Biology  Rod or bacillus- cylindrical shape

 Spirillum- helical
* Study of life
Mycology- the study of fungi
* Greek words – bios – life ; Logos – study
Virology- the study of viruses
* Study of living organisms, their morphology, physiology, anatomy,
behavior, origin and distribution. Prions- Infectious proteins can cause brain damage (i.e mad cow disease)

Branches of bıology Physiology- concerned function of tissue, organs and systems.

Zoology- concerned with animals Morphology- concerned with phenotype (appearance) of living things.

Botany- is concerned with plants Embryology- studies the developmental patterns of organisms from zygote
to birth.
Cytology- study of cells
Biochemistry- is the branch of science that explores the chemical processes
Ecology - studies the relationship of living things between each other and within and related to living organisms.
their environment.
Herpetology- concerned with reptiles and amphibians.
Genetics- is the study of how features is passed to offspring from their
parents. Histology- is the study of plant and animal tissues.

Anatomy- is the study of the inner organs of the body (kidney, heart, liver
etc.)
Microbiology- the study of microscopic life. ex. Bacteria, viruses, protozoa
Axonomy- the study of the classification of living organisms.
4 types of tissue
Connective tissue, epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, nervous tissue
Paleontology- the branch of science concerned with fossil animals and
plants.

Carolus Linnaeus- Father of Taxonomy Properties of Life

Ornithology- the study of birds Seven characteristics of all living organisms

Entomology- the study of insects 1. Cellular Organization - are composed of cells

Parasitology - the study of parasites. 2. Ordered Complexity- are complex and ordered

Bacteriology- the study of bacteria 3. Sensitivity- respond to their environment

 Coccus- spherical shape 4. can Grow, Develop and Reproduce

5. Energy Utilization- obtain and use energy  Individual organism

6. Homeostasis- maintain internal balance 3. Populational level

7. allow for Evolutionary Adaptation  Population

 Community
Levels of Organization
4. Ecosystem level
1. Cellular Level
5. Biosphere
 Atoms molecules organelles cells
 Earth is an ecosystem we call the biosphere
2. Organismal Level

 Tissues organs organ systems  Each level has emergent properties

3. Population Level  An emergent property is a characteristic of a system that does not
 Population species biological community appear in any of its component parts.

4. Ecosystem Level Atoms- Particles that are the building blocks of all substances.

 Biological community + physical habitat (soil, water, - Basic unit of matter

atmosphere) Neutron- no charge particle
5. The Biosphere Protons- positively charged
 The entire planet thought of as an ecosystem Electrons- negatively charged
Levels of Organization  The number of protons, which is the atomic number, determines the
Living systems show hierarchical organization element.

1. Cellular level  Mass number - which is the total number of protons and neutrons
in their nucleus.
 Atoms, molecules, organelles, cells
 Cell is the basic unit of life  An element is a pure substance. Each kind consists only of atoms
with the same number of protons.
2. Organismal level
 Molecules - Two or more atoms joined in chemical bonds
 Tissues, organs, organ systems
Types of bonds Unnatural Selection -Weakest characteristic will survive.

1. Ionic bonds – atoms are bound with two oppositely charged ions. - Due to mutation or genetic problem

- metal bounded to a non-metal. Ex. NaCl. Post-Darwin Evolution Evidence

2. Covalent bond – atoms are bound by shared electrons. Ex. Water  Comparative anatomy

Isotonic solution - Solutions having identical osmotic pressures, i.e., a Homologous structures- have same evolutionary origin, but different
solution where cells do not swell or shrink. structure and function.

Hypotonic solution - A solution where solute concentration is low enough Analogous structures - have similar structure and function, but different
to cause water to move into cells via osmosis. evolutionary origin.

Hypertonic solution - A solution whose solute concentration is high enough Vestigial structures- Structures that have no apparent function and appear
to cause water to move out of cells via osmosis. to be residual parts from a past ancestor.

