String Theory Explained

String theory and M-theory
for people in a hurry.
Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez
Universidad de El Salvador, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemática, Escuela de Fı́sica

San Salvador, El Salvador
November 29, 2018
Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 1 / 38

Introduction
Introduction

Introduction
Quantum gravity theories
String theory
Quantization of objects
within space-time.
Requires that space-time
have 10 (or 11) dimensions.
Requires SUSY.

Introduction
Quantum gravity theories
String theory Loop quantum gravity

Quantization of objects Quantization of space-time
within space-time. itself.
Requires that space-time Only works for 4 dimensional
have 10 (or 11) dimensions. space-time.
Requires SUSY. It doesn’t acquire SUSY.

Introduction
History
At the beginning, they were used for explaining mesons (1960).
Bosonic string is introduced (1970).

The first superstring (I, II) theories were discovered (1971).

Introduction
History

First rev. (1984-1994): Consolidation of superstrings.

Cancellation of anomalies for superstring theories (1984).
Heterotic superstrings (1985).
Calabi–Yau manifold compactification (1985).

Introduction
History

First rev. (1984-1994): Consolidation of superstrings.

Cancellation of anomalies for superstring theories (1984).
Heterotic superstrings (1985).
Calabi–Yau manifold compactification (1985).
Second rev. (1994-2003): Dualities and unification.

M-theory (1995).
T-duality and D-branes (1995).
Gauge/string dualities: AdS/CFT correspondence (1998).

Characteristics of strings
String theories
What is a string?

String theories
What is a string? Think on an analogy with particles (it has 0

spatial dimensions). Z
S0 = m ds,
ds 2 = gµν (X )dx µ dx ν .

String theories
What is a string? Think on an analogy with particles (it has 0

spatial dimensions). Z
S0 = m ds,
ds 2 = gµν (X )dx µ dx ν .
The change of gµν (X ) creates the curvature of space time:
Rµν ∼ ∂λ g λρ ∂ρ gµν and R = g µν Rµν ,

which enters in Einstein’s equation.
1
Rµν − Rgµν = Tµν
2

Strings and quantum gravity
We can generalize this for Dp-branes.

Z
Sp = Tp dµp ,
dµ2p = det(gµν (X )∂α X µ ∂β X ν )d p+1 σ.


Z
Sp = Tp dµp ,

For a string (p = 1):
√
Z
T
S= dσ 2 −hhαβ gµν ∂α X µ ∂β X ν
2
(Polyakov action).
gµν (X ) is created from the p. spectrum.


Z
Sp = Tp dµp ,

For a string (p = 1):
√
Z
T
S= dσ 2 −hhαβ gµν ∂α X µ ∂β X ν
2
(Polyakov action).
gµν (X ) is created from the p. spectrum.

Other backgrounds
When there are electromagnetic interactions, particles respond by

an action: Z
SA = Aµ ẋ µ dτ
For string it gets messier because its charges are ”oriented”, it

requires a 2-form B field
Z
1
SB = αβ Bµν (X )∂α X µ ∂β X ν d 2 σ
4πα0 M

Other backgrounds
When there are electromagnetic interactions, particles respond by

an action: Z
SA = Aµ ẋ µ dτ
For string it gets messier because its charges are ”oriented”, it

requires a 2-form B field
Z
1
SB = αβ Bµν (X )∂α X µ ∂β X ν d 2 σ
4πα0 M
Interactions between strings are given by a dilaton Φ term:
Z √
1
SΦ = hΦ(X )R (2) (h)d 2 z
4π M

Open and closed strings
String vibrations
Z
1
S =− d 2 σ∂α Xµ ∂ α X µ (hαβ = η αβ , g µν (X ) = η µν ).
2π
Particles are different vibrational modes of a string.

Boundary conditions
Periodic conditions: They generate Closed strings
X µ (σ, τ ) = X µ (σ + π, τ )
The graviton appears as a massless mode of this spectrum.

Boundary conditions
X µ (σ, τ ) = X µ (σ + π, τ )
Neumann conditions: The ends of the open string can be

anywhere in the space-time
d µ d µ
X (σ = 0, τ ) = 0, X (σ = π, τ ) = 0.
dσ dσ

Boundary conditions
X µ (σ, τ ) = X µ (σ + π, τ )
Neumann conditions: The ends of the open string can be

anywhere in the space-time
d µ d µ
X (σ = 0, τ ) = 0, X (σ = π, τ ) = 0.
dσ dσ
Dirichlet conditions: When the open string ends on a space-

time hypersurface (D-branes).
X µ (σ = 0, τ ) = X0 , X µ (σ = π, τ ) = Xπ .
Open string
Dirichlet and Neumann strings.

