RELATED LITERATURE

The related literature examines facts and principles from other resources that are related to the
present study. That is, a research study on the learning curves of high school students would utilize
literatures that deal with the same subject. These resource materials include books, encyclopedias,
published journals, newspapers, and magazines.

The related literature, which is also called conceptual literature, serves to clarify the different variables
being studied. It removes any vagueness surrounding the central concepts of the research. As the
literature is gathered, the different major variables, as well as the sub-variables, are clarified and the
delimitation of the study is established. The indicators for each variable are identified and objectively
established.

The major variable is the central idea of the entire literature. Its sub-variables help specify which
particular aspect of the major variable is being referred to. The indicators, on the other hand, are
specific information that describes the sub-variables.

Examples:

a. Major variable: Study habits

b. Sub-variable: Time required for studying, methods of studying, and place for studying
c. Indicators: Employing patterned time intervals for effective studying; using mnemonics in
memorizing the terms; and studying in one’s ideal environment

The American Psychological Association (2001) states that review articles (called the literature review
for research papers) are crucial in the review process. A review article summarizes all the related
literature and their relation to the study. Readers who are not knowledgeable on the topic are provided
with a basic understanding of the research before the new findings are presented.

APA provides the following definition for a review article:

Review articles, including meta-analyses, are critical evaluations of materials previously

published. By organizing, integrating, and evaluating such materials, the author of a review
article considers the progress of current research towards clarifying a problem. In a sense, a
review article is a “tutorial” in which the author defines and clarifies the problem; summarizes
previous investigations in order to inform the reader of the state of current research;
identifies relations, contradictions, gaps and inconsistencies in the literature; and suggests the
next step in solving the problem.

The different variables used in the study are the focus of the review of literature. The title, statement of
the problem, scope and delimitation, as well as the framework of the study are the elements that give
the researcher an idea of its relevance to his or her own research.

The number of resource materials to be gathered for the review of literature depends upon the
researcher’s judgment. If he or she believes that the important concepts and variables have been
adequately explained and that enough indicators have been established, then the review of related
literature is considered sufficient.

It is a traditional practice that the review of related literature is divided into foreign and local literature.
It is highly recommended that the researcher use the different variables and sub- variables being
studied as subtitles in the review. This is very beneficial to the researcher and to future investigators
studying similar problems as there is a clear and logical organization of the variables under investigation.
With this system, the researcher can systematically define the important concepts and variables as well
as the discussions, descriptions, and other information gathered from the different sources. When the
related literature is arranged systematically, the construction of the research instrument (e.g.,
questionnaire) will be easier since the indicators are presented logically and sequentially.

Related literature also includes works of experts in refereed or peer-reviewed journals. Expert readers
or peers who are recognized authorities on the topic are consulted to review the written works of the
researchers to determine if they meet the standards of a good reference material, i.e., reliability
and timeliness. Refereed journals are published nationally and internationally.

WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

In her book, Conducting Research Literature Review: From the Internet to Paper, Fink (2009) defines a
literature review or review of literature as a presentation of the analysis, patterns, and critiques of
individual sources or the body of literature as a whole. Its purpose is to offer a wide review of referred
scholarly articles, and other sources like journals, theses, and dissertation.

It is important to note that in reviewing literature, understanding and comprehension both matter.
Thus, the write-up expressed in one’s own words is the measure of the researchers’ synthesis of the
reviewed materials.

Essential Elements of a Literature Review

The literature review serves as in-depth summary of the related literatures to the study. It does not only
restate facts but rather critique and highlight their relevance to the research. In doing so, several
elements should be observed in writing this section:

1. Overview of the subject or topic, issues, or theories to be considered

2. Division of works such as those that support a particular position, those against, and those that offer
other ideas
3. Explanation of the comparison of the gathered literature
4. Conclusion and the best arguments

Stages Observed in Writing the Literature Review

Since a literature review serves to preface the purpose of the study, the related literature cannot be
evaluated without setting the foundation for the review. A literature review, therefore follows a
systematic approach in writing its content. The premise of the review should be clarified and the
relation of the cited resource materials to the study should be established. Thus, different stages are
observed when writing the literature review:

1. Problem formulation. The researcher must determine the research problem before the review
of literature is conducted to fully understand the variables considered in the study.
2. Literature search. Any reading material that is related to the study must include a discussion and
explanation of at least one of the variables.
3. Data evaluation. The indicators that are synthesized from various relevant sources must further
build the researcher’s confidence as the variables of his or her study are made clear.
4. Analysis and interpretation. Breaking the entire reading article into smaller parts will help the
researcher correctly interpret the information in the reviewed materials.

