Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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Diagenesis and reservoir quality of Bhuban sandstones (Neogene),

Titas Gas Field, Bengal Basin, Bangladesh
M. Aminul Islam *
Department of Geology and Mining, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi-6205, Bangladesh

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study deals with the diagenesis and reservoir quality of sandstones of the Bhuban Formation located
Received 16 July 2007 at the Titas Gas Field of Bengal Basin. Petrographic study including XRD, CL, SEM and BSE image analysis
Received in revised form 24 December 2008 and quantitative determination of reservoir properties were carried out for this study. The sandstones
Accepted 5 January 2009
are fine to medium-grained, moderately well to well sorted subfeldspathic arenites with subordinate
feldspathic and lithic arenites. The diagenetic processes include clay infiltration, compaction and cemen-
tation (quartz overgrowth, chlorite, kaolinite, calcite and minor amount of pyrite, dolomite and K-feld-
Keywords:
spar overgrowth). Quartz is the dominant pore occluding cement and generally occurred as small
Diagenesis
Reservoir quality
euhedral crystals, locally as large pyramidal crystals in the primary pores. Pressure solution derived from
Bhuban sandstone grain contact is the main contributor of quartz overgrowths. Chlorite occurs as pore-lining and pore fill-
Titas Field ing cement. In some cases, chlorite helps to retain porosity by preventing quartz overgrowth. In some
Bengal Basin restricted depth interval, pore-occlusion by calcite cement is very much intense. Kaolinite locally devel-
oped as vermiform and accelerated the minor porosity loss due to pore-occlusion. Kaolinite/chlorite
enhances ineffective microporosity. Kaolinite is a by-product of feldspar leaching in the presence of acidic
fluid produced during the maturation of organic matter in the adjacent Miocene or deeper Oligocene
source rocks.
The relation between diagenesis and reservoir quality is as follows: the initial porosity was decreased
by compaction and cementation and then increased by leaching of the metastable grains and dissolution
of cement. Good quality reservoir rocks were deposited in fluvial environment and hence quality of res-
ervoir rocks is also environment selective. Porosity and permeability data exhibit good inverse correlation
with cement. However, some data points indicate multiple controls on permeability. Reservoir quality is
thus controlled by pore occluding cement, textural parameters (grain size, pore size and sorting) and
depositional environment. The reservoir finally resumed partly its pre-cementation quality after develop-
ment of secondary porosity.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Bangladesh covers the greater part of the Bengal Basin repre-
senting a prolific petroleum bearing basin in the Southeast Asia.
Considerable interest has been focused over the past few decades
regarding the geological investigation of the Bengal Basin due to
its petroleum potential. Significant contributions have been made
by several workers in relation to the regional geology, petroleum
prospects, sedimentology and tectonic evolution of individual parts
of the basin and adjoining areas (e.g. Holtrop and Keizer, 1970; Leitz
and Kabir, 1982; Hiller and Elahi, 1984; Johnson and Alam, 1991;
Shamsuddin and Abdullah, 1997; Gani and Alam, 1999, Gani and
Alam, 2003; Alam et al., 2003; Davies et al., 2003; Chowdhury
et al., 2003; Uddin and Lundberg, 2004). However, very few studies
* Tel.: +880 721 750041x3740; fax: +880 721 750064.
E-mail address: aminul_gm_ru@yahoo.com
have ever been related to reservoir properties and diagenesis of res-
ervoir sandstones and its implications for reservoir quality except
Imam and Shaw (1985, 1987).
In this regard, there still exists a gap between the understand-
ing the reservoir properties and factors controlling the reservoir
quality of the gas fields. With the aim of helping to close the gap,
this paper gives an account of the petrophysical properties of res-
ervoir rock to characterize the reservoir and also describes how the
diagenesis, detrital composition and depositional environment
influence the reservoir quality of the Bhuban Sandstones in well
Titas-11 of Titas Gas Field. This field is located at the outer margin
of the southern boarder of the Surma Basin/Sylhet Trough (a sub-
basin of the greater Bengal Basin), and on the western margin of
the Tripura High, some 100 km ENE of Dhaka (Fig. 1). The discovery
of this gas field was date back in 1962 by Shell Oil Company to a
depth of 3756 m where they found a number of separate gas-bear-
ing reservoirs in the Miocene, the top three of which proved to be

1367-9120/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2009.01.006
90 M. Aminul Islam / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100

88 90 90
NEPAL
HIMALAYA
Brahmaputra R Mikir
Hills
26
Assam

INDIAN PLATFORM
Shillong Plateau
INDIA
Gan

Jamuna
ges
R

R Bengal Basin Titas Gas Field

Indian Shield

24
INDIA
Dhaka Tripura

Chitt
ne
Zo

Indo-Burman Ranges
ago
BANGLADESH

ng
West Bengal

Kolkata
ge

Hill R
Hin

ange
22

Bay of Bengal
MYANMER
China (BURMA)
tan
kis HIMALAYA
Pa
100 Km
Myanmar

Nepal
India

Bangladesh

Fig. 1. Location map of Bangladesh and adjoining areas. This map also shows the location of Titas Gas Field (modified after Alam et al. (2003)).