Light cone fixing

By reparametrization invariance we may choose hαβ = ηαβ ;
Z 2 2 !
T ∂X ∂X
S= d 2σ −
2 ∂τ ∂σ
2
∂2

∂
δS = 0 → − Xµ = 0
∂σ 2 ∂τ 2

Light cone fixing

Z 2 2 !
T ∂X ∂X
S= d 2σ −
2 ∂τ ∂σ
2
∂2

∂
δS = 0 → − Xµ = 0
∂σ 2 ∂τ 2
Light-cone coordinates: σ ± = τ ± σ, ∂± = 12 [∂τ ± ∂σ ].
∂+ ∂− X µ = ∂+ ∂− XRµ (σ − ) + XLµ (σ + ) = 0.


Light cone fixing

Z 2 2 !
T ∂X ∂X
S= d 2σ −
2 ∂τ ∂σ
2
∂2

∂
δS = 0 → − Xµ = 0
∂σ 2 ∂τ 2
Light-cone coordinates: σ ± = τ ± σ, ∂± = 12 [∂τ ± ∂σ ].
∂+ ∂− X µ = ∂+ ∂− XRµ (σ − ) + XLµ (σ + ) = 0.

For closed strings

+∞ +∞
µ −2imσ − +
X X
∂− XRµ = ls αm e , ∂− XLµ = ls µ −2imσ
α̃m e .
m=−∞ m=−∞

String quantization
String expansions
For an open Neumann string:
X αµ
m −imτ
X µ (τ, σ) = x µ + ls2 p µ τ + ils e cos mσ.
m6=0
m

String quantization
String expansions
X αµ
m −imτ
m6=0
m
Canonical quantization:
µ
[αm µ
, αnν ] = [α̃m , α̃nν ] = mη µν δm+n,0 , µ
[αm , α̃nν ] = 0.
αm , m > 0 destroys particles.

αm , m < 0 creates particles.

String quantization
String expansions
X αµ
m −imτ
m6=0
m
Canonical quantization:
µ
[αm µ
, αnν ] = [α̃m , α̃nν ] = mη µν δm+n,0 , µ
[αm , α̃nν ] = 0.
αm , m > 0 destroys particles.

αm , m < 0 creates particles.
The resulting energy quantization
∞
1 X
H = α02 + α−n · αn .
2 n=1

String quantization
Dimensions
Physical particles obey a mass-shell condition:
∞
D−2
!
2 X X
M 2 = −pµ p µ = E 2 − |p|2 = 2 αi αi − 1
ls i=1 n=1 −n n
∞ ∞
D−2
!
1 X X
i
X
= 2 : α−n αni : +(D − 2) n .
ls i=1 n=−∞ n=1

String quantization
Dimensions
∞
D−2
!
2 X X
M 2 = −pµ p µ = E 2 − |p|2 = 2 αi αi − 1
ls i=1 n=1 −n n
∞ ∞
D−2
!
1 X X
i
X
= 2 : α−n αni : +(D − 2) n .
ls i=1 n=−∞ n=1
P∞ 1 D −2
Since n=1 n = − 12 then = 1 → D = 26 .
24

String quantization
Dimensions
∞
D−2
!
2 X X
M 2 = −pµ p µ = E 2 − |p|2 = 2 αi αi − 1
ls i=1 n=1 −n n
∞ ∞
D−2
!
1 X X
i
X
= 2 : α−n αni : +(D − 2) n .
ls i=1 n=−∞ n=1
P∞ 1 D −2
Since n=1 n = − 12 then = 1 → D = 26 .
24

Superstring theories
Superstring theories and the M-theory

Those strings were bosonic, we also need to introduce fermions by
Supersymmetry.

Superstring theories
Calabi–Yau manifolds
When SUSY is included D = 10. The 6 ”unseen” spatial dimensions

may be smaller than our currently observable lengths.
3D projection of the 6D Calabi–Yau manifold.