Format of a Literature Review

In writing the literature review, the researcher can be flexible in utilizing different related literature.
However, as stated earlier, the literature review is not merely a restatement of facts. Thus, the
organization of thought should be duly considered when writing the review.

The general format of a literature review is as follows:

1. The Introduction
a. The general problem and the variables should be defined.
b. Every important data should be highlighted to effectively discuss the problem or the variables
such as the theory, methodology, evidences, conclusions, or even gaps.
c. The criteria in selecting the literature should be considered to assess which resources are
pertinent and should be included, and which are irrelevant and should be removed.
2. The Body
a. Chosen approaches, conclusion of authors, specific objective, and the like should be
included.
a. Studies and literature should be summarized. For the studies, primary consideration must be
given to the result of the studies that includes the variables.

In choosing the literature, the following should be considered:

I. Provenance. This refers to the author’s credentials and the empirical basis of the article or
literature.
II. Objectivity. This refers to the rationality of every data or facts cited. iii. Persuasiveness. This
refers to the degree of credibility of the data.
III. Value. This refers to the degree of the contributions of the literature to clarify variables.
3. The Conclusion
a. Major contributions of the studies or articles should be summarized.
b. Current developments and new information should be evaluated.
c. The review should be concluded by relating the gathered data to the central theme or problem.

Practical Tips in Writing the Literature Review

Now that the technical aspects are laid out, one should have a better understanding of the purpose of
the literature review in a research paper. Since it prefaces the entire research study, the researcher
should observe meticulous writing of the each section of the paper. After all, a well-written literature
review can help readers to easily grasp the actual content.

The following are helpful tips in writing the review:

1. Sources, scholarly works, references, and other materials that are refereed and indexed should
to be used. Electronic sources should be properly scrutinized since the contained information
are sometimes inaccurate or erroneous.
2. Each source should be selected based on its contribution to the topic under review.
3. The relationship of one source to another should be described.
4. Interpretation should be done appropriately by looking into gaps of previous research.
5. Conflicts or contradictions should be resolved.
6. Areas of prior scholarship should be identified.
7. One’s original work should be placed in the context of existing literature.

Review of Related Literature Example 1:

Skipping Breakfast of High School Students (Bacsal, et al., 2015)

On Eating Breakfast. Breakfast is often called the most important meal of the day (Henager,
2010). Eating breakfast allows one’s body to start the day off right. With the right nutrients, your
breakfast can be a great way to function properly. It is true that many students are coming to schools
without eating breakfast for various reasons or students are making poor nutritional choices at
breakfast times for many reasons including: not enough time in the morning, eating habits, and food
preferences. According to Baley (2003), any of these can lead to a lack of concentration at school or
throughout the day or even weight issues in the future. Poor breakfast choices can be blamed on
education, historical developments, and income and social determinants. In addition, children who skip
meals barely meet the required dietary intake. This results to lethargy and difficulty in doing mental
tasks (Bailey and Earl, 1993).

On the Types of Breakfast Prepared. Choosing the right breakfast foods is very important to
make sure you get 1/3 of your daily nutrient requirements. That is why you must realize that skipping
meals is not a quick way to lose weight (Bailey, 1993). Creveling (2014) noted that a morning meal will
help you power through a workout, as compared to those who fasted until noon. Control of food choice
like starchy carbohydrate intake must be considered to avoid fat gains (Mehdi, 2009). Thus, one should
adopt healthy habits such as regularly exercising, eating healthy foods such as fruits, vegetables, and
whole grains.