commercially viable (BOGMC, 1988). Titas is one of the leading
producing gas fields and one of the largest feeders of the national
gas grid of Bangladesh.
2. Geological background
Bangladesh lies in the northeastern part of the Indian subconti-
nent, between the Indian Shield to the west and north, Indo-Burman
Ranges to the east and Bay of Bengal to the south. The evolution of
the Bengal Basin can be related to the breakup of the eastern
Gondwanaland with northward drifting of the Indian plate and ulti-
mate collision of India with Asia. Tectonically Bangladesh is divided
into two major elements with a transition zone. The tectonic ele-
ments are: Stable Shelf Province, Central Deep Basin Province and
the Hinge zone; the transition zone (Alam et al., 2003) (Fig. 2). The
Titas structure lies on the southern fringe of Sylhet Trough. The Syl-
het Trough contains sedimentary thickness that ranges from 12 to
16 km of late Mesozoic and Cenozoic age (Johnson and Alam,
1991). Titas is a dome-like north–south elongated and asymmetric
sub-surface anticline (BOGMC, 1988) and structurally higher than
the Rashidpur, Habigonj and Lalmai structures (Khan and Hussain,
1980).
The formations encountered in the Titas structure are composed
of the Surma and Tipam Groups (Fig. 3). The Surma Group consists
of the Bhuban and Bokabil Formations of Miocene age; the Tipam
Group consists of the Tipam and Girujan Clay Formations of Plio-
cene age and subsequently followed by The Dupi Tila Formation
of Plio-Pleistocene age. The Surma Group essentially consists of
alternating sandstones, shales, sandy shales and siltstones forming
a diachronous unit (Brunschweiller, 1980). The Tipam Group is
characterized by dominant sandstones and sandy shale at the bot-
tom and clay at the top. The depositional environments of the Sur-
ma Group are interpreted as prodelta, delta front and paralic with
intermittent marine facies. Several sequence cycles have been rec-
ognized in the Surma Group as follows: distal fluviomarine, proxi-
mal fluviomarine, barrier bar sand, lagoonal clay and multiple
channel deposits (Holtrop and Keizer, 1970).
 M. Aminul Islam / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100 91

28
N
SI
BA
N HIMALAYAS
RU
ST S AM
Y
TH AS

st
AR
D

ru
UN
BO

Th
AIN Mikir

ng
M
INDIA Hills

sa
Di
26

g-
on
Shillong Plateau

afl
RAJMAHAL

IN
-H
TRAPS

ga

AS
Na
Dauki Fault

B
lls
Mymensingh

Hi
Sylhet

WIN
INDIAN
Trough

ga
PLATFORM

Na

IND
T

R an ge s
UL
FA
e
24 BENGAL

CH
n BASIN
Zo

Bangladesh

FAU LT
Chin Hills
C T F B
MYANMAR
INDIA (BURMA)
ge

In do -B ur m an
Hin

BASIN
Hatia

FAULT
Calcutta Trough
22

MA

SHAN
N

L BUR
DA
K ALA
Hills

PLATE
AW

A
Arak an

AB

G
AU
CENTR

SAGAIN
K
200m
20
Bay of Bengal

Barisal-Chadpur
Gravity High Thrust Fault
Fo l d

18 100 km International Boundary

88 90 92 94 96

Fig. 2. Regional map showing the tectonic elements of Bengal Basin and surrounding areas (modified from Johnson and Alam (1991); BOGMC (1997); Uddin and Lundberg
(1999); Alam et al. (2003)). CTFB = Chittagong Tripura fold belt.

In the study area, gas pay horizons are mainly confined to the
Bhuban Formation (Fig. 3) and linked to both thick and thinly lam-
inated sandstones. The seals and reservoir quality are also good.
The available body of work reveals few indications of effective oil
and gas source rocks in outcrops or penetrated sections of Bangla-
desh (Curiale et al., 2002). Jenam Shale could be the potential
source for petroleums within the Bengal Basin, as is the case in
the neighbouring Assam Basin of India. Prospective plays are likely
to exist near the generative depressions of the Sylhet Trough/Sur-
ma Sub-Basin charged by Jenam ‘‘kitchens”. The total organic con-
tent (TOC) in the Jenam Shale ranges from 0.6% to 2.4%
(Shamsuddin and Abdullah, 1997). Vitrinite reflectance values
range from 0.63% to 0.74% (Khan et al., 1988). Compared to the Ba-
rail Group, the overlying Surma Group sediments have relatively
low organic contents with TOC values generally ranging from
0.2% to 0.6% (Khan et al., 1988). Below 3000 m, values are slightly
higher up to 0.78%; but in general, the TOC content of the Surma
Group is below the threshold values (0.5%) for a source bed (Tissot
and Welte, 1978; Waples, 1985). However, Shamsuddin and Khan
(1991) proposed that the large volume of shales in the Surma
Group may offset the low TOC content. Most strata penetrated by
wells through out the Bengal Basin are interpreted to be thermally
immature for oil generation.
The temperature at the reservoir level (>3000 m) of the Titas
field was recorded about 110 °C (Khan and Hussain, 1980). BSS
excel 1D software (product of Japan Geoscience Institute (JGI))
analysis found that the paleo heat flow of reservoir rocks of Ti-
tas-11 equals to present day heat flow (1.4 HFU, 1 HFU = 41 mW/
m2). The overall heat flows are considered low with time, and
the rate of sedimentation plays important roles in the delineation
of the sub-surface oil and gas generative windows (personal com-
munication with Kazuo Nakayama of JGI). Generally, the effective
‘‘oil window” probably occurs between 5 and 8 km in the depocen-
tres. Burial history and thermal modelling indicate that the onset
of oil generation was probably initiated 10 million years ago
(Fig. 4), thus enabling charge from the Oligocene/Jenam Shale
sources and accumulations in suitable traps of Late Miocene to
younger ages.
3. Materials and methods
Among the collected samples, thirty selected sandstone samples
were studied from six slabbed cores of well Titas-11 covering depth
between 2691 and 2792 m. Quantitative determination of porosity
and permeability were made by UltraPoreTM 300 Hellium Pycnome-
ter and porosimeter PASCAL 440 at the research center of Japan
Petroleum Exploration Company (JAPEX TRC). Thin sections are
prepared by vacuum impregnation with blue-dyed resin prior to
cutting and grinding to a standard 30 lm thickness. Compositional
92 M. Aminul Islam / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100