An Example of Scientific Inquiry: Darwin and Evolution  Molecular Evidence

- Charles Darwin served as naturalist on mapping expedition around coastal - Our increased understanding of DNA and protein structures has led to the
South America. development of more accurate phylogenetic trees

- Used many observations to develop his ideas Phylogenetic trees - shows how organisms diverged from their common
ancestor because of evolution.
- Proposed that evolution occurs by natural selection
- evolutionary tree
Charles Darwin
Unifying Themes in Biology
 Evolution: Modification of a species over generations
 Cell theory
 “descent with modification”
The cell theory describes the organization of living systems
 Natural Selection: Individuals with superior physical or behavioral
characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than those 1. Cell is the basic unit of structure and function of life.
without such characteristics
2. All living organisms are made of cells.
Darwin’s Evidence
3. All living cells come from preexisting cells.
Similarity of related species

> Darwin noticed variations in related species living in different locations

Cell Discoveries - 2 glucose molecules

Robert Hooke – coined the term cells Polysaccharides – complex carbohydrates Ex. Starch, glycogen, cellulose,
chitin.
Anton Leeuwenhoek – who claimed to have seen “animalcules” (later
known as bacteria and protozoa) with the aid of his simple microscopes 2. Fats or Lipids
which were really powerful magnifying glass.
- consists of one molecule of glycerol and there molecules of fatty acids/
Robert Brown – discovered the nucleus triglycerides.

Matthias Schleiden – found out that all plants consists of cells - stored energy and heat insulator

Theodor Schwann – found out that all animals consists of cells 3. Proteins

General functions of Cells - For muscle repair

 Manufacture of proteins and other materials that build the cell. - Amino acids are building blocks of protein. Ex. Meat and milk

 Manufacture of food for energy 4. Nucleic Acids

 Reproduction - complex organic substance present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA

Unifying Themes in Biology - Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids. Ex. DNA and RNA

Four major classes of Biomolecules Levels of classification

1. Carbohydrates Domain  Kingdom Phylum Class Order FamilyGenusSpecies

- provides energy for the body. The Diversity of Life

Monosaccharides - building blocks of carbohydrates
Three Domains:
Ex. Glucose, fructose, galactose, deoxyribose and ribose
1. Eukarya
Disaccharides - Ex. Lactose - made up of two molecules, glucose and
galactose. 2. Archaea

Sucrose - cane sugar or white sugar or table sugar 3. Bacteria

- glucose and fructose. Domain Eukarya is Divided into four Kingdoms:

Maltose - malt sugar 1. Plantae

2. Fungi 4. Phylum Arthropda

3. Animalia - Have jointed legs or appendages

4. Protista - The exoskeleton of arthropods have chitin which is responsible for

the hardness of its exoskeleton. Ex. Spider, crustaceans, crabs,
Kingdom animalia lobsters
Invetebrates – animals without backbones Classes
1. Phylum Porifera – with holes or pores in their body 1. Insecta – insects; 3 pairs of legs
Osculum – a large opening for the entry and exit of materials such as food 2. Arachnida – arachnids; 4 pairs of legs
and water. Ex. sponges
3. Crustacea – crustaceans; 5 pairs of legs
2. Phylum Cnidaria
4. Chilopoda – centipedes; One pair of legs per segment
- Coelenterates
5. Diplopoda – millipedes; Two pairs of legs per segment
- Stinging animals

- They have nematocyts which they used to paralyze their prey and
to collect food. Ex. Jellyfish, corals, sea anemone 5. Phylum Echinodermata

3. Phylum Mollusca Spine – bearing animals Ex. Sea cucumber, sea urchin, star fish

- Mollusks 6. Phylum Platyhelminthes

- Soft – bodied animals and have hard outer shells - Flatworms Ex. Tapeworms, blood flukes, planaria

- Not all mollusks have outer shells Ex. Clams, oysters, squids, octopus 7. Phylum Nematoda

