FLUID DYNAMICS

PART 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID DYNAMICS

1. Basic Equations of Fluid Dynamics

(a) CONTINUITY EQUATION : The principle of conservation of mass may be stated as follows: “
the mass of fluid passing any section per unit time is constant”. The equation which results
from this application is known as the equation of continuity or continuity equation.
V2
A2

V1

A1

a.1 For compressible fluid (gas), equation of continuity is,

ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 ( kg/s) or γ1A1V1 = γ2A2V2 (N/s)

where: ρ – density of fluid (kg/m3)

γ – specific weight of fluid (N/m3)
A – area of the section (m2)
V – mean velocity (m/s)
Where:

pg p
 and 
RT RT
a.2 For Incompressible fluid (liquid), equation of continuity is
reduced to,
A1V1 = A2V2 (m3/s)
since ρ and γ may be assumed constants.
For any section:
A  V  Q  cons tan t Q is discharge or volume flow rate

Note: Under a.2, for circular pipes,

 2  2
D1 V1  D2 V2
4 4
2
 D2 
or V1    V2
 D1 
(b) ENERGY EQUATION: The energy of the flowing stream of fluid per unit
time passing any upstream section is the same as the energy per unit time
passing any downstream section plus the loss of energy between the two
sections.
b.1 For incompressible fluid (liquid), the equation is,
2 2
V1 p V p
 1  Z1  2  2  Z 2  H L ,1 2
2g  2g 
V2
Where: - Velocity head ( m or N-m/N)
2g
p
- Pressure head (m or N-m/N)


Z - Elevation head (m or N-m/N)

V 2 - The kinetic energy per unit weight
2g
p
and Z - Constitute the potential energy per unit weight

HL - The head loss between sections 1 and 2
 b.2 For compressible fluid (gas) under isothermal conditions, the equation is,
2 2
V1 p1 V2 p1
 ln p1  Z 1   ln p 2  Z 2  H L ,1 2
2g 1 2g 1

Where: p – absolute pressure ( N/m2 )

NOTE: The Concept of Energy Equation was originally formulated by

Daniel Bernoulli in 1738: The Bernoulli’s Principle state that as the
speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within
that fluid decreases. Basically, the concept states that the total
energy in a steadily flowing fluid system is a constant along the flow
path. An increase in the fluid’s speed must therefore be matched by
a decrease in its pressure.
In mathematical equation
Dividing by constant Volume, V
P.E.  K .E.  constant 1 2
mv
mgh 2 k1
1  
mgh  mV 2  k1 V V V
2
 1 2
mv
mgh 2 k1
 
V V V
1 2
gh  v  k
2
1 2
h  v  k
2
1 2
p  v  k
2
We can write,
1 2 1 2 1
p  v  p1  v1  p2  v2  k
2

2 2 2
Where: p = pressure Note: In the Bernoulli’s concept, it is clear that if
v = velocity velocity increases at one end, it must be
ρ = density matched by a decrease in pressure.
 (c) If external energy is added to the stream between points 1 and 2 as for
instance by a pump, the complete energy equation becomes:
2 2
V1 p V p
 1  Z1  E p  2  2  Z 2  H L ,1 2
2g  2g 

where: Ep = external energy head added

(d) If energy is given up by the system to a turbine between points 1 and 2,

the right side of the energy equation must include a term ET to represent
the head given up.
2 2
V1 p V p
 1  Z1  2  2  Z 2  ET  H L ,1 2
2g  2g 

where: ET = energy given up

( e ) IMPULSE-MOMENTUM EQUATION : The impulse of a force is
equal to the change in the momentum of the mass.
Ft  M V f  Vo   M V 

Where: Ft – impulse
MVf – final momentum
MVo – initial momentum
2. Important Definitions in Fluid Flow
(a) Path line is a line made by a single particle as it moves
during a period of time

(a) Streamline: an imaginary line within the flow for which the
tangent at any point gives the direction of flow at that point.
V2
V1  
V6
P2  V3 V5
 P3 P6
P1 
V4 
P4 P5

Path Line and Streamline

(b) Stream tube: an element of fluid bounded by streamlines

which enclose or confine the flow.

(c) Steady Flow: when the velocity, pressure, discharge or

flow rate at a given point in flowing stream of the fluid
remains constant with time or dQ/dt = 0.
(d) Uniform Flow: if, at a given instant, the velocity remains constant
with respect to a stretch or distance in the flowing stream of
fluid or dV/ds = 0.