Production
Reservoir
Source
Age

Seal
Group
Formation

Pleistocene
EXPLANATION
Dupi

Dupi
Tila
Pleistocene
Late Pliocene Tila Sandstone
Late-Early
Pliocene Girujan Clay

Tipam
Tipam
Early Pliocene- sst
Late Miocene Mudstone/shale

Marine sh
Upper
Late Boka Bil Organic rich shale
Miocene Surma

Limestone

Late-Middle Bhuban
Miocene
Middle-Early
Miocene
Early Miocene- am
gr
At
Late Oligocene
Disang

Renji
Barail

Early Oligocene- Jenam

Late Eocene Laisong Disang
Kopili
Jaintia

Sylhet

Middle-Early
ls

Eocene

(Pre-Eocene
sediment not
encountered)

Fig. 3. Regional stratigraphy of eastern Bangladesh covering all the gas fields of Bangladesh (modified after Curiale et al. (2002)).

percentages of sample were based on 200-point modal analysis.

Samples were prepared for SEM analysis by removing small freshly
n

i T ST
ba
an

ba

um
Al ila
Bi

fractured rock fragment measuring less than 1 cm diameter. Sam-

hu
ub

up S
hu

D m

vi
ka
-B
Bh

-B

Ti S

lu
pa
Bo

ples were analyzed using a HITACHI 3000S scanning electron

M
L-

0
microscope (SEM) fitted with backscattered electron detector
(BSE) and diamond polished carbon coated thin sections were used
for cathodoluminescence (CL) study. Except petrophysical analysis,
-1000 R0 = 0.3% (50 ºC) all necessary studies were carried out at the laboratory of Univer-
sity of Tsukuba, Japan.
XRD analysis was carried out for clay fraction 62 lm. Initial dis-
-2000 aggregation was conducted under distilled water in an agate mor-
tar. The sample was then transferred to a suitable beaker together
with a dispersing agent in order to prevent flocculation. Standing
R0 = 0.5% (100 ºC)
Depth (m)

the beaker in an ultrasonic bath for 30 min facilitated liberation

-3000
of the clay component. The 2 lm fraction was removed from sus-
pension by centrifuge and the remaining clay was decanted off
and transferred to a glass slide. Oriented mounts of the clays were
-4000 run in a Rigaku Geigerflex (RAD-A) automated powder diffraction
0
system using Cu Ka radiation at 40 kV and 40 mA, from 2 to
R0 = 0.7% (130 C) 30 °C 2h for air dried and ethylene glycol salvation.

-5000
4. Reservoir lithologies

Reservoir rocks are characterized by fine to medium grained

-6000 sandstones, sandstone–siltstone interbeds and laminated silt-
-20 -15 -10 -5 0
stones. It is established that Surma Group (Bokabil and Bhuban
Age (Ma)
Formation) sediments are deposited in a deltaic setting (Holtrop
Fig. 4. Burial history diagram of Titas Gas Field, Bengal Basin, Bangladesh (modified and Keizer, 1970; Johnson and Alam, 1991). Several representative
and presented with due permission of JGI). subenvironments are noticed in the studied reservoir interval
 M. Aminul Islam / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100 93

including distributary channel, mouth bar, crevasse splay and

interdistributary bay (Fig. 5). Sandstone classification was made
Q
Quartz Arenite
using Dott-McBride’s scheme (Fig. 6). Bhuban Sandstones are 10 10
mostly subfeldspathic arenites with subordinate feldspathic are- Subfeldspathic Arenite Sublithic Arenite
nites and lithic arenites. Component grains are mostly subangular 25 .. 25
..
to subrounded with rare rounded grains, and are generally well ....... ....
sorted with mean grain sizes varying from very fine to fine sand. . . ...
Grain size decreases from fluvial channels to interdistributary
bays. Sorting increases from fluvial to mouth bar sandstones.
Feldspathic Lithic
Detrital mineralogy is dominated by quartz (mostly monocrys- Arenite
Arenite
talline), ranging from 44% to 54% (Table 1). Rock fragments are
ranging from 6% to 18%, dominated by metamorphic schist/gneiss
grains although locally abundant sedimentary lithic suites are also
recorded. Feldspar content varies from 9% to 19%, consisting of F 50 L
both plagioclase and smaller amount of K-feldspar. Detrital mica
is also common, ranging from 2.5% to 6.5% and muscovite exceeds Fig. 6. QFL triangular diagram shows the classification of reservoir sandstones of
biotite. Heavy minerals occur as garnet, tourmaline and zircon the Bhuban Formation of well Titas-11, Titas Gas Field, Bengal Basin, Bangladesh
(>0.5%). All types of major grain contact, including point, long, (modified from Dott (1964) and McBride (1963)).

