m)
= 6an - 4am.
And do you agree that 2x(x + 5) - 3(x - 4) =
2x2 + 10x - 3x + 12
= 2x2 + 7x + 12?
EXAMPLE 2
Evaluate (4x -1) (x + 3)
SOLUTION
(4x - 1) (x +3) = 4x2 - x + 12x - 3 = 4x2 + 11x - 3
Answer = 4x2 + 11x - 3
Here are a few common errors that some
students make:
1. Some students ignore the negative sign, if
there is one.
2. Some students do an incorrect addition of
the products.
Please avoid the common error of saying
yl:mathematics
either 3 x -1 = 3 or -1 x x = x. Avoid this.
EXAMPLE 3
(3m - 2)2 =
(a) 3m2 - 2 (b) 9m2 + 4 (c) 9m2 - 12m + 4 (d)
9m2 - 12m - 4
SOLUTION
(3m - 2)2 = (3m - 2)(3m - 2)
= 9m2 - 6m - 6m + 4 = 9m? - 12m + 4.
The answer is (c).
Please proceed to practise some on your own.
PRACTICE
Expand the following: i) 5y (3y - 7)
ii) ( 2M - 5N) ( M + 3N) iii) (3x2 - 5)2
We will now continue this lesson by
reviewing ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS.
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
The method of simplifying algebraic fractions
is similar to that used for vulgar fractions. This
is also true for addition or subtraction of
algebraic fractions. It follows, then that you must
know the method used to find least common
multiple (LCM).
For example:
 The LCM of 3, 4 and 6 is 12.
That is, 12 is the smallest number for which
2, 4, and 6 are factors.
 LCM of 2, 3 and 5 is 30.
As 2, 3 and 5 are prime factors, then the LCM
is the product of all three numbers.
 LCM of 3 and 7 is 21, while 3, 6 and 5 is
30 (3 is a factor of 6 so the LCM is 6 x 5 and not
the product of 3, 6 and 5). Please note the
pattern well.
EXAMPLE 1
Simplify 2a/3 + a/6 . As the LCM of 3 and 6 is
6 then converting 2a/3 to 4a/6,
The sum = 4a/6 + a/6 = 5a/6
Answer is 5a/6
Alternatively: 2a/3 + a/6
2x2a + 1xa /6 = 4a + a /6 = 5a/6
EXAMPLE 2
Simplify 1 - b /b - 3 + b /4b
CONTINUED ON PAGE 24
21
 yl:communication studies

Verbal communication – Part 2

TRUDI MORRISON
Contributor

AST WEEK, we explored the characteristics

L of language. This week, we will look at the

main purposes of language.

Language serves a variety of purposes or

functions. Some of which are:

THE INFORMATIVE PURPOSE

This refers to the fact that language is used to
inform or to communicate. Language, therefore,
is used to communicate ideas, feelings and
general information in order to inform. Examples
of language being used to inform are textbooks,
legal documents, news reports, this
communication studies lesson, et cetera.