(e) Discharge or Volume Flow Rate, Q: the volume of fluid passing a

section of the stream per unit time or

Q = AV

Unit: m3/s; ft3/s; gal/min

(f) Head Loss: the energy per unit weight lost due to friction (major
loss) or total disturbances (minor loss).

(g) Power is obtained by multiplying the total energy head

(K.E. + P.E.), which may be in N-m/N by Qγ to obtain N-m/s.
Dividing by 746 gives the horsepower, or

Q   E
H .P 
746
Example 1. A fluid in a pipe 200 mm in diameter with a mean velocity of
3.05 m/s. The pressure at the center of the pipe is 35 kPa, and the
elevation of the pipe above a reference datum is 4.60 m. Compute
the total head in meters if the liquid is (a) water, (b) molasses (s =1.50),
( c) gas (γ=6.54 N/m3).

Solution: p= 35 kPa

200 mm  V = 3.05 m/s

V2 p
(a) E   Z
2g 
4.60 m E
3.05m / s 2
35 x103 N / m 2
 4.60m

2 9.81m / s 2

9810 N / m 3

E  8.642m (water)
Datum
 V2 p
( b) E  Z
2g 

E
3.05m / s 2
35 x103 N / m 2
 4.60m

2 9.81m / s 2

1.5 x9810 N / m 3

E  7.453m (molasses)

3.05m / s 2 35 x103 N / m 2
(c ) E    4.60m

2 9.81m / s 2

6.54 N / m 3

E  5,356.76m (gas)
Example 2. A liquid ( s=2.00) is flowing in a 50 mm diameter pipe. The total
energy at a given point is 7.47 N-m/N. The elevation of the pipe
above the datum is 3.0 m and the pressure in the pipe is 65.5 kPa.
Compute the mean velocity of flow and the H.P. of the stream at that
point.

Solution: p = 65.5 kPa


V
50 mm

V2 p
(a) E  Z
2g 
3.0 m V2 65.5 x103 N / m 2
7.47m    3.0m

2 9.81m / s 2
 2(9810 N / m )3

V  4.712m / s
Datum
(b) Q  AV


Q  0.050m  4.712m / s 
2

Q  9.252 x10 3 m3 / s

Q   E
( c) H .P 
746watts / HP

H .P 
9.252 x10 3
 
m 3 / s 2 x9810 N / m 3 7.47m 
746watts / HP

H .P  1.82horsepower
Example 3. At a point A where the suction pipe leading to a pump is 1.20 m below the
pump an open manometer indicates a vacuum of 180 mm of mercury. The pipe is
100 mm in diameter, and the discharge is 0.030 m3/s of oil (s = 0.85). Compute the
total head at point A with respect to a datum at the pump.

Solution:

Datum

1.20 m
A

p = γmhm = - (13.6 x 9810 N/m3)(0.18 m) = - 24.015 kPa

0.030m 3 / s
(a) V 
Q
  3.82m/ s

A
0.10m 
2

V 2
p 3.82 m / s    24.015 x10 N / m  1.20 m
2 3 2
(b) E   Z   3.33N  m / N
2g  2 x9.81m / s 2 
0.85 x9810 N / m 3 
Example 4. A vertical circular stack 30 m high converges uniformly from a diameter
of 6 m at the bottom to 5.0 m at the top. Coal gas with a unit weight of 4.71
N/m3 enters at the bottom of the stack with a velocity of 3.05 m/s. The unit
weight of the gas increases uniformly to 6.59 N/m3 at the top. Compute the
mean velocity every 7.5 m up the stack.

(a) Changes in the diameter = 6  5  0.25m / 7.5m

Solution:
5.0 m 30
5
Therefore for every 7.5 m height, the change
7.5 m In diameter is 0.25 m. Starting from the bottom
The diameters changes as follows:
4
D1 = 6.00 m
7.5 m D2 = 5.75 m
3 D3 = 5.50 m
D4 = 5.25 m
7.5 m D5 = 5.00 m
2
coal gas
7.5 m

1
6m
 (b) The Change in specific weight 
6.59  4.71N / m 3

1.88 N / m 3
30m 30m
0.47 N / m 3

7.5m
Therefore for every 7.5 m height, the specific weight changes by 0.47 N/m3

γ1 = 4.71 N/m3

γ2 = 5.18 N/m3

γ3 = 5.65 N/m3

γ4 = 6.12 N/m3

γ5 = 6.59 N/m3
( c) Using the CONTINUITY EQ.
 1 A1V1   2 A2V2   3 A3V3   4 A4V4   5 A5V5