Lit h o lo g y

Strati- Core Grain Size and Structure Depositional

GR (API) Depth
graphy Sand Symbol Environment
50 75 100 125 (m) C Si V.F F M C V.C Gr P
2692

Planer
2697 Cross-
bedding Multistorey
Fluvial
Lamination Channels
2702

Flaser
bedding
2707
Ripple
Marks Mouth Bar
2712
Trough
Cross Interdistributary
Strata Bay
2717
Crevassesplays
FORMATION

Sandstone Interdistributary
Bay
2722
Siltisand
Distributary
Channel
2727 Interdistributary Bay
with Crevassesplays
MIOCENE BHUBON

Distributary Mouth
Bar/Channel
2732

Minor Distributary
Channel
2737

Interdistributary Bay
with Crevassesplays
2742

2747

Distributary Mouth
Bar and Channel
2752
Core Gap

Interdistributary Bay
2782 with Crevassesplays

Distributary
2787 Channel

Interdistributary
2792 Bay

Fig. 5. Litholog of cored interval of Bhuban Sandstone of Titas Gas Field. Different depositional environments were interpreted for different sandstones and siltstones.
94 M. Aminul Islam / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100

Table 1
Petrographic data of the Bhuban reservoir sandstone, well Titas-11, Titas Gas Field, Bengal Basin, Bangladesh.

Sample no. Texture Grain (%) Matrix (%) Cement (%) Thin section porositya (%)
Grain size Grain sorting Q F L M Heavy Qtz Car K Cl Py
T-2 F MW-W 50.0 15.0 6.0 5.0 0.5 5.0 0.5 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 16.0
T-6 F MW-W 51.0 14.0 6.0 6.0 0.4 5.0 0.5 1.0 0.0 0.5 0.5 15.0
T-11 VF-M MW-W 48.0 12.0 12.0 4.0 0.5 5.0 1.0 16.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.5
T-12 VF-M MW-W 52.0 9.0 7.9 5.0 0.5 5.0 0.5 18.0 0.5 1.0 0.0 0.5
T-14 VF-M MW-W 49.0 12.0 13.5 4.5 0.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 15.0
T-16 VF-M MW-W 54.0 9.0 12.5 5.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 0.0 14.0
T-17 VF-M MW-W 47.0 14.5 12.4 2.5 0.0 6.0 0.5 0.5 0.0 1.0 1.0 14.5
T-18 VF-M MW-W 50.0 16.0 10.0 3.5 0.0 5.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 1.5 0.5 12.0
T-19 VF-M MW-W 44.0 11.6 17.0 5.8 0.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 15.0
T-20 VF-M MW-W 51.5 15.0 8.0 6.0 0.0 5.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 10.0
T-21 VF-M MW-W 48.0 15.0 9.0 5.0 0.5 6.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 12.0
T-22 VF-M MW-W 54.0 11.0 10.4 4.0 0.5 5.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 10.0
T-26 VF-M MW-W 49.0 13.0 9.5 3.5 0.5 7.0 1.9 0.5 0.5 3.0 0.5 11.0
T-28 VF-M MW-W 50.0 9.4 10.5 4.0 0.5 7.0 2.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 13.0
T-29 VF-M MW-W 52.0 15.0 7.0 4.0 0.0 3.5 2.0 1.0 0.5 2.5 0.5 12.0
T-30 VF-M MW-W 51.5 12.0 13.5 4.5 0.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.5 0.0 8.0
T-31 VF-M MW-W 48.0 12.4 14.0 5.0 0.0 4.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 11.0
T-32 VF-M MW-W 47.0 17.5 10.0 5.3 0.0 4.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 1.6 0.5 11.0
T-33 VF-M MW-W 52.5 14.5 11.0 3.0 0.0 4.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 10.0
T-34 VF-M MW-W 49.0 11.4 17.0 4.0 0.0 4.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 10.0
T-35 VF-M MW-W 53.0 11.5 14.0 2.0 0.0 4.0 1.0 0.0 2.0 0.5 0.0 12.0
T-37 VF-M MW-W 46.0 13.5 18.0 3.0 0.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.0 10.0
T-39 VF-M MW-W 45.0 19.0 15.9 4.0 0.0 4.0 2.5 2.0 1.0 1.6 0.0 9.0
T-40 VF-M MW-W 47.5 17.0 15.0 4.5 0.0 3.0 2.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 8.0
T-42 VF-M MW-W 53.0 16.0 8.5 5.0 0.0 5.0 1.5 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.0 10.0
T-43 VF-M MW-W 50.0 15.0 12.9 5.0 0.0 4.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 9.0
T-44 VF-M MW-W 51.0 16.5 9.0 6.5 0.0 6.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.0 5.0
T-45 VF-M MW-W 52.5 11.0 13.0 5.5 0.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 4.0
T-47 VF-M MW-W 50.0 14.0 10.0 4.5 0.0 5.5 1.5 12.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0
T-49 VF-M MW-W 54.0 9.5 14.0 5.0 0.0 4.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.5 0.0 5.0

Texture: F, fine grained; VF, very fine grained; M, medium grained. Grain sorting: MW, moderately well sorted; W, well sorted. Grain types: Q, quartz grains including both
mono and poly; F, Feldspar grains including both plagioclase and K-feldspar; L, lithic grains including both chert and shale clasts; M, mica including both muscovite, biotite
and detrital chlorite; Qtz, quartz cement; car, carbonate materials including calcite, ferron calcite and dolomite; K, kaolinite; Ch, chlorite; Py, pyrite grains.
a
Porosity including primary and secondary.