Classes -Roundworms Ex. Ascaris, Hookworms

1. Gastropods - one-shelled ex. Snails 8. Phylum Annelida

2. Bi – valves - two-shelled ex. Oysters -Segmented worms Ex. Earthworms, leeches

3. Cephalods - no shell ex. Squid, octopus 9. Phylum Chordata

- With notochord develop later into backbone, gave rise to vertebrates

Ex. Lancelets, tunicates
Vertebrates – animals with backbones
1. Agnatha - jawless fishes Ex. Lampreys, hagfish
2. Osteichthyes – bony fishes Ex. Sea horse, milk fish
3. Chondrichthyes – cartilaginous fishes Ex. Sharks, manta rays
4. Amphibia – amphibians Ex. Toads, frogs, salamanders
5. Reptilia – reptiles Ex. Turtles, snakes, crocodiles
6. Aves – birds; they have wings for flight, feathers and beak
7. Mammalia – mammals; H\have hair or fur, mammary glands
Monotremes – egg laying mammals
Marsupials – abdominal pouch to carry the young
Placentals – presence of placenta
Introduction to the Plant Kingdom
Early Ancestors-- Aquatic to Terrestrial Life
Aquatic Ancestor
 Closest living species to a possible land plant ancestor
 Group of green algae
 Called Charyophyceans
Algae & Land Plant Similarities
 Both contain chlorophylls a and b
 Have chloroplasts with stacks of thylakoids
 Store starch in plastids
 Cellulose in cell walls
Three Types of plastids
1. Chloroplasts – site of photosynthesis
2. Leucoplasts – storage of starch
3. Chromoplasts – store carotenoid pigments responsible for red-orange-
yellow color of carrots and tomatoes.
Plant Divisions
Taxonomy
Plants are divided into two groups
1. Based on the presence or absence of an internal transport system for
water and dissolved materials
2. Called Vascular System
Vascular System
Xylem tissue carries water and minerals upward from the roots
Phloem tissue carries sugars made by photosynthesis from the leaves to
where they will be stored or used
Sap is the fluid carried inside the xylem or phloem
Nonvascular Plants
 Do not have vascular tissue for support or conduction of materials
 Called Bryophytes
 Require a constantly moist environment
 Plants can’t grow as tall
 Cells must be in direct contact with moisture
  Materials move by diffusion cell-to-cell Gymnosperms
 Sperm must swim to egg through water droplets
 Includes mosses (Bryophyta), liverworts (Hepatophyta), and Coniferophyta are known as conifers
hornworts (Antherophyta) Includes pine, cedar, spruce, and fir
Main Parts of Vascular Plants Cycadophyta – cycads
1. Shoots Ginkgophyta - ginkgo
-Found above ground Bristle cone pine – Contains the oldest living plant
-Have leaves attached Sequoia or redwood – Contains the tallest living plant
- Photosynthetic part of plant Angiosperms
2. Roots  Flowering plants
-Found below ground  Seeds are formed when an egg or ovule is fertilized by pollen in the
ovary
-Absorb water & minerals  Ovary is within a flower
 Flower contains the male (stamen) and/or female (ovaries) parts of
-Anchor the plant the plant
Vascular Plants  Fruits are frequently produced from these ripened ovaries (help
disperse seeds)
 Also called Tracheophytes
 Subdivided into two groups -- Seedless vascular plants and Seed-  Division Anthophyta
bearing vascular plants  Subdivided into two groups – Monocots and Dicots
Seedless Vascular Plants  Monocots have a single seed cotyledon
 Includes club moss (Lycophyta), horsetails (Sphenophyta), whisk
 Dicots have two seed cotyledons
ferns (Psilophyta), and ferns (Pterophyta)
The Four Basic Parts of Plants
Seed-Producing Vascular Plants
1. Leaves
 Includes two groups – Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
 Gymnosperms have naked seeds in cones Functions
 Angiosperms have flowers that produce seeds to attract pollinators
and produce seeds  Make food through photosynthesis
  Site of gas exchange Internal Stem Structure
 Respiration
 Photosynthesis Xylem- The tissue that transports water & nutrients up from roots to stems
 Store food & leaves.

Tissues of the Leaf (Epidermis) Phloem- Tissue that transports food down from leaves to roots.