         
4.71 x6 2 3.05  5.18 x5.752 V2  5.65 x5.50 2 V3  6.12 x5.252 V4  6.59 x52 V5
4  4  4  4  4 
          
4.71 x6 2 3.05  5.18 x5.752 V2  5.65 x5.50 2 V3  6.12 x5.252 V4  6.59 x52 V5
4  4  4  4  4 

V2  3.02m / s

V3  3.026m / s

V4  3.066m / s

V5  3.139m / s
Example 5. A 300 mm pipe is connected by a reducer to a 100 mm pipe.
Points 1 and 2 are at the same elevation. The pressure at 1 is 207
kPa. The flow is 0.028 m3/s and the energy lost between 1 and 2 is
equivalent to 20.68 kPa. Compute the pressure at 2 if the liquid is
oil (s = 0.80).

Solution:
300 mm dia.
100 mm dia.
1 2 Datum
V1 V2

Q 0.028m3 / s p
(a) V1    0.396m / s (b) H L ,12 
A1  0.30m 2 
4
20.68 x103 N / m 2
Q 0.028m 3 / s H L ,1 2 
V2    3.565m / s 0.80 x9810 N / m3

A2 0.10m  2

4
 2.635m
( c) The energy equation (1 – 2)

2 2
V1 p V p
 1  Z1  2  2  Z 2  H L ,1 2
2g  2g 

0.396 2 207 x103 3.5652 p2

  Z1    Z 2  2.635
2 x9.81 0.8 x9810 2 x9.81 0.8 x9810

N kN
p2  181,299.56 2 or p2  181.299 2 orkPa
m m
Example 6. Compute the velocity head of the jet, as shown, if D1 = 75 mm,
D2 = 25 mm, the pressure head at 1 is 30 m of the liquid flowing, and the
head lost between 1 and 2 is 5% of the velocity head at 2.

p1
 30m
 jet

  Datum
1 2
25 mm dia.
75 mm dia.
Solution
(a) Using the continuity equation:
A1V1  A2V2 1
V1  V2
9

0.0752V1   0.0252V2
4 4
2
 0.025 
V1    V2
 0.075 
(b) The energy equation (1 – 2)

2 2
0 (atm.)
V1 p V p
 1  Z1  2  2  Z 2  H L ,1 2
2g  2g 
2
1 
 V2  2 2
 9   30  2  0.05 2
V V
2g 2g 2g
2 2
1 V2 V
  1.5 2   30
81 2 g 2g
2
V2
 1.0376   30
2g
2
V2
  28.913m
2g
Example 7. In the figure, a 50 mm pipe line leads downhill from a reservoir
and discharges into air. If the loss of head between A and B is 44 m,
compute the discharge.

W.S A Elev. 46 m

50 mm dia.
Solution:
B
Elev. 0 (Datum)
Energy equation (A – B) jet

2 2
VA p V p
 A  Z A  B  B  Z B  H L , A B
2g  2g  VB
2
 2m
negl. 0 (atm.) 0 (atm.) 2g
2
VB m
46m   44m VB  6.264
2g s
Then, Q  ABVB

 2 m
Q  0.050m   6.264 
4  s
m3
Q  0.012
s
2
Note: VA is negligible since the water surface in the large reservoir
2 g will drop down very slowly.
W.S A Elev. 46 m

50 mm dia.

B
Elev. 0 (Datum)
jet
Example 8. A pump draws water from a 200 mm suction pipe and
discharging through a 150 mm pipe in which the velocity is
3.658 m/s. The pressure is -34.47 kPa at A. The 150 mm pipe
discharges into the air at C. To what height h above B can the water
be raised, If B is 1.80 m above A and 20 HP is delivered to the
pump? Assume that the pump operates at 70% efficiency and the
frictional loss between A and C is 3.0 m.

C Solution

(a) Using Continuity Eq.