Review of Related Literature Example 2:

The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of Principals

(Cristobal, 2003)
On management roles. A manager of an organization plays various roles that need specific skills
and competencies in order for him or her to be effective.
According to George (1994), a manager needs the following competencies to be termed as a “total
quality manager”:
1. Courage. A courageous manager stands up in unpopular ideas, does not avoid
confrontations, and gives feedback to subordinates and superiors; his confidence is his own
capability;
2. Dependability. A dependable leader follows through, upholds commitments, meets deadlines,
takes and accepts responsibilities for actions, admits mistakes to superiors, works effectively
with little or no supervision from supervisors, and keeps supervisors informed of his/her
progress;
3. Flexibility. Functions effectively in a changing environment, provides stability, remains objective
when confronted with many responsibilities at once, and handles several problems
simultaneously;
4. Integrity. Adheres to a code of ethics and moral values, behaves in a manner that is inconsistent
with organizational climate and professional responsibility, does not abuse management
privileges, gains trust and respect, and serves as a model to his or her peers;
5. Judgment. Carries logical and intellectual assessment to reach sound evidence of alternative
actions, bases decisions on logical and factual information, and considers the welfare of other
people in his or her judgment; and
6. Respect for others. Honors rather than belittles the opinions or works of others and
demonstrates a belief on each individual’s value regardless of their status in the organization.

On management practices. There are five behavioral management practices in order to become
effective managers according to Posner (1987). These are as follows:
1. They challenge the process. They are willing to take the status quo. They make mistakes to push
innovations. They inspire a shared vision. They have a dream and purpose, a goal, or agenda.
They live their lives backwards by studying a practice in their work. They are interested to share
passionately that vision and make it happen.
2. They enable others to act. They focus on “we” to build coalition and encourage collaboration.
They build teams and empower others.
3. They model the organization. They are clear about their beliefs and act consistently within their
beliefs. They show others their values by behaving as they expect others to act.
4. They encourage the heart. They celebrate and offer dramatic encouragement and rewards. They
show their members they can win and that winning is exciting.
 Allen (in De Guiana, 1998) presents only four major functions: planning, organizing, leading and
controlling. He reduced the five functions to four by incorporating Payol’s “coordinating” with
“organizing”; by changing “commanding” to the less autocratic “leading”; and retaining to planning and
controlling.
He broke down all four functions into nineteen specific activities:
1. Planning – forecasting, establishing objectives, programming, scheduling, budgeting,
formulating policies, and establishing procedures
2. Organizing – developing organization structure, delegating, and establishing relationship
3. Leading – decision-making, communicating, motivating, selecting people, and developing
4. Controlling – establishing performance standards, performance measuring, evaluating, and
correcting.

The school managers are endowed not only with a higher degree of responsibility, but also of
discretionary powers. Thus, this responsibility and authority include coordinating all resources of their
work group to achieve set goals. They have to organize direct, motivate, communicate, control,
evaluate, and develop people in his work group. Leveriza (1995) regards the managers as supervisors or
overseers. This is because they deal not only with people but also with objectives. In actual practice, the
supervisor is more than a manager or an overseer of people. He is the organization’s man responsible
for the conduct of others in the achievement of various organizational tasks: the maintenance of quality
standard, the protection and care of materials, and the services to be rendered under his control.
Likewise, Bittle (1991) looks at the school manager’s responsibilities in five directions, enabling them to
fill effectively the following five different roles: leaders and trainers of their employees; implementers of
ideas; co-workers with other supervisors; subordinates to their own supervisors; and mediators of
employees’ needs.

Clearly, these roles indicate that a manager is not only responsible for the development of his
people, but also for the maintenance of things, materials, and equipment within the organization.
On intrapersonal competency. It is the ability to relate effectively with subordinates, colleagues,
superiors, and representatives of other organizations. In the US, an ASCR- sponsored research project
yielded 12 dimensions of outstanding supervisors, gleaned from the literature of the past 15 years and
verified by experts. These are community staff development, instructional program, planning and
change, motivating and organizing, observation and conferencing, curriculum, problem-solving and
decision-making, service to teachers, personal development, community relation, and research and
program evaluation.