THE EXPRESSIVE PURPOSE

This is also referred to as the reflective
purpose. This facilitates the expression of
emotions, as one can use language to vent and
to share feelings through both speech and
writing. It may take the form of poems, songs,
stories, plays, and so on. This is why that
creative section of your internal assessment is
called the ‘Reflective Section’. Please bear in
mind that in addition to expressing feelings,
language used in this way can also evoke
feelings in others. You write a poem to your
favourite relative telling him/her why he/she is
your favourite and you gush out sentiments of
love and admiration. Your relative may express
to you how the poem made him/her feel and
also express that the feeling is mutual.
THE DIRECTIVE PURPOSE
When language is used to give direct
commands or instructions or make requests,
that’s the directive purpose at work. It can also
be used to provoke responses from persons,
such as in political debates and church
sermons. This form of directive language use is
also called the cognitive function of language.
THE SOCIAL PURPOSE
Language is often used to facilitate social
Students of Clarendon College display products made from recycled material during the Tourism Action Club Youth
Forum on September 27.
interactions, so daily greetings of ‘Good
morning’, ‘What a lovely day it is today’ and so
forth can be considered ‘conversation starters’.
Although a response is not necessary, it may
just be the opening you need to start interacting
with someone. This is also referred to as the
phatic purpose of language.
THE IDENTIFYING PURPOSE
Ever notice how your ears perk up when you
have travelled far overseas and you hear that
familiar Jamaican talk? Very often, it is more
than just the accent; we Jamaicans have an
absolutely unique way of expressing ourselves.
We immediately identify the speaker as being
‘one of our own’ by virtue of his/her speech.
This describes the identifying function of
language. Language can help to reinforce our
sense of belonging, not just to a country, but
also to social groups. Teenagers use language
differently from many adults, yuh zi me? Based
on the way I write these articles, you may be
able to make a guess about just how far I am
from my teenage years. LOL! Slogans, anthems,
chants, et cetera, also help to identify you as
belonging to certain groups.
THE RITUAL PURPOSE
Certain rituals, traditions, ceremonies and
religious practices make use of particular words,
phrases and chants for conducting the various
observances. This use of language helps to
maintain order and structure. Examples of this
include the Lord’s Prayer, The Apostle’s Creed,
popular Psalms and such like.
Please note that language use is a very
dynamic thing and, therefore, it is very unlikely
that one purpose would operate in isolation of
CONTRIBUTED PHOTO
all others. They tend to overlap, but usually one
is more dominant than the other(s).
SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT
 Based on Sean’s response, identify one
function of language.
 List THREE functions of language, other
than the social function, and list an occasion
when EACH of these functions of language
would be used.
Thanks for the feedback! Keep ‘em coming!!!
Next week, we will look at types of discourse.
Trudi Morrison teaches at The Queen’s School. Send
questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