AAVA  ABVB
150 mm h

0.202VA   0.152 3.658
4 4
2
 0.15 
200 mm
B VA    3.658
A
1.80 m  0.20 
Datum
m
VA  2.058
W.S.

s
 
C
Q  AAVA  ABVB

 
  x0.20 2 2.058 150 mm h
4 
m3
 0.065 200 mm
s B
1.80 m
A  Datum
(b) Using the energy equation (A – C)
0 (atm.)
2 2
VA pA VC pC
  Z A  Ep    Z C  H L , AC
2g  2g 

2.0582   34.47 x103  0  E 

3.658
2
 0  1.80  h   3.0
p
2 x9.81 9810 2 x9.81
h  8.78  E p
Where:

Q   E
% eff. (HP of pump) 
p

746

 0 . 065  9810  E
0 . 70  20  p

746
E p  16 . 38 m ( Energy added by the pump
to the system)

therefore

h  8.78  16.38
h  7.60m
Example 9. The 610 mm pipe conducts water from reservoir A to a pressure
turbine, which discharges through another 610 mm pipe into tailrace
B. The head losses are:

From A – 1 : 5V2/2g

From 2 – B : 0.2V2/2g

If the discharge is 0.708 m3/s, what HP is being given up by the

water turbine.

W.S A Elev. 46 m

610 mm dia.

610 mm dia.

B Elev. 0 (Datum)
W.S
 W.S A Elev. 60 m

610 mm dia.

610 mm dia.

(a) Using Energy Equation (A – B)

B Elev. 0 (Datum)
W.S
2 2
VA pA VB pB
  Z A  ET    Z B  H L , A B
2g  2g 
Q 0.708 m
negl. 0 Where: V   2.423
negl. 0

 V 2
V 
2
A 0 .610 2 s
60  ET  0   5  0.2  4
 2g 2g  Then,
 2.423 2

V  2
ET  60  5.2   58.444m
ET  60  5.2   2 x9.81 
 2g 
Therefore

Q   E
HP 
746
 m 3  N 
 0.708  9810 3 58.444m 
 s  m 
HP 
N m
746 s
hp

HP  544.131hp

N m J
Note :   Watts
s s
Example 10. In a test to determine the discharge coefficient of a 50 mm by
12 mm Venturi Meter the total weight of water passing through the
meter in 5 minutes was 3100 N. A mercury-water differential gage
connected to inlet and throat showed an average mercury difference
of 360 mm. Determine the meter coefficient.

Solution:
50 mm dia.
H2O 12 mm
 
1 2
W

Hg 360 mm Qact . 
t
3100 N
3
Qact . 9810 N / m
(a) Meter coefficient, C  Qact . 
Qth. 5 min x60s / min
Volume m 3
(b) Actual Discharge, Qact .  Qact .  1.053x10 3
time s
 50 mm dia.
H2O 12 mm
 
1 2

Hg 360 mm

(c ) Energy equation (1 – 2), HL neglected (theoretical values)

2 2
V1 p1 V2 p2
  Z1    Z 2  H L ,1 2
2g  2g 
 
   
0
0.050 V1  0.012 V2
2 2
2 2
V2 V1 p1 p2 4 4
  
2g 2g    0.012 
2

V1    V2
where :  0.015 
A1V1  A2V2
V1  0.0576V2
  0.3601.0   0.36013.6  
p1 p2
and
 

 0.3601.0   0.36013.6  
p1 p2
 
p1 p2
  4.536m
 
So, Qth  A2V2
Therefore,

Qth  0.012 9.45
2 2
V2 V1 2
  4.536m
2g 2g 4
3
V2 0.0576V2 
m
Qth  1.069x103
2 2
  4.536m s
2g 2g Finally,
2 1.053x103
0.997
V2
 4.536m C
2g 1.069x103
m C  0.985
V2  9.45
s
Example 11. A pitot tube in a pipe in which air (γa = 12 N/m3) is flowing is
connected to a manometer containing water as in the figure shown.
If the difference in water levels in the manometer is 90 mm, what is the
velocity of flow in the pipe, assuming a tube coef. Cp = 0.99?

90 mm

H2O
air
  
1 2 3

Solution:
(a) Energy equation (1 – 2), HL = 0 ( for theoretical values)
2 2
V1 p1 V2 p2
  Z1    Z 2  H L ,1 2
2g  2g 
0 0
 90 mm

H2O
air
  
1 2 3

2 2
V1 p1 V2 p2
  Z1    Z 2  H L ,1 2
2g  a 2g  a
0 0
2
V1 p2 p1
 
2g  a  a
Considering the manometer reading starting from point 2 proceeding to point 3

p2 0.090 w p3 p1
0 0 
a a a a
 90 mm
2
V1 p2 p1
H2O then,  
2g  a  a
air
   2
1 2 3 V1
 73.575
2g
p2 0.090 w p p
0 0 3  1 m
a a a a V1  37.994
s
p2 p1 0.090 w Finally,
 
a a a Vact  C p xV1

Assuming the specific weight of air, γa = 12 N/m3 m

Vact  0.99 x37.994
p2 p1 0.0909810
s
   73.575m m
a a 12 Vact  37.614
s
Example 12. Air flows from 20 cm pipe in which the temperature and pressure
are 5 ˚C and 275 kPa gage, respectively, into a 10 cm pipe in which the
pressure is 140 kPa gage. Calculate the velocity and discharge in each pipe,
assuming isothermal conditions, standard atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa)
and no losses. The gas constant for air is 287 N-m/kg-˚K.

