Phys60 – Modern Physics

Particles
behaving as Waves
Fedil G. Sanico II
Instructor

Department of Physics
College of Science and Mathematics
University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines - CDO
Wave-Particle Duality of Light:
▪ Light and other electromagnetic radiation act sometimes like waves and
sometimes like particles.
✓ Wave Nature: Interference and Diffraction
✓ Particle Nature: Photon Absorption and Emission

Prince Louis-Victor de Broglie in his doctoral thesis

proposed that particles or matter have wave
characteristics.

Reasoning:
“Nature loves symmetry. Light is dualistic in nature. If nature
is symmetric, the duality should hold for matter. Particles
(i.e. electrons and protons), may in some situations behave
like waves.”

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The de Broglie wavelength of a particle:
𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= =
𝒑 𝒎𝒗
The frequency of the particle:
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇
➢ The relationship of wavelength to momentum and energy to frequency are
exactly the same for free particles as for photons.
Experimental evidence by Clinton Davisson
and Lester Gerner: Diffraction experiment
with electrons.
➢ A beam of electrons directed to the
surface of a piece of nickel and observing
how many electrons bounced off at various
angles.

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Further Evidences on the wave nature of particles:
o Buildup of interference pattern by a beam of electrons in a double-slit
apparatus.

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 Diffraction patterns for:
(a) Electron Diffraction by G.P. Thomson (b) X-Ray Diffraction by Debye and Sherrer

Similar patterns are observed!

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?Waves diffract when sent through a single slit. We humans are matter (particle). If
particles behave as wave, why are our bodies don’t diffract when we walk through a
doorway?
Waves effects on human scales are unobservable!
In the equation:
𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= =
𝒑 𝒎𝒗
❑ The Planck’s constant is already too small (in the order of 10-34). A more massive
object would have a large momentum, which decreases the wavelength. The
wavelength are usually far smaller than the size of a typical atom (about 10-10).
Application of the wave characteristics of matter: electron and neutron diffraction
✓ Used to study the atomic structures of solids and liquids, and to study the atomic
features of surfaces on solids.

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1) An alpha particle (m = 6.64 × 10-27 kg) emitted in the radioactive decay of
uranium-238 has an energy of 4.20 MeV. What is its de Broglie wavelength?
Answer: 7.02 × 10-15 m
2) In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, what is the de Broglie wavelength for
the electron when it is in (a) the n = 1 level and (b) the n = 4 level? In each
case, compare the de Broglie wavelength to the circumference of the orbit.
Answer: (a) C1 = λ1 = 3.32 × 10-10 m; (b) λ4 = 1.33 × 10-19 m and C4 = 4λ4
3) What is the de Broglie wavelength for an electron with speed (a) v = 0.480c
and (b) v = 0.960c? (Hint: Use the correct relativistic expression for linear
momentum if necessary.) Answer: (a) 4.43 × 10-12 m; (b) 7.07 × 10-13 m
4) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a 5.00-g bullet that is moving at 340
m/s. Will the bullet exhibit wavelike properties? Answer: 3.90 × 10-34 m

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5) Find the wavelengths of a photon and an electron that have the same energy
of 25 eV. (Note: The energy of the electron is its kinetic energy.) Answer: 0.245
nm
6) (a) What accelerating potential is needed to produce electrons of wavelength
5.00 nm? (b) What would be the energy of photons having the same
wavelength as these electrons? Answer: (a) 0.0607 V; (b) 248 eV
7) Through what potential difference must electrons be accelerated so they will
have (a) the same wavelength as an x ray of wavelength 0.150 nm and (b) the
same energy as the x ray in part (a)? Answer: (a) 66.9 V; (b) 8310 V

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▪ Heated materials emit light, different
materials emit different kinds of light.
(i) For hot solid or liquid, spectrum is
continuous.
(ii) Each element in its gaseous state has a
unique set of wavelengths in its line
spectrum.

Emission light spectrum – spectrum

of few colors in the form of isolated
sharp spectral lines, each line
corresponds to a definite
wavelength is emitted.

✓ The emission spectra were used to identify elements and compounds.

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▪ Cool gas selectively absorbs specific wavelengths.

Absorption light spectrum

– dark lines corresponding
to wavelengths that have
been absorbed.

❖ The atom or molecule

absorbs the same
characteristic of set of
wavelengths when it’s
cool as it emits when
heated.

?Why does an atom emit and absorb only certain very specific wavelengths?
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▪ In 1897, J.J. Thomson – discovered the electron and
measured the e/m ratio.
His model of atom:
a sphere of some positively charged substance, within which
the electron were embedded like raisins in cake.