22 YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017


Caribbean society and culture
MIGRATORY MOVEMENT AND
SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE
CARIBBEAN – PART A
HE CARIBBEAN we have come to know
T
today is a region that has been marked by
a similar historical experience which
ranges from occupation by the indigenous
peoples in the Greater and Lesser Antilles to the
coming of European powers Spain, England,
Holland and French, and the plight and fight for
freedom.
In this lesson, we will:
1. Assess the reasons for the settlement
patterns of the Amerindians in Mesoamerica.
2. Evaluate the conditions that facilitated the
movement of people from within or outside the
Caribbean region.
3. Describe the systems of productions within
the Caribbean that have been implemented by
the Amerindians and Europeans.
MIGRATION AND SETTLEMENT
PATTERNS
Migration refers to the movement of people
from one region to another. The nomadic
Amerindians, often referred to as the Indigenous
Peoples, migrated from Asia to settle in North,
Central and South America. Being nomads, they
moved about in groups or tribes, searching for
food and pasture lands for their herds in the face
of harsh winters.
When the world experienced the last Ice Age,
large sections of the earth, including land, seas
and oceans, were covered with ice. The
mongoloid peoples of East Central Asia
migrated from their homeland across the Bering
Strait (narrow land bridge) which connects
Siberia with Alaska in North America.
The indigenous peoples migrated and settled
in North, Central and South America. Nomadic
tribes like the Sioux, Cherokee Indians and
Eskimos settled in North America, and the
Mayans settled in countries of Central America.
The Tainos and Kalinagos migrated further south
in the Caribbean to the Greater and Lesser
Antilles. As a result of all this, distinct patterns
of settlement emerged among the indigenes. The
Mayans established city-states, while the Tainos
and Kalinagos did not develop beyond the
village stage with rudimentary (basic) social and
political structures.
THE EUROPEANS
At the time of the Age of Exploration, the
Europeans, namely England, Spain,
Holland/Netherland and France, were in a quest
to establish their empire. It is believed that the
first set of Europeans who came were the
Spanish in 1492, who established colonies in
different areas of the Caribbean. The French,
English and Dutch became interlopers in the
monopoly that Spain had of the New World, in
particular the Caribbean. The English, Spanish
and French settled on islands and established
plantations, employing enslaved labour. The
Dutch, however, who were traders, did not erect
plantations except for salt ponds in Punta De
Araya, off the coast of Venezuela, and used
Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao (ABC islands) as
their base and warehouses to carry out their
trade with the mainland.
THE AFRICANS
The Africans were brought to the Caribbean
as slaves to work on sugar plantations when
Caribbean tobacco farmers had failed to
compete with Virginian tobacco farms. Honey
was an expensive commodity in Europe, hence
there was the need for a new sweetener. Sugar
was chosen as the new sweetener because it was
much cheaper to produce. The Europeans who
had established plantations in the Caribbean,
turned to Africa to find a suitable source of
labour for the production of sugar, since the
indentured Europeans were not suitable to
produce sugar. The African presence in the
Caribbean brought about a dramatic change in
the Caribbean society. It heralded a new class
structure, racial composition and division of
labour.
The Europeans did everything in their power
to try to alienate the Africans from their cultural
identity by giving them new names,
implementing laws forbidding religious worship,
and scattering the different cultures. Despite all
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017
their efforts, the Africans held on and preserved
many of their African cultural forms, namely:
 Religious practices – Obeah, voodoo,
shango
 Folk medicine – Use of herbs and bushes
as medicine.
 Music – Drumming, use of tambarines,
rattles, call-and-answer style of singing.
 Foods – Yam, cocoa, asham, fu-fu,
duckoonoo.
 Language – Creation of Creole as a result
of the merger of English and African dialect
(nyam, su-su, kas-kas, bafan).
 Festivals and celebrations – Nine-nights,
dinki mini, yam festivals and Jonkonnu.
THE ASIANS
The Asians came after 1838 in an attempt to
solve the labour shortage on Caribbean
plantations, seing that the English Caribbean
had just received full freedom from slavery. This
caused a mass exodus from plantations. The
Indians’ presence in the Caribbean added to the
vast array of cultures the Caribbean now boast.
They brought their food (rice and pak choi),
dress (sari), festivals (Divali, Hosay, etc.),
language, lifestyle practices, music, dance,
religious beliefs (Hinduism and Muslim), etc.
The East Indians came in large numbers, with
over 400,000 from different castes. For some,
work on the plantation was a form of
oppression, hence, as soon as their contracts
expired, they left the plantation to set up
businesses. The Chinese came in small groups;
they lacked the skills necessary to work the
plantations, although they were hard workers. At
the end of their contract period, they left the
plantations to set up wholesale outlets and shops.
EMIGRATION WITHIN THE CARIBBEAN
1. Free villages established as a result of a
mass exodus of ex-slaves after 1838.
2. Caribbean nationals moved to countries in
Central America to work on the Venezuelan oil
fields, the Panama Canal and to construct
railways. They even went to work on banana
plantations in Nicaragua. Caribbean nationals
also emigrated to work on sugar plantations in
Cuba. Some went to Bermuda to become
yl:caribbean studies
domestic workers, while others went to Trinidad
because of high wages that were being offered.
EMIGRATION OUTSIDE OF THE
CARIBBEAN
1. Caribbean nationals immigrated to England
to secure wartime jobs. They also helped in
reconstructing the ruins from the war –
specifically the postal services, construction,
nursing transport.
2. Some nationals also migrated to the USA
to fill the void in labour as a result of WWII.
IMPACT OF MIGRATION ON THE REGION
1. Creation of a multiracial society.
2. New systems of government were
introduced.
3. Opened the Caribbean to Europe, Africa,
Asia and the American continents.
4. Introduction of new languages.
5. Introduction of new religious beliefs.
IMPACT OF EMIGRATION ON THE
REGION
1. Brain drain.
2. Unemployment levels lowered.
3. There is no direct benefit from investment
made in human resources.
4. Governments spend additionally to replace
lost skills.
5. The pressure placed on limited social
service (education, health, housing) is lowered.
SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION
SLASH AND BURN
Used by the indigenous people to clear the land.
ENCOMIENDA
Implemented by the Spanish, Amerindians
had to work gold mines, ranches or on farms in
exchange for food, housing, Christian teaching,
clothes and protection from their encomendero.
SLAVERY
Introduced by the English, Africans were
CONTINUED ON PAGE 24
23

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 13
11. Before you jump to the wrong conclusions, you need to get
all the facts.
12. You will not gain entry until you can provide the password.
13. Timothy has never been the same since he won the super
lottery.
yl:english language
14. He visited Milk River so he could soak his aching joints. Vocabulary Top-Up:
15. Christmas is a time for family and fellowship. Garrulous – Talkative
Genial – Friendly, amicable
In next week’s lesson, I will give you the answers. Revise the Grim – Feeling worried and unhappy (grim future)
types of sentences that I just shared and do all you can to
produce these in your own writing. Be good! Melissa McKenzie teaches at Old Harbour High School. Send questions and
comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