Cuticle
 Waxy substance that covers the leaves & stems
 Waterproof layer that keeps water in plants
Cambium- Thin, green, actively growing tissue located between bark &
wood and produces all new stems cells.
Bark- Old- inactive phloem.

Stomata Heartwood- Old, inactive xylem.

 Openings in the epidermis mainly located on the underside of leaves Sapwood- New, active xylem.
 Exchange of gases Internal Stem Structure (Monocots)
Guard Cells  Vascular bundles contain both xylem & phloem. Examples: Grasses,
 Two cells located on each side of stomata Corn
 Open and closes stomata Internal Stem Structure (Dicots)
External Parts of the Leaf  Plant stems have xylem & phloem separated by the cambium.
Petiole- Leaf stalk or part that connects the leaf to the stem. Example: Trees

Blade- The large, flat part of a leaf. 3. Roots

Midrib- The large center vein. Functions

 Anchor the plant

2. Stems
 Absorb water & minerals
Functions  Store food
 Propagate or reproduce some plants
 Movement of materials
 Water & minerals from roots to leaves Different Types of Roots
 Manufactured food from leaves to roots
 Support leaves & reproductive structures 1. Tap Root
 Food storage  One main root, no nodes
  Ideal for anchorage  Attracts pollinating insects.
 Penetration is greater for water  Collectively called the corolla.
 Storage area for food
 Dicots 3. Stamen

2. Fibrous Root  Male reproductive part

 Many finely branched secondary roots Anther- Produces pollen

 Shallow roots cover a large area Filament- Supports the anther
 More efficient absorption of water & minerals
 Roots hold the soil to prevent erosion 4. Pistil
 Monocots
 Female reproductive part
3. Aerial Roots
Ovary- Enlarged portion at base of pistil
Clinging air roots- Roots that fasten the plant to a support
- Produces ovules which develop into seeds
Absorptive air roots- Absorb moisture from the air
Stigma- Holds the pollen grains
4. Flowers
Style- Connects the stigma with the ovary
Function
- Supports the stigma so that it can be pollinated
 Contain the sexual organs for the plant.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Produces fruit, which protects, nourishes and carries seeds.
 Attracts insects for pollination. In chloroplasts, the first stage of photosynthesis occurs at the thylakoid
membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, light
Parts of the Flower
energy drives ATP and NADPH formation; oxygen is released.
1. Sepals
The second stage of photosynthesis occurs in the stroma. In these light-
 Outer covering of the flower bud.
independent reactions, ATP and NADPH drive the synthesis of sugars from
 Protects the stamens and pistils when flower is in bud stage.
water and carbon dioxide.
 Collectively known as the calyx.

2. Petals
Formula: 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon dioxide + water  glucose + oxgen
 Brightly colored
 Protects stamen & pistils.

Plant Growth
Tropism – directional growth or movement of a plant in reaction to stimuli.
Tip: Remember the phrase “Everybody thinks priests go to heaven” or the
acronym “ETPGTH”
Type of Tropism
E Electrotropism Electro – electric
- growth or movement in response to an electric field
T Thermotropism Thermo – heat
- growth or movement in response to temperature
P Phototropism Photo – light
- growth or movement towards the direction of light
G Geotropism Geo – earth
- growth or movement towards the direction of Earth‟s gravity
T Thigmotropism Thigmo - touch
- growth or movement in response to touch or contact
H Hydrotropism Hydro - water
- growth or movement towards water or bodies of water
Human Organ System
SKELETAL SYSTEM- Supports and protects body parts; provides muscle
attachment sites; produces red blood cells; stores calcium, phosphorus.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- Rapidly transports many materials to and from
interstitial fluid and cells; helps stabilize internal pH and temperature.
Blood Cells
Red blood cells - have hemoglobin; carry oxygen to various parts of the
body
White blood cells - fight infection in the body.
Platelets - needed for cessation of bleeding through blood clot formation
BLOOD VESSELS
Arteries - thick walled, muscular blood vessels which transport blood away
from the heart to all parts of body
Capillaries - found at end of small arteries, and at beginning of small veins;
exchanges dissolved materials by diffusion between the blood and fluid
surrounding body cells
Veins - thin walled blood vessels possessing valves which prevent back flow
of blood; returns blood to the heart
HEART- Four - chambered double pump composed of TWO atrium and
TWO ventricles.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Nasal cavity - lined with ciliated mucous membrane which filters, warms,
and moistens the air; opening is called nostrils
Pharynx - connects the nasal cavity to the air cavity; air travels here.
Epiglottis - a flap of tissue which prevents other materials aside from air to
enter the trachea
Trachea - tube that sends air between the pharynx and the bronchi;
cartilage rings prevent the trachea from collapsing
Bronchi -lined with mucous membranes and ringed with cartilage leading to
the bronchioles
Bronchioles -lined with mucous membranes but lack cartilage which finally Biome – A major regional or global community of organisms, usually
leads to alveoli characterized by the climate conditions and plant communities of the region