Type I, II strings
RNS formalism: World-sheet SUSY

Z
1 h µ
i
S =− d 2 σ ∂α Xµ ∂ α X µ + ψ ρα ∂α ψµ
2π
ψ− are left moving modes, ψ+ right moving.

Type I, II strings

Z
1 h µ
i
2π
ψ− are left moving modes, ψ+ right moving. Boundary conditions:
Ramond sector: Space-time fermions.
ψ+ (σ, τ ) = +ψ− (σ + π, τ ) (Closed)
− +
X X
µ
ψ− (σ − ) = µ
dnµ e −2inσ , ψ+ (σ + ) = d˜nµ e −2inσ
n∈Z n∈Z

Type I, II strings

Z
1 h µ
i
2π
ψ− are left moving modes, ψ+ right moving. Boundary conditions:
Ramond sector: Space-time fermions.
ψ+ (σ, τ ) = +ψ− (σ + π, τ ) (Closed)
− +
X X
µ
ψ− (σ − ) = µ
dnµ e −2inσ , ψ+ (σ + ) = d˜nµ e −2inσ
n∈Z n∈Z
Neveu-Schwarz sector: Space-time bosons.

ψ+ (σ, τ ) = −ψ− (σ + π, τ ) (Closed)
− +
µ
X µ
X
ψ− (σ − ) = brµ e −2inσ , ψ+ (σ + ) = b̃rµ e −2inσ
r ∈Z+ 12 n∈Z+ 12

Type I, II strings
Γ11 ψ = ±ψ (chirality), Γ11 = Γ0 Γ1 . . . Γ9

Same chirality: Type IIA.
i j
|+iR ⊗ |+iR , b̃− 1 |0iNS ⊗ b 1 |0iNS
−
2 2
i i
b̃− 1 |0iNS ⊗ |+iR , |+iR ⊗ b− 1 |0iNS
2 2

Type I, II strings
Γ11 ψ = ±ψ (chirality), Γ11 = Γ0 Γ1 . . . Γ9

Same chirality: Type IIA.
i j
|+iR ⊗ |+iR , b̃− 1 |0iNS ⊗ b 1 |0iNS
−
2 2
i i
b̃− 1 |0iNS ⊗ |+iR , |+iR ⊗ b− 1 |0iNS
2 2
Opposite chirality: Type II B.

i j
|−iR ⊗ |+iR , b̃− 1 |0iNS ⊗ b 1 |0iNS
−
2 2
i i
b̃− 1 |0iNS ⊗ |+iR , |−iR ⊗ b− 1 |0iNS
2 2
Type I (IIB orientifold projection) of open strings

ψ+ |σ=π = +ψ− |σ=π (R), ψ+ |σ=π = −ψ− |σ=π (NS)
Type I, II strings
GS formalism: Space-time SUSY

For a particle in flat space time
Z p Z p
S = −m −Ẋ · Ẋ dτ = −m −Π0 · Π0 dτ, Πµ0 = Ẋ µ

Type I, II strings

Z p Z p
To make it SUSY, Πµ0 → Ẋ µ − ΘΓµ Θ̇.

Z p
S = −m −Π0 · Π0 + ΘΓ11 Θ̇ dτ.

Type I, II strings

Z p Z p
To make it SUSY, Πµ0 → Ẋ µ − ΘΓµ Θ̇.

Z p
S = −m −Π0 · Π0 + ΘΓ11 Θ̇ dτ.
This can be generalized to strings (complicated), the (non-trivial) result:

Z
1 h a α
i
S =− d σ ∂α Xi ∂ X + S ρ ∂α S , (Sαa ⊂ ΘA )
2 α i b
2π
No more anomalies.
No more tachyons, no need of GSO projection.
Type I, II strings
T-duality
A duality is a when a theory can become into another one by a suitable
transformation. For example the electric and magnetic parts of Maxwell’s
equations are dual to each other
∂µ ? F µν = Jeν , ∂µ F µν = Jmν

Type I, II strings
T-duality
A duality is a when a theory can become into another one by a suitable
transformation. For example the electric and magnetic parts of Maxwell’s
equations are dual to each other
∂µ ? F µν = Jeν , ∂µ F µν = Jmν
T-duality is a compactification of spatial dimensions. A circle of radius

R transforms to a dual circle of radius
α0
R→ .
R
In strings this is intechanges the momentum p0 and thus
XR → −XR , XL → XL
X 0 (σ, τ ) = XL (σ + ) + XR (σ − )
Type I, II strings
T duality on open strings
For example the Neumann string