concavo-convex and sutured are present. However, an abundance
of long and concavo-convex contacts was noted. The mica grains
observed are generally platy and flat but are locally deformed
when sandwiched between detrital grains.
5. Diagenetic constituents
The most common diagenetic constituents of the Bhuban For-
mation of well Titas-11 are quartz, chlorite, calcite and kaolinite.
XRD data showed the most common clay types in their air dried
and glycol treated diffractograms (Fig. 7). SEM analyses revealed
dolomite rhombs, albite and adularia (K-feldspar) overgrowths.
Replacing anatase after unstable lithic fragments was also re-
corded. Diagenetic constituents are described in the subsequent
sections in order of their abundance.
5.1. Quartz cement
Quartz is generally the most abundant cement, ranging from
0.5% to 4%. Quartz overgrowths consisting of small euhedral crys-
tals are locally developed in primary pores (Fig. 8a). Microcrystal-
line (<10 lm) pyramidal quartz overgrowths are also locally
developed. Quartz cement was better developed in large intergran-
ular pore networks and the pores are often occluded by large quartz
overgrowths (Fig. 8b). Quartz overgrowths enclosed kaolinite and
chlorite plates, often interlocking narrow pore throats (Fig. 8c). In
some cases, quartz overgrowth was inhibited by chlorite rims
(Fig. 8d). ‘‘Dust line” was not observed in thin sections but syntaxial
overgrowth was found in CL images (Fig. 8e).
5.2. Authigenic chlorite
Chlorite is the second most dominant cement, ranging from
0.5% to 3%. Pore-lining chlorites are extensively developed in inter-
granular networks (Fig. 8f). It also occurs as rims around detrital
grains (Fig. 9a). Chlorite consists of microcrystalline (<5 lm)
plates, aligned in a grain-perpendicular form, occasionally en-
closed by quartz overgrowths. Chlorite pore lining fringes are com-
monly developed upon detrital mixed layer clay substrate (Fig. 9b).
Pore bridging chlorite crystals were also observed in some samples
(Fig. 9c). Chlorite forms very occasionally as replacement of feld-
spar and lithic grains.
5.3. Calcite cement
Calcite occurred as dominant pore occluding cement for the re-
stricted depth interval. Except three samples (<20%), the cement
generally ranges from 0.5% to 2%. In calcite cement dominated
samples, pore spaces are completely blocked and porosity–perme-
ability values are quite insignificant. The detrital framework grains
appear to float in the calcite cement as poikilotopic in nature
(Fig. 9d) there is also evidence of corrosion by the cementing fluid
along the outer margin of the grain.
5.4. Authigenic kaolinite
Vermicular kaolinite cement is locally developed, showing evi-
dence for fracture and distortion. Vermicular kaolinite is locally
distributed in primary and secondary voids, limiting (local)
connectivity and presenting zones of microporosity (Fig. 9e).
 M. Aminul Islam / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100 95

Chlorite + Kaolinite

Chlorite (004)

Quartz

Non-treated air dried diffractogram

Glycol treated diffractogram

Illite (001)
Chlorite (001) Feldspar
Quartz

5 10 15 20 25 30
Two Theta/Theta (degree)

Fig. 7. X-ray diffraction analysis shows the different clay types as revealed in air dried non-treated and glycol treated diffractograms. Note that no change is observed
between the two profiles due to absence of swelling clay.

Intergranular pores are locally filled with clusters of vermicular
kaolinite, consisting of euhedral, fresh stacks without evidence of
illitisation (Fig. 9f). Blocky habits are also noticed in some samples.
In occasional cases, kaolinite phase (partially illitised) locally re-
placed detrital muscovite.
5.5. Minor cements
Pyrite, dolomite, illite/illite–smectite are observed as minor ce-
ments. Generally, illite forms thin coating around detrital grains.
Dolomites cement occurs locally as rhombs in the primary pores.
Fibrous illites are also recorded. Illite and illite–smectite form thin
lining along pore walls. Illite–smectite mixed layer clay mats lo-
cally cover the detrital grains (Fig. 9b).
6. Reservoir properties
6.1. Porosity
In the study area, He porosity varies from 5% to 28% with an
average 19%. In case of thin section study, porosity is highest in
the well sorted, low matrix environment and decreases from cre-
vasse splays to interdistributary bays. Thin section and SEM photo-
micrographs indicate three pore types are present in the cored
interval. These are intergranular, intragranular and micro pores.
Both primary and secondary intergranular pore types are present
in the core samples. In the studied interval, primary pores are
the abundant pore types and are affected by compaction and for-
mation of authigenic cements and clays. Secondary intergranular
pores are primarily associated with the dissolution of detrital feld-
spar and rock fragments and carbonate cement. Microporosity is
associated with the presence of clays. He porosity data show a gen-
eral decrease with depth. Porosity reduction appears to be depth
controlled. Intergranular macroporosity is inversely correlated
with cement and authigenic clay (r2 = 0.71; Fig. 10a). It implies that
intergranular macroporosity reduces with increasing cement. He-
lium porosity also shows good inverse correlation with cement
and authigenic clay volume (r2 = 0.67; Fig. 10b). With increasing
depth the detrital grain contacts are turned from point to long con-
tact and thus reduce porosity. At greater depths, the volumetric
amounts of quartz, carbonate, pyrite and clay cement increases
and partially occlude intergranular pore space.
6.2. Permeability
Horizontal permeability ranges from 0.5% to 490 mD with an
average 200 mD. He porosity and horizontal permeability shows
very good positive correlation (r2 = 0.79; Fig. 10c). The general cor-
relation between permeability and porosity indicates that due to
compaction and cementation permeability decreases with depth
as in the case of porosity. Horizontal permeability shows very good
inverse correlation with the volume of cement including authi-
genic clay (r2 = 0.86; Fig. 10d). Dramatic decrease of permeability
also noticed in 3 samples where the cement volume is very high
compared to rest 27 samples. Zones with permeability values
above the regional trend generally have significant preservation
of primary porosity and/or extensive development of secondary
porosity. In samples with significant grain and/or cement dissolu-
tion, the presence of large, isolated secondary pores give rise to
high porosity and somewhat less permeability.
7. Discussion
7.1. Diagenetic evolution
Immediately after deposition, the mechanical infiltration of
detrital and mixed layer clay occurred. These clays are distributed
on detrital grain surfaces or form localized argillaceous matrix.
96 M. Aminul Islam / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100

Fig. 8. Scanning electron micrograph showing: (a) quartz overgrowths consisting of small euhedral crystals locally developed in primary pores. (b) Intergranular pore
networks are often occluded by large quartz overgrowths. (c) Quartz overgrowths enclosed chlorite plates which also often interlock a narrow pore throats. (d) Sometimes
quartz overgrowths are inhibited by chlorite rims. (e) Photomicrograph of cathodoluminescence study shows the syntaxial quartz overgrowth which eventually acts as pore
occluding phase decreasing porosity and permeability. (f) Pore lining chlorite fringes are developed in intergranular networks. Q = quartz, C = chlorite, K = kaolinite.