✓ In collision between atoms, electron would oscillate around its equilibrium

position with a characteristic frequency and emit electromagnetic radiation
with that frequency.
✓ If atoms were illuminated with light of many frequencies, each electron would
selectively absorb only light whose frequency matched the electron’s natural
oscillation frequency.

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▪ In 1910-1911, Ernest Rutherford – carried out an experiment to test Thomson’s
model of atom.

“…as if you have fired a 15 inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and
hit you.”
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▪ Ernest Rutherford developed a new model and
established that atoms have a nucleus:
o very small
o very dense structure, contains all the positive charge
o no less than 10-14 m in diameter, occupying only 10-12
of the total volume of the atom or less,
o at least 99.95% of the total mass of the atom).

✓ The large-angle scattering of the particle is due to the sufficient electric field
that repels the moving particle.

?What prevented the negatively charged electrons from falling into the positively charged
nucleus due to the strong electrostatic attraction?

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▪ Ernest Rutherford suggested that electrons revolve in orbits about the nucleus.
According to classical electromagnetic theory,
a. An accelerating electric charge radiates electromagnetic waves.
b. The acceleration of the orbiting electron is radially inward, so should be the emitting
radiation at all times.
c. The energy decreases continuously, it should spiral into the nucleus within a fraction of
second.
d. Electrons radiating energy would have their angular speeds changing continuously,
thus emitting a continuous spectrum.

Failure of Classical Physics

Atoms…
× Emit light continuously;
× Are unstable; and
× Emit light that have a continuous spectrum.

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1) An alpha particle (charge 2e) is aimed directly at a gold nucleus (charge 79e).
What minimum initial kinetic energy must the alpha particle have to approach
within 5.0 × 10-14 m of the center of the gold nucleus before reversing
direction? Assume that the gold nucleus, which has about 50 times the mass
of an alpha particle, remains at rest. Answer: 4.6 MeV
2) A 4.78-MeV alpha particle from 226Ra decay makes a head-on collision with a
uranium nucleus. A uranium nucleus has 92 protons. (a) What is the distance
of closest approach of the alpha particle to the center of the nucleus? Assume
that the uranium nucleus remains at rest and that the distance of closest
approach is much greater than the radius of the uranium nucleus. (b) What is
the force on the alpha particle at the instant when it is at the distance of
closest approach? Answer: (a) 5.54 × 10-14 m; (b) 13.8 N

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▪ In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed that the energy of an
atom can have only certain particular values.
Reasoning:
“Atom of an element emit photons with only certain
specific frequencies f and hence certain specific energies
E=hf. During the emission, the internal energy of the atom
changes by an amount equal to the energy of the photon.
Hence, each atom must be able to exist with only certain
specific values of internal energy.”

❑ The atoms are stable means each atom has a lowest energy level (ground
level).
❑ Excited levels – levels with energies greater than the ground level.

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▪ An excited atom (atom in an excited level) can
make a transition into a lower level or ground level
by emitting a photon with energy equal to the
energy difference between the initial and final
levels.
𝒉𝒄
𝒉𝒇 = = 𝑬𝒊 − 𝑬𝒇
𝝀
▪ An atom initially in a lower energy level struck by a
photon with just the right amount of energy can
absorb the photon and the atom ends up in the
higher level.

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▪ An atom absorbs the same wavelengths that it
emits.
▪ Atoms can absorb only photons with specific
wavelengths. This implies that an atom cannot
have an energy that’s intermediate between
levels.
▪ An atom that has been excited into a high energy
level, does not stay there for long. After a short
time (lifetime of 10-8 s), the excited atom will emit
a photon and make a transition into a lower
energy level or ground level.

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▪ Fluorescence: A phenomenon where a gas
emits longer wavelength radiation than it
absorbs as the atom makes a transition from
a higher energy level to the ground level in
several steps.
▪ Example: electric discharge in fluorescent
lamp causes the mercury vapor in the tube to
emit UV radiation which will be absorb in the
coating on the tube. The coatings then reemit
light in the longer wavelength, visible region
of the spectrum.

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▪ Bohr postulated that energy level of hydrogen atom
correspond to a specific stable circular orbit around the
nucleus and that electrons in such orbit does not radiate.
Electrons only radiates when it makes a transition from an
orbit of higher energy to an orbit of lower energy, emitting
a photon in the process.
▪ Electron as sinusoidal standing wave with wavelength 𝜆 that
extends around the circle (orbit). Recall: Standing waves on
a string transmit no energy.
▪ The circumference of the circle must include some whole
𝒉
number of wavelengths, 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒏 = 𝒏𝝀𝒏 where 𝝀𝒏 = 𝒎𝒗
𝒏
where n is the principal quantum number for the orbit (1, 2,
3,...).