X αµ
m −imτ
m6=0
m
becomes into a dual Dirichlet string

X αµ
m −imτ
X µ (τ, σ) = x µ + ls2 p µ τ + ils e sin mσ.
m6=0
m

Type I, II strings
T duality on open strings
For example the Neumann string

X αµ
m −imτ
m6=0
m
becomes into a dual Dirichlet string

X αµ
m −imτ
X µ (τ, σ) = x µ + ls2 p µ τ + ils e sin mσ.
m6=0
m
It has now boundary conditions:

X 0 (σ, 0) = x̃, X 0 (σ, 0) = x̃ + 2πKR 0 .
It wraps R 0 K times, so it cannot unwind without breaking.

Type I, II strings
Dp-branes
The hyperplane X = x̃ is a Dirichlet-brane (D-brane) of p = D − T
spatial dimensions.

Heterotic strings
SO(32) Heterotic string theory
26-D bosonic (or fermionic) string for the left-movers +

10-D Type II superstring for the right-movers =
Heterotic superstrings.

Heterotic strings

If we choose the fermionic way:
S = STypes + Sfermionic
Z " 32
#
1 µ X A
=− d 2 σ ∂α Xµ ∂ α X µ + ψ ρα ∂α ψµ + λ ρα ∂α λA
2π A=1
This action has SO(32) gauge symmetry.

Heterotic strings

If we choose the fermionic way:
S = STypes + Sfermionic
Z " 32
#
1 µ X A
=− d 2 σ ∂α Xµ ∂ α X µ + ψ ρα ∂α ψµ + λ ρα ∂α λA
2π A=1
This action has SO(32) gauge symmetry.

µ
10 XR (σ − ), XL (σ + ), ψ− (σ − ) and 32 fermionic λA (σ + ), the central
charge 10 + 32/2 = 26.
Heterotic strings
E8 × E8 Heterotic string theory

Boundary conditions can be
λA (σ + π, τ ) = ±λA (σ, τ )
If n of the fermions λA satisfy the same boundary conditions (A, P),
and the other (32 − n) fermions have the opposite ones (P, A).

Heterotic strings
E8 × E8 Heterotic string theory

Boundary conditions can be
λA (σ + π, τ ) = ±λA (σ, τ )
If n of the fermions λA satisfy the same boundary conditions (A, P),
and the other (32 − n) fermions have the opposite ones (P, A).
SO(32) → SO(n) × SO(32 − n)
where n is a multiple of 8.
If n = 32 or 0 we recover the same SO(32).
If n = 8, 24 we find anomalies. No theory.
If n = 16 the theory is congruent, but it is enhanced to the SHE :
SO(16) × SO(16) → E8 × E8 .

M-theory
S-duality
SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1) ⊂ SU(5) ⊂ SO(10) ⊂ E6 ⊂ E7 ⊂ E8 .

M-theory
S-duality
SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1) ⊂ SU(5) ⊂ SO(10) ⊂ E6 ⊂ E7 ⊂ E8 .
It relates the string coupling constant gs to 1/gs .
It affects the dilaton field:

1
eΦ → ; Φ → −Φ
eΦ

M-theory
S-duality
SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1) ⊂ SU(5) ⊂ SO(10) ⊂ E6 ⊂ E7 ⊂ E8 .
It relates the string coupling constant gs to 1/gs .
It affects the dilaton field:

1
eΦ → ; Φ → −Φ
eΦ
For example, strongly coupled type I theory is equivalent to weakly

coupled SO(32) heterotic theory.
In the type IIB case the theory is related to itself, so one is actually
dealing with a symmetry.

M-theory
11D SUGRA
The Einstein field equations in D-dimensions can be found from an

action
√
Z
1 1
S= −g R(g )d D x → Rµν − Rgµν = Tµν .
16πGD 2
This is a classical field theory. It is non-renormalizable, it requires stringy
corrections.

M-theory
11D SUGRA
The Einstein field equations in D-dimensions can be found from an

action
√
Z
1 1
S= −g R(g )d D x → Rµν − Rgµν = Tµν .
16πGD 2
This is a classical field theory. It is non-renormalizable, it requires stringy
corrections.
It has no fermionic content since they are not classical

√
Z
1 11 1 2 1
S= 2 d x −G R − |F4 | − A3 ∧ F4 ∧ F4 .
2κ11 2 6
F4 = dA3 . Fermionic degrees include the gravitino.