Telephone surveys were made to confirm further the importance of the 12 dimensions. There
was a strong belief in the importance of human relation and that a key to a supervisor’s effectiveness is
the “love and like of people.” A supervisor should be willing to give other people credit for success and
should be more of a “cheerleader” than a “scorekeeper.”
Supervisors, according to Pajak (1990), are a very person-oriented activity. They require knowledge and
skill but the human element is paramount. As asserted by one of the respondents in his study, “You
always have to remember that people are important.”
 Intrapersonal competency is termed by Holmes (1999) as intrapersonal intelligence. According
to him, it includes the thoughts and feelings of an individual. The more one can bring into his own
consciousness, the better he can see his inner world to the outer world of experience. It helps an
individual understand his desires and goals and emotional nature. He describes a person with a well-
developed intrapersonal competence as one who is aware of his range of emotions; finds approaches
and outlets to express his feelings and thoughts; develops an accurate model of self; is motivated to
identify and pursue goals; establishes and lives by an ethical value system; works independently; is
curious about the big questions in life: meanings, roles, and purposes; manages ongoing learning and
personal growth; attempts to seek out and understand inner experience; gains insights into the
complexities for self and human conditions; strives for self actualities; and empowers others.

Dr. Howard Gardner (1992), in his theory of eight multiple intelligences, defines intrapersonal
competence as referring to having an understanding of oneself and of knowing who he is, what he can
do, what he wants, how to act on things, which to avoid, and which things he can have. He seeks to
know what he cannot do and tends to know where to go if he needs help. The individual loves to control
his own feelings and moods, pursue personal interest and set his individual agenda, learn organization
by observing and listening, and use meta-cognitive skills. Another scholar, Chase (2000), termed
intrapersonal competency as personal mastery. According to him, personal mastery takes many
different forms depending on the person’s background and life experiences. The focus may be on
overcoming one’s limitations such as procrastination or a particular learning disability. Others may
struggle with addiction or dependency. Stress may also fall under personal mastery, as does the
actual day-to-day implementation of that idealistic time management program you would like to adopt.
An often overlooked dimension of personal mastery is the development of an ethical stance on all
aspects of the organizational life.

To be an effective agent of change, this intrapersonal competence is necessary. According to

Whittaker (2000), those involved in works as agent of change need to appreciate that the personal lives
of individuals are characterized by a struggle to secure and find fulfillment. The ways that an individual
behaves in an organization and reacts to the change in expectations may be determined similarly with
the developed struggle, as described by Erickson with regard to the particular details of the
organizational issues at stake. A curiosity about human behavior and sensitivity for the psychological
struggle of human beings are important parts of being an effective manager and leader. Many educators
and scholars used personality in lieu of intrapersonal competence. According to Appodaca (1997), to
better understand how to work effectively with people, it is necessary for a manager to first understand
himself. Studying and understanding one’s own desires and mental make-up can accomplish this. This is
better known as looking at one’s personality.

Personality is the sum total of the qualities and characteristics of a person as shown in his
manner of walking, talking, dressing, attitude, interests, and ways of reaching out to other people. It
refers to all the factors within the person that influence his character, behavior, thinking, and feelings
(Santos, 1997). Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment. It is the sum total of ways in which
an individual reacts to and interacts with others (Robbins, 1996). It is also a secondary description of
psychology, which is concerned, with the distinctive pattern of thoughts, behaviors, and experiences,
which characterize the individual’s unified adjustment to his or her life situation (Allyn, 1999).

Personality needs personal skills and abilities in order to be effective according to Boak (1998).
Personal skills and abilities include the three areas of managing self. These are self-awareness; the
practical understanding of one’s self and one’s own innate reactions and preferences; personal
effectiveness, the number of key skills and competencies that can be used to help people achieve their
goals; and self-development to help people learn to cope with changing circumstances and demands in
their skills and competencies. Self-awareness, as mentioned by Boak, is synonymous to intrapersonal
competencies. It has five useful mental models. These are assertive behavior, foundations of
assertiveness, life position, drivers, and personality. Personality, as one of the factors, is given
importance in this study. As defined by Boak, these are more or less stable internal factors that make
one person’s behavior consistent from one time to another and different from the behaviors that other
people would manifest in comparable situations.