20 cm air 
v1 Datum
 v2 10 cm
plane

1 2
i. Determine the specific weights at section 1 and 2 ,
pg
  where T = 5 + 273 = 278 ˚K (absolute temp.)
RT
then
1  
 
p1 g 275  101.3 103 9.81 N
 46.268 3
RT 287278 m

2  
 
p2 g 140  101.3 103 9.81 N
 29.669 3
RT 287278 m
20 cm air 
v1 Datum
 v2 10 cm
plane

1 2

ii. Apply the continuity equation between sections 1 and 2 ,

 1 A1V1   2 A2V2


46.268 0.202V1  29.669  0.102V2
4 4
2
 29.669  0.10 
V1     V2
 46.268  0.20 

V1  0.160V2
iii. Apply the energy equation between sections 1 and 2 , HL = 0

2 2
V1 p V p
 1 ln p1  z1  2  1 ln p2  z 2
2g 1 2g 1

where
p1 275  101.3 103

 
 8,133.051m
1 46.268

    12.838
ln p1  ln 275  101.3 103

ln p2  ln140  101.310   12.394

3

Then we obtain,

2 2
V2 V1 p p
  1 ln p1  1 ln p2  z1  z 2
2g 2g 1 1
V2 0.160V2 
2 2
  8,133.05112.838  8,133.05112.394  since V1  0.160V2
2g 2g

V1  0.160269.649   43.144
m m
V2  269.649 and
s s
iv. Finally, we determine the discharge or volume flow rate at each section

 m3
Q1  A1V1  0.20  43.144   1.355
2

4 s

 m3
Q2  A2V2  0.10  269.649   2.118
2

4 s
EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1. A Fluid flowing in a pipe 30 cm in diameter has a uniform velocity of

4 m/s. The pressure at the center of the pipe is 40 kPa, and the elevation
of the pipe’s center line above an assumed datum is 4.5 m. Compute the
total energy per unit weight of the flowing fluid if it is (a) oil (s = 080)
(b) gas (γ = 8.50 N/m3).

2. A liquid of specific gravity 1.75 flows in a 75 mm pipe. The total energy

at a point in the flowing liquid is 100 J/N. The elevation of the pipe above
a fixed datum is 3.0 m and the pressure in the pipe is 90 kPa. Determine
the velocity of flow and the power available at that point.

3. Point A in the suction pipe is 1 m below the pump. It is mounted with an

open manometer which reads a vacuum of 20 cm of mercury. The pipe is
10 cm in diameter and the flow is 35 liters/s of water. Compute the total
energy at point A with respect to a datum through the pump.
4. A city requires a flow of 1.5 m3/s for its water supply. Determine the
diameter of the pipe if the velocity of flow is to be 1.80 m/s.

5. A pipe line consists of three successive lengths of 500 mm, 400 mm,
and 300 mm pipes. With continuous discharge of 300 liters/s of oil
(0.75) compute the mean velocity in each pipe.

6. A 300 mm pipe is connected by a reducer to a 100 mm pipe. Points 1 and

2 are along the same elevation. The pressure at point 1 is 200 kPa. The
flow is 30 liters/s and the energy lost between 1 and 2 is equivalent to
20 kPa. Compute the pressure at point 2 if the liquid flowing is water.

7. Compute the velocity of the jet if the larger diameter is 100 mm and the
smaller diameter is 30 mm. The pressure head at point 1 is 30 m of the
flowing water and the head lost between points 1 and 2 is 5 % of the
velocity head of the jet.

100 mm  V1 30 mm  V2
8. In figure, 40 liters/s of sea water (s=1.03) is flowing from 1
to 2, and the pressure at 1 is 95 kPa while at 2 the pressure
is – 20 kPa. Point 2 is 6 m higher than 1. Compute the
energy lost in kPa between 1 and 2 if D1 = 300 mm and
D2 = 100 mm.

V2
2
D2

6m

V1

1
D1