M-theory
M-theory
Consider 11-dimensional supergravity compactified on a circle. The
mass of the supergraviton is zero:
2
M11 = −pM p M = p11
2
+ pµ p µ = 0

M-theory
M-theory
2
M11 = −pM p M = p11
2
+ pµ p µ = 0
Momentum is quantized in the 11−D, thus the spectrum of ten-
dimensional masses 2
2 2 N
M10 = p11 =
R11
But the masses of IIA D0-branes are M = 1/(ls gs ) thus (N = 1):
R11 = ls gs .

M-theory
M-theory
2
M11 = −pM p M = p11
2
+ pµ p µ = 0
Momentum is quantized in the 11−D, thus the spectrum of ten-
dimensional masses 2
2 2 N
M10 = p11 =
R11
But the masses of IIA D0-branes are M = 1/(ls gs ) thus (N = 1):
R11 = ls gs .
This new theory is the M-theory (“mysterious” or “magical”).
At low energies it is approximated by a 11d SUGRA.
This is candidate for a single theory of all.
M-theory

Gauge/gravity
Gauge/gravity dualities
Instead of studying complicated string theories we may convert the

problem to one of Quantum field theories by a duality.
Normally they are like S-duality, one strong, one weak.

Gauge/gravity
Gauge/gravity dualities
Instead of studying complicated string theories we may convert the

problem to one of Quantum field theories by a duality.
Normally they are like S-duality, one strong, one weak.
The main dualities:
Matrix theory
Phase transitions
AdS/CFT

Gauge/gravity
Matrix theory
Exact quantum mechanical description of M-theory.
Applicable in flat 11-dimensional or toroidal space-time.

Gauge/gravity
Matrix theory
Exact quantum mechanical description of M-theory.
Applicable in flat 11-dimensional or toroidal space-time.
The M-theory becomes quantum mechanics of N × N matrices in

the large N limit (even finite).
p11 = N/R → ∞
Then the D0-branes of IIA N → ∞ and thus their action
Z
1 2 i 2
1 i j 2
S= d σ Tr − Dτ X + X , X
2R 2
Then M-theory is just a quantum mechanical system of U(N).
Gauge/gravity
Phase transitions

AdS/CFT
Type IIB AdS/CFT

Dp-branes of IIB create a curvature on space time of the form:
r 7−p − 12 r 7−p 12
p p
ds 2 = 1 + dr 2 + r 2 dΩ2p .

dx · dx + 1 +
r r

AdS/CFT
Type IIB AdS/CFT

r 7−p − 12 r 7−p 12
p p
ds 2 = 1 + dr 2 + r 2 dΩ2p .

dx · dx + 1 +
r r
r 7−p 3−p
4
Φp
e = gs 1 +
r
Then perturbative theory is valid only for p = 3 (constant dilaton).

AdS/CFT
Type IIB AdS/CFT

r 7−p − 12 r 7−p 12
p p
ds 2 = 1 + dr 2 + r 2 dΩ2p .

dx · dx + 1 +
r r
r 7−p 3−p
4
Φ p
e = gs 1 +
r
Then perturbative theory is valid only for p = 3 (constant dilaton).Near
the horizon it takes (r3 = R):
r 2 2
2 R
ds ∼ dx · dx + dr 2 + dΩ25
R r
dx · dx + dz 2
ds 2 ∼ R 2 + R 2 dΩ25
z2
So this is a product of AdS5 and S5 space.
AdS/CFT
Anti de Sitter space
The general anti-de Sitter space is

dx · dx + dz 2
ds 2 = R 2
z2
where z = R 2 /r .
The boundary r → ∞, is now at z = 0.
The singularity r = 0 at z → ∞.