Alveoli -functional unit where gas exchange occurs; surrounded by Cell Types and Cell Structure
capillaries
Prokaryotic
NERVOUS SYSTEM
• no nucleus
Neurons - Basic cellular unit of the nervous system.
• no membrane enclosed organelles
- Detects external and internal stimuli; controls and coordinates • single chromosome
responses to stimuli; integrates all organ system activities. • no streaming in the cytoplasm
• cell division without mitosis
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM- Protects body from injury, dehydration, and • simple flagella
some pathogens; controls its temperature; excretes certain wastes; receives • smaller ribosomes
some external stimuli. • simple cytoskeleton
• no cellulose in cell walls
MUSCULAR SYSTEM- Moves body and its internal parts; maintains posture;
• no histone proteins
generates heat by increases in metabolic activity.
Examples: Bacteria
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM- Hormonally controls body functioning; with nervous
system integrates short- and long-term activities. Eukaryotic

Ecology • nucleus
• membrane enclosed organelle
- the study of the interactions among living things and
• chromosomes in pairs
their surroundings
• streaming in the cytoplasm
- Eco: (from Greek oikos, meaning “house”)
• cell division by mitosis
Organism – An individual living thing • complex flagella
• larger ribosomes
Population – A group of the same species living in the same area and time • complex cytoskeleton
• cellulose in cell walls
Community – A group of different species that live together in one area.
• DNA bound to histone proteins
Definitions:
Examples: Plant cells, Animal cells, Fungi, Protists
Ecosystem – All of the organisms (biotic) as well as the climate, soil, water,
rocks and other nonliving things (abiotic) in a given area
Plasma membrane- Surrounds Cells, Protected by cellulose and protein cell
wall in plants
Cytoplasm- Fluid (Cytosol) and organelles that make up the inside of the cell
Nucleus- Membranous nuclear envelope, Chromosomes of DNA and protein
(Histones)
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
1. Rough ER - Transport of proteins (roughness is the attached ribosomes)
2. Smooth ER – Processing and transport of lipids
Ribosomes- Attached to Rough ER, Site of protein synthesis
Golgi Apparatus (Golgi body, Golgi complex)- Assembly and editing of
proteins
Lysosomes- Contain enzymes that break down and help
recycle large proteins in animal cells
Mitochondria- Powerhouse - site of ATP synthesis
Flagella and Cilia- Cell surface projections for movement
Microtubules and Microfilaments- Structural components of the cell
(cytoskeleton) in eukaryotes
Vacuoles- Large central vacuoles in plant cells contain
enzymes and pigments in plant cells
Chloroplasts- Photosynthetic organelles in plant cells,
containing the chlorophyll pigments
Plant cells
 Large, central vacuole
 Chloroplasts
 Rigid cell wall outside of cell membrane
Animal cells
 No large, central vacuole
 No chloroplasts
 No rigid cell wall
Cell Membranes Structure and Function
Semi- permeable Membranes
• Lipid membranes are semi-permeable, also called selectively permeable
– Water moves across the membrane freely
– Ions (charged particles) do not move across the membrane freely
– Many large molecules do not move across the membrane freely
Passive Transport
• Diffusion – the movement of substances from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
• Osmosis – the movement of water from an area of higher water content
to an area of lower water content
Active Transport
• The movement of a substance against the concentration gradient (from
lower concentration to higher concentration
• Active transport requires the use of energy
 Very large molecules may be taken in by endocytosis
 Exocytosis secretes substances
Cell Reproduction -- Mitosis and Binary Fission
Three Schemes
Binary fission, mitosis, meiosis
• Mitosis - division of the cell nucleus and its contents
• Cytokinesis - the division of cell cytoplasm into two identical daughter
cells
• Chromatin - the combination of DNA and histone proteins Ecological Niche
• Diploid - Two copies of each chromosome, one paternal, one maternal
All of the physical, chemical, and biological factors that a species needs to
The Cell Cycle survive, stay healthy, and reproduce
– Food
G0- cell cycle at rest – Abiotic conditions
– Behavior
G1- cellular contents, excluding the chromosomes, are duplicated Competitive Exclusion