These clays have a predominantly illitic composition. In the XRD
profiles, illite is represented by basal 0 0 1 reflection at 9.99–
10.1 Å that is not affected by glycolation (Fig. 7). In the study area,
early deposited sediments have largely been affected by the initial
phase of physical compaction and this effect progressively acceler-
ated with increasing depth of burial where the present depth range
of the cored interval is 2690–2800 m.
Worden et al. (2000) stated that ductile-lithic sand grains al-
lowed the rock to undergo plastic deformation during burial and
compression, thus reducing the porosity at a greater rate than
by compression of rigid quartzose grains. It has also been found
that permeability is strongly affected by the presence of ductile
grains. They have been squeezed and extruded between rigid sand
grains blocking the throats and leaving abundant unconnected
pores. Imam and Shaw (1985) also pointed that the effects of
compaction was responsible for packing readjustments of the
framework grains, ductile deformation, grain bending and fractur-
ing and pressure solution. In this study, development of pseudom-
atrix by crushing of soft lithic grains is a common phenomenon at
certain depth that may significantly affect the sandstone porosity
and permeability, especially where argillaceous clasts are abun-
dant. Progressive burial resulted in increasing compaction and
porosity loss initially by grain rotation/slippage leading to buck-
ling of micas (Fig. 11a) and eventual fracture of more resistant
minerals.
There is evidence that authigenic chlorite rims are found in
sandstones of the overlying Tipam Group at depths as shallow as
500 m corresponding to the estimated temperature of approxi-
mately 40 °C (Imam and Shaw, 1987). Chlorite is formed in the
early diagenetic history in the form of rims around detrital grains
(Porter and Weimer, 1982) (Fig. 8f). Chlorite can have a number
of origins but typically develops at temperatures greater than
about 60–70 °C (Worden and Morad, 2003). The present geother-
mal gradient of the study area is approximately 30 °C km 1 and
reservoir depth is about 2800 m which implies that chlorites in
the study area are likely to be formed in early diagenetic stage. Pre-
cipitation of chlorite requires a source of Fe and Mg and possible
sources are clastic biotite and lithic fragments formed in deltaic
or estuarine environments by the supply of Fe from rivers as dem-
onstrated from the Niger Delta (Odin et al. 1988; Ehrenberg, 1993).
Depositional environment of the study area is recognized as deltaic
prograding setting by many workers (e.g. Johnson and Alam, 1991;
Holtrop and Keizer, 1970). The source of the necessary components
required for this early diagenetic formation of chlorite is most
likely to be from the break down of ferromagnesian alumino-sili-
cates and iron oxides in reducing alkaline pore waters and this
 M. Aminul Islam / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100 97

Fig. 9. Scanning electron micrograph showing: (a) grain coated chlorite rims on detrital grain. (b) Chlorite also developed upon detrital mixed layer clay substrate. (c) Pore
bridging chlorites act as barrier to fluid flow. (d) Thin section photomicrograph shows that calcite developed in the intergranular pore space. It reveals that the cement
completely sealed the effective macroporosity and prevented the fluid migration. (e) Back scattered electron micrograph shows the vermicular kaolinite distributed in
primary and secondary pores and prevents fluid flow. (f) Intergranular pore occluding clusters of vermicular kaolinite. Q = quartz, C = chlorite, Ca = calcite, K = kaolinite.

observation is in agreement with the study of Pennsylvanian del-
taic sandstone by Land and Dutton (1978). It reveals from the mu-
tual textural relationship that minor amounts of diagenetic illite
followed the formation of chlorite and pyrite.
In few samples, locally developed K-feldspar overgrowths as
euhedral crystal on detrital feldspar grains partially stabilize the
grain framework and locally arresting grain compaction. Due to
greater chemical stability of authigenic with respect to detrital
feldspar, it is feasible for feldspar overgrowths to have precipitated
concurrently with the dissolution of detrital feldspars (De Ros
et al., 1994). In the restricted horizons, early calcite cementation
as revealed by thin section study has completely sealed the effec-
tive macroporosity and prevents pore fluid migration (Fig. 9d). The
origin of early poikilotopic cement may be related to recrystalliza-
tion of skeletal debris, which occurred in sands with high skeletal
debris contents at the time of deposition (Imam and Shaw, 1985).
Localized minor dolomitization may represent a transition from
early to intermediate burial diagenesis.
Feldspar and calcite are susceptible to the presence of acidic flu-
ids. The development of secondary porosity as the common diage-
netic feature largely depends on the leaching of feldspar as detrital
grain (Fig. 11b) and dissolution of calcite as cement (Ehrenberg,
1990). There is a possibility of feldspar dissolution if the mineral
is in unsaturated state. The presence of partially dissolved feldspar
as indicated by a honeycomb texture (Schmidt and McDonald,
1979) suggests the dissolution of metastable grains as a mecha-
nism of secondary porosity development in the Bhuban Sandstone
reservoir. Leaching and dissolution process lead to the formation of
kaolinite and quartz overgrowth in the subsequent stages.
Quartz is one of the important pores occluding cement in Bhu-
ban Sandstone of the Titas Gas Field. Quartz cement can have a
large number of sources although there is a debate whether they
are externally or internally sourced (Worden and Morad, 2000).
External sources may include neighbouring mudstones or fault
controlled fluid flow. The absence of recognized fault within the
vicinity of Titas Gas Field offset the idea of externally sourced
quartz cement. Internal sources of silica can include intergranular
pressure solution derived from grain contacts (Fig. 11c). Similar
observation was also made by Schmid et al. (2004). The generation
of quartz overgrowth cement postdates the kaolinite cement.
Two hypotheses have been suggested for the composition of flu-
ids responsible for kaolin massive crystallization at the expense of
both plagioclases and K-feldspars. Kaolin is a general name for both
kaolinite and dickite. In this study, the term kaolinite has been used
instead of kaolin. According to first hypothesis, the fluids are of
meteoric origin (Hancock, 1978; Sommer, 1978). If meteoric fluids
are responsible for the formation of kaolinite, a constant supply of
protons and removal of K+ cations require the system to be open to
precipitate significant amount of kaolinite (Lanson et al. 2002). This
hypothesis seems unreliable in case of Bhuban Sandstones because
98 M. Aminul Islam / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100