Personality plays an important role in an individual’s personal, educational, vocational

adjustment, and success. The probability of success in these three areas is determined to a large extent
by personality factors. There have been studies of failure and maladjustments in these areas which are
usually attributed to the lack of necessary personality traits. Employers of big firms resort to personality
testing to meet and get an objective, unbiased, and accurate assessment of their prospective
employees’ personalities.

An individual’s written account of his past behaviors, feelings, and wishes can also be a good
source of information about his personality, since the kind and quality of behavior directly affect work
output or performance. Plunket (1990) mentioned that aptitude areas of a person’s personality may or
may not be developed. They are related to different competencies because they are the areas in which
competencies are developed. A person with an aptitude for determining special relationships has the
potential to become effective managers.

Moreover, Santos (1997) continued that knowing one’s personality is so important that through
understanding of it and the personalities of others, it will spell the difference between success and
failure in dealing with others. An understanding of one’s own personality and of others can make the
difference between satisfactory and unsatisfactory adjustment. One of the most widely used personality
framework is called the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Test. It is essentially a 100-question
personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in a particular situation.

On the basis of the answers of individuals in the test, they are classified as extroverted or
introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and perceiving or judging (P
or J). There is also the five factor model of personality dimensions (Robbins, 1996). These are as follows:
1. Extroversion and introversion – This dimension captures one comfort level with relationships.
Extroverts tend to be friendly and outgoing and spend much of their time maintaining and
 enjoying a large number of relationships. Introverts tend to be reserved and have fewer
relationships and they are more comfortable being solitary than most people.
2. Agreeableness – This dimension refers to an individual’s propensity to differ with one another.
Highly agreeable people value harmony more than they value having their say or their way. They
are cooperative and trusting with others. People who score low on agreeableness focus more on
their own needs than on needs of others.
3. Conscientiousness – This dimension refers to the number of goals on which a person focuses on.
A highly conscientious person pursues fewer goals in a purposeful way. A highly persistent
person tends to be more easily distracted, pursues many goals, and is more hedonistic.
4. Emotional stability – This dimension taps a person ability to withstand stress. People with
positive emotional stability tend to be characterized as calm, enthusiastic, and secure. Those
with high negative scores tend to be nervous, depressed, and insecure.
5. Openness to experience. The final dimension addresses one’s range of interests. Extremely open
people are fascinated by novelty and innovations. They tend to be imaginative, artistically
sensitive, and intelligent. Those at the other end of the openness category appear more
conventional and find comfort in the familiar.

The terms used by Ormrod (1995), which are related to intrapersonal competence, are self-concept
and self-esteem. Self-concept, according to him, is the belief in one’s self, character, strengths, and
weaknesses. Self-esteem is the extent to which your believe yourself to be capable and worthy
individual. Individuals who have positive self-concept and high self-esteem are more likely to succeed
academically, socially, and athletically. There are also factors to negative and positive self-concept.
These are behavior and performance; behavior of other individuals; and expectations that others hold
for performance. She also gave reasons why self-concept is resistant to change:
1. People usually behave in ways consistent with what they believe about themselves, so their
behaviors are likely to produce reactions on others that confirm their self-concept.
2. People tend to seek out information that confirms what they already believe about themselves.
Individuals with positive self-concept are more likely to seek positive feedback whereas those
with negative self-concept may actually look for information about their weakness and
limitations.
3. People often put themselves in situations where they believe they would not succeed, thereby
eliminating any possibility of discovering that they can succeed.