S- each of the 46 chromosomes is duplicated by the cell.
G2- the cell “double checks” the duplicated chromosomes for error,
making any needed repair.
Prophase- nucleolus disappears
Metaphase- Chromosomes align in the metaphase place
Anaphase- Chromatids separated towards opposite poles.
• When two species are competing for the same resources, one species will
be better suited to the niche, and the other species will be pushed into
another niche or become extinct organisms that are native to a particular
another niche or become extinct
• Invasive species may outcompete organisms that are native to a particular
region
Predation
• The process by which one species captures and feeds upon another
– Heterotrophs can prey on autotrophs and other heterotrophs

Telophase- new nuclear envelope forms, chromosomes unfold back into Predator – Prey Cycles
chromatin, nucleoli reaper, cell continues to elongate • Prey outnumber predators
• Increasing numbers of prey promote increases in
Cytokinesis- daughter cells divide predator populations
Binary Fission Symbiosis
• A close ecological relationship between two or more organisms of
 The primary method of reproduction for prokaryotes
different species that live in direct contact with one another
 Does not require a mate
–Mutualism
 Is asexual reproduction
–Commensalism
 Does not increase the variation in a population
–Parasitism
Interactions in Ecosystems
Mutualism
Habitat- All of the biotic and abiotic factors in the area where an organism • An interspecies interaction in which both species benefit
lives – Flowers and pollinating insects
– Humans and intestinal E. coli
– Clown fish and anemones Biotic Energy Movement
• Producers – Autotrophs (Photosynthesizers, Chemosynthetic organisms)
Commensalism • Primary consumers – Herbivores and omnivores that eat producers
• A relationship between two organisms in which one receives an ecological • Secondary consumers – Carnivores and omnivores that eat herbivores
benefit from another, while the other neither benefits or is harmed • Tertiary consumers – Carnivore eats another carnivore
• Many ecologists believe that commensalism is rare, and that most such • Decomposers and Detrivores – Consume decaying producers and
relationships are probably subtle mutualism or parasitism
consumers
Parasitism
Food Chain
• A relationship in which one species benefits while the other is harmed.
• Many parasites have complex lifecycles involving more than one host  Energy is lost in each step up a food chain
 Only 10 percentof the energy from one level on the food chain is
Energy in Ecosystems available to the next level
- Food Chains, Food Webs and, Energy Pyramids
Food Webs
Producers (Autotrophs) • Many consumers and decomposers have more than one food source
• Photosynthetic organisms
• Movement of energy occurs in complex webs rather than in simple chains
– Capture energy from sunlight, CO2 and H2O
– Most producers are photosynthetic Energy Pyramids
• Chemosynthetic organisms • Energy pyramids show the reduction of available energy at each higher
– Capture energy from chemical compounds in trophic level
the surroundings

Consumers (Heterotrophs)
• Herbivores – Eat only plants and fungi
• Omnivores – Eat both plants/fungi and animals
• Carnivores – Eat only animals
• Detrivores – Eat dead organic matter
• Decomposers – Break down organic matter into simpler compounds

Movement of Energy
• Trophic Structures
– Manner in which energy moves through an ecosystem
– Each ecosystem has its own unique trophic structure