to be a by-product at the expense of K-feldspar at temperature

a 18.0
..... b 30
...... greater than 100 °C (Boles, 1981). The evidence of transformation
Intergranular Porosity (%)

16.0
. .

Helium Porosity (%)

of feldspar to kaolinite was also observed in some samples

..........
25

....
14.0 2

........
R = 0.67
12.0 2
R = 0.71 20 (Fig. 11d). Formation of kaolinite from acidic pore water for this
study is limited by the amount of kerogen present within adjacent
..
10.0
15
8.0 source bed but the deeper Oligocene source may be the potential
6.0
4.0
... 10 .. . host for the acidic fluids. Kaolinite formation probably predates
the quartz overgrowth cement.
2.0
0.0
0.0
.. . 5

0.0
The paragenetic sequence of diagenetic phases, as determined
from the mutual textural relationship of thin section, SEM, BSE
10.0 20.0 30.0 10.0 20.0 30.0
Cement + Authigenic clay (%) Cement + Authigenic clay (%) and CL examinations is summarized in the Fig. 12. Early diagenesis
includes clay infiltration, compaction, development of chlorite,
c 1000
............
d 1000 ...... pyrite and illite followed by K-feldspar overgrowth, poikilotopic
..... . calcite and dolomite cementation, development of pressure solu-
Air Permeability (mD)
Air Permeability (mD)

.. .. ...
2 2
100 R = 0.79 100 R = 0.86
tion. The late diagenesis include quartz overgrowth, dissolution
and leaching of feldspar and cement followed by late calcite
10
.. . 10
.. replacement and authigenic kaolinite formation.
1
. 1
. 7.2. Implications for reservoir quality
0 0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 In the analyzed samples, reservoir quality is a function of depo-
Helium Porosity (%) Cement + Authigenic clay (%)
sitional environments and diagenetic processes. Grain size, sorting,
grain shape, packing, and mineralogy are controlled by these geo-
Fig. 10. Reservoir quality data from the sandstones of the Bhuban Formation in well
Titas-11 of Titas Gas Field. (a) Intergranular porosity vs. cement including logical processes. As a result, these rock properties affected the
authigenic clay. (b) Helium porosity vs. cement including authigenic clay. (c) Air grain-pore relationships and pore–pore throat characteristics. In
permeability vs. helium porosity. (d) Air permeability vs. cement including the cored interval, the best quality reservoir sections were depos-
authigenic clay. ited in high energy, fluvial environments. The most important
depositional environments include fluvial channels, distributary
this reservoir sand never exposed to surface and continuous subsi- channels, crevasse splays and mouth bar (Fig. 5). The best quality
dence occurred since the initial deposition and there is no evidence rocks are characterized by fine to medium grain size, good sorting
of fault connecting to the surface within proximal distance of the gas and massive to laminated textures. The best reservoir quality rocks
field. have high percentages of detrital quartz and low percentages of ma-
According to the second hypothesis, CO2-rich or organic acid- trix, quartz and carbonate cement.
rich fluids may be, together with meteoric fluids, responsible for Diagenesis has significantly controlled the reservoir qual-
feldspar alteration and subsequent precipitation of kaolinite ity. Compaction, formation of quartz and carbonate cements,
(Goodchild and Whitaker, 1986). Kaolinite has been interpreted development of authigenic clays, dissolution of feldspars and rock