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▪ Electron’s angular momentum is quantized.
𝒉
𝑳𝒏 = 𝒎𝒗𝒏 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒏
𝟐𝝅

▪ As the electrons moves around the orbit, the

centripetal (radially inward) force is:
𝟏 𝒆𝟐 𝒗𝒏 𝟐
𝑭= =𝒎
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝒏 𝟐 𝒓𝒏

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▪ Then orbital radii and orbital speed of electron in the Bohr model:
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝟏 𝒆𝟐
𝒓𝒏 = 𝝐𝟎 and 𝒗𝒏 =
𝝅𝒎𝒆𝟐 𝝐𝟎 𝟐𝒏𝒉

▪ The orbital radii can be written as

𝒓𝒏 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒂𝟎
▪ where 𝑎0 is the Bohr radius
𝒉𝟐 −𝟏𝟏
𝒂𝟎 = 𝝐𝟎 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒎
𝝅𝒎𝒆𝟐
▪ The greater the value of n, the larger the orbital radius of electron and the
slower its orbital speed.

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▪ The kinetic, potential and total energy in the Bohr model
𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝒎𝒆 𝟏 𝒆𝟐 𝟏 𝒎𝒆𝟒
𝑲𝒏 = 𝒎𝒗𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 and 𝑼𝒏 = − =− 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝝐𝟎 𝟖𝒏 𝒉 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝒏 𝝐𝟎 𝟒𝒏 𝒉
𝟏 𝒎𝒆𝟒
𝑬𝒏 = 𝑲𝒏 + 𝑼𝒏 = − 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝝐𝟎 𝟖𝒏 𝒉
▪ Also expressed as:
𝒉𝒄𝑹
𝑬𝒏 = − 𝟐
𝒏
▪ where R is the Rydberg constant
𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝟕 −𝟏
𝑹= 𝟐 𝟑
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒎
𝟖𝝐𝟎 𝒉 𝒄

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▪ Consider a transition of electron from an upper orbit nU to a lower orbit nL, the
energy of the emitted photon is:
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐𝑅 ℎ𝑐𝑅 1 1
= 𝐸𝑛𝑈 − 𝐸𝑛𝐿 = − 2 − − 2 = ℎ𝑐𝑅 −
𝜆 𝑛𝑈 𝑛𝐿 𝑛𝐿 2 𝑛𝑈 2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=𝑹 −
𝝀 𝒏𝑳 𝟐 𝒏𝑼 𝟐
Spectral Lines:
▪ Lymann series: when nL=1, emitted photons have shorter wavelengths in the UV
region of the spectrum.
▪ Balmer series: when nL=2, emitted photons have wavelengths in the visible and
longer wavelengths in the UV region of the spectrum
▪ Brackett (nL=3) and Pfund (nL=4) series have emitted photons in the IR region of
the spectrum.

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▪ When n=1 and using the values of h, c and R, the energy at the ground level is:
𝒉𝒄𝑹
𝑬𝟏 = − 𝟐 = −𝒉𝒄𝑹 = −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟖 𝑱 = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟎 𝒆𝑽
𝟏
▪ Then, the energy in the Bohr model for n>1:
𝑬𝟏 −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟎 𝒆𝑽
𝑬𝒏 = 𝟐 =
𝒏 𝒏𝟐
▪ The ionization energy of hydrogen atom is the energy required to remove the
electron completely from the atom corresponding to a transition from the
ground level (n=1) to an infinitely large orbit radius (n=∞). The energy that
must be added to the atom is
𝑬∞ − 𝑬𝟏 = 0 − 𝐸1 = 2.179 × 10−18 𝐽 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟎 𝒆𝑽

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1) A hypothetical atom has energy levels at 0.00 eV (the ground level), 1.00 eV,
and 3.00 eV. (a) What are the frequencies and wavelengths of the spectral
lines this atom can emit when excited? (b) What wavelengths can this atom
absorb if it is in its ground level? Answer: (a) 2.42 × 1014 Hz ↔ 1240 nm 4.84 ×
1014 Hz ↔ 620 nm 7.25 × 1014 Hz ↔ 414 nm; (b) only 1240 nm and 414 nm.
2) A hydrogen atom is in a state with energy -1.51 eV. In the Bohr model, what is
the angular momentum of the electron in the atom, with respect to an axis at
the nucleus? Answer: 3.16 × 10-34 kg∙m2/s
3) (a) An atom initially in an energy level with E = -6.52 eV absorbs a photon that
has wavelength 860 nm. What is the internal energy of the atom after it
absorbs the photon? (b) An atom initially in an energy level with E = -2.68 eV
emits a photon that has wavelength 420 nm. What is the internal energy of
the atom after it emits the photon? Answer: (a) -5.08 V; (b) -5.64 eV