yl: geography yl: mathematics

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 21 = - 7p + 12 / p(2p - 3) 4. Simplify 2y - 3 /6 - y + 1 /5
CONTINUED FROM PAGE 17 5. Express the following in standard
The LCM of the denominators b and 4b
services due to climate change include changes to the On your own, please attempt the form:
is 4b.
provisioning services (e.g., food, fibre, timber), carbon following: (a) 76843 (b) 0.05624
storage and sequestration, water regulation and disease Simplify: x - 2 /3 + x + 1 /2
regulation. 4(1 -b) - (3 + b) /4b
6. Express the following correct to
Changes to ecosystems because of climate change are Both numerators are expressed as
Let us consider the solution. three significant figures:
likely to have significant and often negative social, cultural fractions of 4b, the LCM of b and 4b
 The LCM of 3 and 2 is 6. (a) 0.030487 (b) 100.3789
and economic consequences. = 4(1 -b) - (3 + b) /4b
 The sum is 2 (x - 2) + 3 (x + 1) /6
= 2x - 4 + 3x + 3 /6 7. Please identify the nature of the
However, there is still uncertainty about the extent and (I am sure you will recall that the
estimate used in each case:
speed at which climate change will impact biodiversity and negative sign in front of the brackets will (a) 376.10
change the sign within the brackets). The answer is 5x - 1 /6.
ecosystem services, and the thresholds of climate change (b) 1795700
above, which ecosystems are irreversibly changed and can no That is - 1x 2 = - 2 and - 1x b = - b (c) 0.0256
longer function in their current form. = 4 - 4b - 3 - b /4b Carefully review all we have done this
week and attempt the following for (d) 45.56 x 102
= 1 - 5b /4b
A few terms that you need to know. homework.
8. Simplify 3x + 1 /2 - x + 1 /4
 A stressor is a factor that reduces the health or 1. Evaluate: (5n - 2)2
EXAMPLE 3 2. Expand the following:
productivity of an ecosystem (i.e., causes stress). 9. If 2( x - 1) - 3x = 6, then
 An ecosystem refers to the animals, plants and Simplify 1 /2p-3 - 4/p (a) (k + 4) (k - 3)
x = a) - 8 b) - 4 c) 4 d) 8
microorganisms that live in one place, as well as the The LCM of the denominators is (b) (t - 1) (t + 4)
environmental conditions that support them. p(2p - 3). Clement Radcliffe is an independent contributor.
 Ecosystem services include the products and services p x 1 - 4(2p - 3) /p (2p - 3) 3. Evaluate: (1 - 2p)(5 - 3p) Send questions and comments to
provided by ecosystems, such as food, fuel, timber, water, = p - 8p + 12 /p(2p - 3) kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
clean air, and medicines. It also includes less material
benefits, such as regulation of local climate conditions and
aesthetic value or cultural identity.
 An ecological threshold is the point at which there is an
abrupt change in an ecosystem quality, property, or
yl: caribbean studies
phenomenon, or where small changes in one or more external
conditions produce large and persistent responses in an
ecosystem. CONTINUED FROM PAGE 23 when slavery was abolished and there employed a monocrop culture and
 A food web is a group of predators and prey that interact brought to the Caribbean through the was a need for labour because ex-slaves depended heavily on the metropolitan
in a habitat or ecosystem. transatlantic slave trade to plant, reap refused to work on the plantations. countries to finance and purchase its
The impact of climate change on a species can ripple and produce sugar for the economic Hence, the planters went in search of produce, since it was an export-oriented
through a food web and affect a wide range of other benefit of the planters. human resources in Africa, Europe, industry. It brought major profits to the
organisms. India and China to continue sugar owners and financers over the years,
Not only is the decline of sea ice impairing polar bear production on plantations. while it exploited the humanity of the
populations by reducing the extent of their primary habitat, INDENTURESHIP labour force, members of which were
but it is also negatively impacting them via food web effects. Indenturship happened in two considered to be subhuman because of
PLANTATION SYSTEM
phases. their phenotypical characteristics.
The next lesson will look at humans and the ecosystem. Phase 1 – The period when tobacco This was a self-contained unique
farms were in, poor white men were system that used extensive, cheap Send questions and comments to
Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com brought to the Caribbean to work on labour. The lives of the Africans who kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
tobacco farms, but they were unsuitable. lived on plantations were controlled by
Phase 2 – This happened after 1838, the authorities, and the system

24 YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 24-30, 2017