AdS/CFT
Anti de Sitter space
The general anti-de Sitter space is

dx · dx + dz 2
ds 2 = R 2
z2
where z = R 2 /r .
The boundary r → ∞, is now at z = 0.
The singularity r = 0 at z → ∞.
By a coordinate change
dv 2
ds 2 = 2
+ v 2 dΩ2p + (1 + v 2 )dθ2 .
1+v
with θ the time (now periodic).
The energy appears to be quantized.
AdS/CFT

AdS/CFT
This is solved by replacing the AdS space-time with its covering CAdS
1 2 2
ds 2 = 2 2

dρ + sin ρdΩp − dt .
cos2 ρ
The bulk of the theory (Bp+1 × R) is then described by its boundary
(S p × R).
AdS/CFT
Z Z
−Sstring
Zstring (φ0 ) = Dφe ↔ exp φ0 O
φ0 Sd CFT
This is the equivalence of conformally invariant quantum field theories
(boundary) and superstring theory or M-theory (bulk).
This duality is a holography

AdS/CFT
Z Z
−Sstring
Zstring (φ0 ) = Dφe ↔ exp φ0 O
φ0 Sd CFT
This is the equivalence of conformally invariant quantum field theories
(boundary) and superstring theory or M-theory (bulk).
This duality is a holography
SCFT on D3-branes ↔ type IIB on AdS5 ×S5 (10-D).

SCFT on M2-branes ↔ M-theory on AdS4 ×S7 (11-D).
SCFT on M5-branes ↔ M-theory on AdS7 ×S4 (11-D).
It is of interest to study dS/CFT correspondence for the expansion of

the universe (S-branes).

AdS/CFT
Visualization

AdS/CFT
Challenges to face
Explain Particle Physics (many solutions).
Understand the Role of Supersymmetry.
Superstring cosmology.
Understand Empty Space (dark matter).
Find a Compelling Formulation of the Theory.
Black hole information and holography.

AdS/CFT
Some bibliography
Becker, K., Becker, M., & Schwarz, J. H. (2006). String theory

and M-theory: A modern introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Polchinski, J. (1998). String theory: Volume 2, superstring theory

and beyond. Cambridge university press.
Oriti, D. (Ed.). (2009). Approaches to quantum gravity: Toward a

new understanding of space, time and matter. Cambridge
University Press.
Nakahara, M. (2003). Geometry, topology and physics. CRC Press.
Maldacena, J. (1999). The large-N limit of superconformal field

theories and supergravity. International journal of theoretical
physics, 38(4), 1113-1133.
AdS/CFT
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String Theory Explained

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String theory and M-theory

for people in a hurry.

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez

Universidad de El Salvador, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemática, Escuela de Fı́sica

November 29, 2018

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 1 / 38

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 2 / 38

Quantum gravity theories

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 3 / 38

Quantum gravity theories

String theory Loop quantum gravity

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 3 / 38

At the beginning, they were used for explaining mesons (1960).

Bosonic string is introduced (1970).

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 4 / 38

At the beginning, they were used for explaining mesons (1960).

Bosonic string is introduced (1970).

First rev. (1984-1994): Consolidation of superstrings.

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 4 / 38

At the beginning, they were used for explaining mesons (1960).

Bosonic string is introduced (1970).

First rev. (1984-1994): Consolidation of superstrings.

Second rev. (1994-2003): Dualities and unification.

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 4 / 38

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 5 / 38

What is a string? Think on an analogy with particles (it has 0

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 5 / 38

What is a string? Think on an analogy with particles (it has 0

which enters in Einstein’s equation.

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 5 / 38

Strings and quantum gravity

We can generalize this for Dp-branes.

dµ2p = det(gµν (X )∂α X µ ∂β X ν )d p+1 σ.

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 6 / 38

Strings and quantum gravity

We can generalize this for Dp-branes.

dµ2p = det(gµν (X )∂α X µ ∂β X ν )d p+1 σ.

gµν (X ) is created from the p. spectrum.

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 6 / 38

Strings and quantum gravity

We can generalize this for Dp-branes.

dµ2p = det(gµν (X )∂α X µ ∂β X ν )d p+1 σ.

gµν (X ) is created from the p. spectrum.

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 6 / 38

When there are electromagnetic interactions, particles respond by

For string it gets messier because its charges are ”oriented”, it

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 7 / 38

When there are electromagnetic interactions, particles respond by

For string it gets messier because its charges are ”oriented”, it

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 7 / 38

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 8 / 38

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 9 / 38

Neumann conditions: The ends of the open string can be

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 9 / 38

Neumann conditions: The ends of the open string can be

Dirichlet conditions: When the open string ends on a space-

Dirichlet and Neumann strings.

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 10 / 38

Light cone fixing

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 11 / 38

Light cone fixing

Sergio Ernesto Aguilar Gutiérrez String theory 11 / 38

Light cone fixing