10/28/2018 Body Systems Transcript

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BODY SYSTEMS

IMMUNITY
The external skin and internal mucous membranes are barriers to invasion of the body by microorganisms.
These barriers (the body's rst line of defense) prevent reproduction of microorganisms, but when the barriers
are invaded, internal defenses combat infectious agents.

The body's second line of defense is a set of non-speci c internal defense mechanisms that attack any
microbes that penetrate the body. Phagocytic cells directly engulf microbes. Another cell type, the natural killer
cells, destroys body cells that have become infected by viruses. An in ammatory response is another
component of the non-speci c defense mechanism. Histamine is released by mast cells in response to tissue
damage, which enhances permeability of surrounding capillaries. The area becomes warmer, red, swollen, and
painful. Chemicals from microbes and immune cells recruit additional immune cells to participate in the host
defense. If the infection is extensive, a fever may result, which increases the activity of the immune response
and is damaging to microbes.

Massive infections elicit another type of response, the speci c immune response (the body's third line of
defense) directed selectively at the invading organism. The speci c immune response is a highly coordinated
mechanism for eliminating the selected organism and protecting the body against future invasions by that
particular organism. The rst step in a speci c response necessitates recognition of the invader by two kinds
of lymphocytes, the B cells and the T cells.

B cells have receptors on their surfaces that identify unique surface structures derived from invading microbes
after some of them have been ingested by macrophages. Interactions between B cell receptors and microbe
structures induce the B cell to di erentiate into plasma cells and memory cells. The plasma cells then secrete
copious amounts of antibodies, which are protein molecules with binding speci city for the microbe.
Circulating antibodies then bind to the microbe, thus coating it with antibodies and rendering it a target for
elimination by both phagocytic cells and circulating proteins, called the complement system. Memory cells are
a population of cells that remain in circulation for an extended time, and they respond to a subsequent
infection by the same microorganism. Subsequent contact with the microbe causes memory cells to quickly
di erentiate to antibody-producing cells. An immune response by memory cells is called a secondary
response, which is faster and more intense than the primary response to the rst contact with the invader.

Macrophages also present microbe surface structures to a class of T cells called helper T cells. These helper T
cells, upon activation, produce chemicals that cause T cells to di erentiate into four lines. These lines are
helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, suppressor T cells, and memory T cells. Cytotoxic T cells bind to and destroy
microbes. Suppressor T cells regulate the immune response by turning it o at the appropriate time, and
memory T cells participate in the secondary response, if the microbe is encountered in the future.

The devastating e ects of AIDS are a result of the mode in which the HIV virus attacks the immune system. HIV
binds speci cally to and infects helper T cells (also called T4 cells), which are the control point in the immune
response, killing them and reducing their numbers to the point where the immune system is ine ective. There
is a direct correlation between helper T cell numbers and health status in AIDS. Full-blown AIDS exists when
helper T cell concentrations are about 10% of normal. Because helper T cells are so crucial in activating the
immune system, their depletion in AIDS results in the patient's susceptibility to a wide variety of infections and
some cancers.

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10/28/2018 Body Systems Transcript

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Hormones are a class of molecules that maintain homeostasis in our bodies. When conditions change,
receptors detect the change and respond by e ecting a change in the opposite direction. These responsive
changes often result from the action of hormones.

Thus, the hypothalamus of the brain is a control center that coordinates many hormone systems. A
hypothalamic response involves sending a chemical signal to the pituitary gland, which in turn signals other
endocrine glands to produce their particular hormones. The endocrine gland under control of the pituitary
makes a hormone whose e ect is to compensate for the original change. There are many separate brain
sensors to detect changes such as temperature, concentration of salts, oxygen concentration, etc. Likewise,
the hypothalamus can respond with a variety of di erent signals to the pituitary gland. The pituitary can make
a variety of di erent hormones also, but the one(s) it produces and releases depends upon information from
the hypothalamus.

The hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid response to temperature change illustrates a classic example, among the
many, of the negative feedback mechanism of hormone action. Decrease in temperature is detected by the
hypothalamus, causing it to secrete thyroid-releasing hormone that travels in the blood to the pituitary gland.
The pituitary gland then produces thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the thyroid gland to
make thyroxin. Thyroxin causes an increase in metabolism and the production of body heat.

Another type of hormone action involves local monitoring and response. The classic example involves the
endocrine cells of the pancreas, which respond to changes in blood sugar concentration (see illustration on
page 279 of the text). Between meals, the blood sugar level is low, and alpha cells of the pancreas are
stimulated to release glucagon. Glucagon travels to the liver through the bloodstream, where it stimulates the
conversion of glycogen to glucose. Hence, the blood glucose level increases to its normal range. Following a
meal, digestion produces glucose, which is absorbed into the bloodstream. Beta cells of the pancreas are
stimulated by glucose to produce insulin. Insulin travels to the liver and muscles where it stimulates cells to
take up glucose and convert it to glycogen in order to bring the blood glucose level within its normal range.

BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology may be the ultimate proof of the universality of the genetic code. The code, represented by
base sequences within DNA molecules, contains both hereditary instructions and instructions that specify a
protein product. DNA has four nucleotide bases, designated A, T, G, and C, that link together into a linear
polymer. The order of base linkages, and the length of a polymer segment, or gene, specify amino acids of a
protein molecule. Genes can be cut from the DNA of one organism and pasted into the DNA of another,
entirely di erent, organism and be functional due to the universal nature of the nucleotide bases, the code
that speci es amino acids, and the enzyme machinery that cells use to achieve protein expression. DNA
molecules have a further structural feature: They are a double helix made of parallel nucleotide sequences
spiraling around each other. Hydrogen bonds, precisely arranged, hold the double helix together. The A of one
strand forms a hydrogen bond with the T of its complementary strand, and the G of one strand forms a
hydrogen bond with the C of its complementary strand. These are the only stable hydrogen bonding
arrangements for DNA double helices.

Recombinant DNA technology is the process of cutting parts of a DNA molecule (usually an entire gene) from
one organism, and splicing it into the DNA sequence of another organism, such that the recipient organism
produces a product speci ed by the inserted DNA. Various tools, found mainly in nature, are used in this
process. An example is the production of human growth hormone (hGH) in bacteria. Human DNA was
extracted from cells, and then the gene for hGH was cut from the DNA molecule using a restriction
endonuclease, an enzyme that cuts DNA at particular sites (speci ed by the order of the bases). From the cut
DNA, the gene for hGH was identi ed and puri ed away from other DNA fragments. The DNA sequence
containing the hGH gene was then spliced into a plasmid "vector." Splicing of the hGH gene required making a

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single cut in the plasmid with the restriction enzyme, then mixing the spliced plasmid; the hGH gene; and an
enzyme, DNA ligase, which connects the recombinant DNA molecule to the plasmid DNA.

The transgenic plasmid (plasmid DNA containing the hGH gene) is then mixed with bacteria that will ingest the
plasmid. The bacteria containing the transgenic plasmid are then placed in growth medium, where they will
grow and reproduce. Human growth hormone is produced in large quantities as the plasmid is reproduced
inside the bacteria. The hormone is then puri ed away from unwanted metabolites, for medicinal uses.

CREDITS Interactive Design: Niles Bisping, Eric Vogel, Alyssa Jensen

Voice Talent: Eric Vogel

Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.

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