Fig. 11. (a) Progressive burial resulted in increasing compaction and leading to buckling of labile micas. (b) SEM image shows the leaching of feldspar grain. This process helps
to the development of secondary porosity. (c) Thin section photomicrographs shows the different types of grain contact which lead to the pressure solution and re-
precipitation of silica as pore occluding phase. Arrows indicate the grain contacts. (d) SEM image shows the evidence of transformation of feldspar to kaolinite as a precursor
and transformation occurs due to chemical change. Q = quartz, F = feldspar, K = kaolinite.
 M. Aminul Islam / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100
Diagenetic
Time
events
Mechanical infiltration
of detrital clay
Physical compaction
Chlorite authigenesis
Pyrite precipitation
K-feldspar overgrowth
Carbonate cementation
Dolomite precipitation
Grain dissolution
Quartz overgrowth
Kaolinite precipitation
Fig. 12. Paragenetic sequence of reservoir sandstone of the Bhuban Formation, well Titas-11 of Titas Gas Field, Bengal Basin, Bangladesh.
fragments are the important processes that affected the porosity
and permeability. Grain contact changes from dominantly floating
to point and long contact due to progressive burial. In the deeper
horizons (reservoir sections), micas and lithic fragments are com-
monly deformed. Primary intergranular porosity and pore radii
are reduced due to changes in grain contacts. Deformation of lithic
fragments increases the stress sensitivity of the sandstones. Petro-
graphic data indicate that compaction is the important process
reducing reservoir quality. Quartz overgrowths cement increases
with depth and affected the reservoir porosity and permeability.
Quartz overgrowths are important reservoir quality deteriorating
mechanism in many deep petroleum reservoirs (Worden and Mor-
ad, 2000). Quartz cementation, more specifically syntaxial quartz
overgrowth, is a major cause of porosity loss in many petroleum
reservoirs in both moderately to deeply buried sandstone reser-
voirs (Worden and Morad, 2003). In this study, quartz cement
along with other cements has good control over the reservoir prop-
erties (Fig. 10a–d). In numerous previous studies using statistical
techniques, a strong correlation between permeability and poros-
ity has been shown (i.e. Dutton and Diggs, 1992). However, poros-
ity and permeability data points of this study (Fig. 10c) exhibit
correlation coefficient of 0.79. Some data points indicate that there
is a chance of multiple controls on permeability. Cade et al. (1994)
showed that, for a given porosity, permeability varies by three or-
ders of magnitude. Porosity alone cannot, therefore, be used to pre-
dict permeability.
Calcite is one of the most important carbonate cement in the
analyzed samples. Dolomite also found as occasional cement. In
some restricted zones, higher volume of calcite cement (>15%)
act as potential barriers to fluid flow within sand bodies as helium
porosity falls to <5% and horizontal permeability is <8 mD. Locally
developed calcite cemented horizons are volumetrically insignifi-
cant compared to the reservoir section, although, they can form
horizons up to 0.5 m thick; the lateral continuity of such horizons
is uncertain. In general, calcite cement decreases with depth.
Quartz overgrowths locally inhibited by chlorite rims around
the overgrowths and thus preserving ineffective microporosity. Lo-
cally, pore filling chlorites prevent fluid flow through the inter-
granular macro pores. It is generally more abundant in the
shallow depth of the reservoir. Authigenic kaolinite is also present
99
as pore choking cement and creates permeability barrier and may
present irreducible water saturation traps. It increases in abun-
dance with depth. Other cements are present in only minor propor-
tions and although locally restrict on pore geometry and pore size
distribution. Compacted micas may locally restrict vertical fluid
migration. Leaching of plagioclase, potassium feldspar and rock
fragments increases with depth. In the deeper horizons, almost
all the larger pores are the product of leached detrital grains or dis-
solved carbonate cements.
8. Conclusions
Detrital framework constituents of the Bhuban Sandstones are
dominated by quartz, feldspar and subordinate rock fragments
and micas. Cement types recognized in this study include quartz,
chlorite, calcite and kaolinite as dominant and pyrite, dolomite,
K-feldspar overgrowth as minor cement. Quartz is generally the
abundant pore occluding cement. It develops as small euhedral
crystals and locally as large pyramidal crystals in the primary
pores. Pressure solution derived from grain contact may be the
main contributor of quartz overgrowths. Chlorite occurs as pore-
lining and pore filling cement. In some cases, chlorite helps to re-
tain porosity by preventing quartz overgrowth. In some restricted
depth interval, pore-occlusion by calcite cement is very much in-
tense. Kaolinite locally developed as vermiform and accelerated
the minor porosity loss due to pore-occlusion. Kaolinite is a by-
product of feldspar leaching in the presence of acidic fluid pro-
duced during the maturation of organic matter in the adjacent
Miocene or deeper Oligocene source rocks.
The initial porosity was decreased by compaction and cementa-
tion and then increased by leaching of the feldspar and lithic grains
and dissolution of carbonate cement. Good quality reservoir rocks
are deposited in fluvial environment and thus quality of reservoir
rocks are environment selective. Reservoir quality mostly con-
trolled by the pore occluding cements. Horizontal permeability va-
lue falls dramatically up to <8 mD in the locally developed calcite
cemented reservoir intervals. Porosity, permeability and cement
volume exhibit good agreement to each other. It appears that
though the reservoir does not contain significant volume of cement
100 M. Aminul Islam / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 35 (2009) 89–100
but the inverse relationship of the porosity and permeability with
cement remains relatively steady state through out the reservoir.
Acknowledgements
This paper results from the work carried out for the Ph.D re-
search project at the University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan under
the financial support of Ronpaku Scholarship from the Japan Soci-
ety for the Promotion of Sciences (JSPS). The author would like to
thank the authority of Bangladesh Oil, Gas and Mineral Corporation
(Petrobangla) and Bangladesh Petroleum Exploration and Produc-
tion Company Ltd. (BAPEX) for permission and providing core sam-
ples for this study. The author is gratefully acknowledged the help
and cooperation made by Mr. Susumu Kato of Japan Petroleum
Exploration Company (JAPEX) to provide the laboratory facilities
for core petrophysical analysis in their research center. The author
is highly indebted to his supervisor Prof. Yujiro Ogawa, Institute of
Geoscience, University of Tsukuba, Japan to provide laboratory
facilities and critical review of the earlier version of the manu-
script. The cooperation made by Dr. Kosei Komuro for Cathodolu-
minescence study in his laboratory is also greatly acknowledged.
Finally, the author is highly grateful to Prof. R.H. Worden for his
constructive review and suggestions.
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