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4) (a) Using the Bohr model, calculate the speed of the electron in a hydrogen
atom in the n = 1, 2 and 3 levels. (b) Calculate the orbital period in each of
these levels. (c) The average lifetime of the first excited level of a hydrogen
atom is 1.0 × 10-8 s. In the Bohr model, how many orbits does an electron in
the n = 2 level complete before returning to the ground level? Answer: (a) 2.18
× 106 m/s, 1.09 × 106 m/s, 7.27 × 105 m/s; (b) 1.53 × 10-16 s, 1.22 × 10-15 s, 4.13
× 10-15 s; (c) 8.2 × 106
5) Find the longest and shortest wavelengths in the Lyman, Balmer and Paschen
series for hydrogen. In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum does
each series lie? Answer: 121.5 nm, 91.16 nm; 656.3 nm, 364.6 nm; 1875 nm,
820.4 nm
6) A hydrogen atom initially in the ground level absorbs a photon, which excites it
to the n = 4 level. Determine the wavelength and frequency of the photon.
Answer: 97.3 nm and 3.08 × 1014 Hz

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7) In a set of experiments on a hypothetical
one-electron atom, you measure the
wavelengths of the photons emitted from
transitions ending in the ground state (n =
1). You also observe that it takes 17.50 eV
to ionize this atom. (a) What is the energy
of the atom in each of the levels? (b) If an
electron made a transition from the n = 4
to the n =2 level, what wavelength of light
would it emit? Answer: (a) -17.50 eV, -4.38
eV, -1.95 eV, -1.10 eV, -0.71 eV; (b) 378 nm

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Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:
▪ It is impossible to simultaneously determine both the position and the
momentum of a particle with arbitrarily great precision, as classical physics
would predict.
ℏ
∆𝒙∆𝒑𝒙 ≥
𝟐
𝒉
where ℏ =
𝟐𝝅

▪ The uncertainties in the two quantities play complementary roles and are
fundamental and intrinsic.
▪ Uncertainty in ore coordinate is not related to the uncertainty in a different
component of the quantity.

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▪ The dualistic nature of light illustrates an example of the principle of
complementary, that is, the wave and particle descriptions of light seem to be in
direct conflict, but both is necessary to complete the model of nature. Both
descriptions shall never be use at the same time in describing a single part of
an occurrence.

Consider the single-slit diffraction pattern of light

observed with a movable photomultiplier.
▪ To decrease the momentum uncertainty, the
width of the diffraction pattern should be
reduce by increasing the slit width, which
increases the position uncertainty.

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▪ Conversely, the position uncertainty can be reduce by narrowing the slit, but
diffraction pattern broadens and the corresponding momentum uncertainty
increases.

Uncertainty in Energy
and Time
ℏ
∆𝒕∆𝑬 ≥
𝟐

▪ The same uncertainty principles is also true matter.

▪ The uncertainty principle shows that the Bohr model cannot be a correct
description of how an electron in an atom behaves.

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1) An electron is confined within a region of width 5.0 × 10-11 m. (a) Estimate the
minimum uncertainty in the x-component of the electron’s momentum. (b)
What is the kinetic energy of an electron with this magnitude of momentum?
Express your answer in both joules and electron volts. Answer: (a) 1.055 × 10-
24 kg∙m/s; (b) 3.81 eV

2) A sodium atom in one of the states labeled “Lowest excited levels” remains in
that state, on average, for 1.6 × 10-8 s before it makes a transition to the
ground level, emitting a photon with wavelength 589.0 nm and energy 2.105
eV. What is the uncertainty in energy of that excited state? What is the
wavelength spread of the corresponding spectral line? Answer: 2.1 × 10-8 eV;
(b) 0.0000059 nm

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3) (a) The x-coordinate of an electron is measured with an uncertainty of 0.20
mm. What is the x-component of the electron’s velocity if the minimum
percentage uncertainty in a simultaneous measurement of is 1.0%? (b) Repeat
part (a) for a proton. Answer: (a) 29.0 m/s; (b) 15.8 mm/s
4) An atom in a metastable state has a lifetime of 5.2 ms. What is the uncertainty
in energy of the metastable state? Answer: 6.34 × 10-14 eV
5) (a) The uncertainty in the y-component of a proton’s position is What is the
minimum uncertainty in a simultaneous measurement of the y-component of
the proton’s velocity? (b) The uncertainty in the z-component of an electron’s
velocity is What is the minimum uncertainty in a simultaneous measurement
of the z-coordinate of the electron? Answer: (a) 1.6 × 104 m/s; (b) 2.3 × 10-4 m

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Thank you for listening.
Any questions?