Review of Related Literature Example 3:

On Leadership Competencies and Management Skills (Seongkil, 2010)

On leadership skills. There are two factors to consider in leadership. These are as follows (Barron, 2010;
Hayden, 2005; Hersman, 2007):
1. Spiritual factors
a. He must be called by God.
b. He must meet the biblical requirements in his life.
 c. He must be empowered by the Holy Spirit to accomplish his job.
d. He must have an understanding of the biblical principles and be able to
e. apply them to the ministry of the Sunday School.
f. He must be a man of prayer.
2. Natural factors
a. He should understand basic human relationship and how to get along with
a. people.
b. He should understand how to motivate people to get job done.
c. He must know to train people, both technically and in informal settings.
d. He should have the ability to supervise and evaluate workers.
e. He should solve interpersonal problems, produce a cohesive staff, and keep everyone
working toward the goal.
Leaders seem to arise in almost all societies and organizations, large and small, simple and complex,
in every historical period and in every part of the world. Some observers claim that leaders exhibit
special traits that compel people to accept their authority. Despite decades of research on the long list
of leadership traits, the results remain inconclusive. Leaders, it turns out, come in all shapes and sizes.
Everywhere, the search is on for new leaders, different categories of leaders, and more relevant forms
of leadership.
Beerel (1998) lists the various foundational principles of leadership touch personality and traits and
principles:
1. We are not the center of the universe; we are a tiny part in an infinite system.
2. As living creatures, we are in a continuous process of evolution and we must adapt in order to
survive.
3. We must be attentive to the power of the unconscious in influencing human behavior
(Aadmodt, 2009; Hersman, 2005).
4. All things are relative.
5. All systems comprise interrelated networks linked by a complex of relationships that are in
perpetual change and motion.

Leadership is necessary. So it is written:

According to Berkley (1997), “without a vision, the people perish. Sheep without a shepherd are
scattered. How can people hear without someone preaching to them? Someone needs to guard the
good deposits that were entrusted to us by God. Someone must teach what is in accord with sound
doctrine. So God supplies leaders—some to be apostles, some to be prophets, some to be
evangelists, and some to be pastors and teachers—to build up the body of Christ.”
There are five exemplary practices of a good leader (Haber, 2009; Barron, 2010): modeling the way;
inspiring a shared vision; challenging the process; enabling others to act; and encouraging the heart.

On leadership models. There are also leadership models that were mentioned
(Kouzes and Posner, 2008):
 1. Relational leadership model – It involves a relational and ethical process of people attempting to
accomplish together a positive change (Hayden, 2005; Hersman, 2007). It is an inclusive,
empowering, purposeful, and ethical process.
2. Social change model of leadership – This is anchored on the premise that leadership is inclusive
of people in positional or non-positional roles. It is a process that promotes values of equity,
social justice, self-knowledge, service, and collaboration. This model emphasizes three major
values: individual values like consciousness of self (Barron, 2010), congruence, and
commitment; group values like collaboration (Aadmodth, 2000), common purpose, and
controversy with civility; and community values like citizenship (Hayden, 2005). Its major
objective is change and to make a better world and a better society for one’s self and others
(Hayden, 2005; Barron, 2010). It conveys the belief that individuals, groups, and communities
have the ability to work together to make the change.
3. Servant leadership – It is characterized as a natural feeling that one wants to serve first. A
servant leader is one who listens intently and receptively, exercises empathy, nurtures healing
and wholeness, unflinchingly and consistently applies ethics and values, builds cooperation
within the team through persuasion, dreams big dreams, exercises foresight, understands
service and stewardship as the first and foremost priority, nurtures the growth of employees,
and builds community within the organization (Barron, 2010; Hersman, 2007).
4. 4. Emotionally intelligent leadership – This involves three areas of consciousness: context, self,
and others. Consciousness of context includes environmental awareness and group-savvy.
Consciousness of self includes emotional self- perception, honest self-understanding, healthy
self-esteem, emotional self-control, authenticity, flexibility, achievement, optimism, and
initiative. Consciousness of others includes empathy, citizenship, inspiration, influence,
coaching, being an agent of change, conflict management, developing relationships, teamwork,
and capitalizing differences (Barron, 2010; Aadmodth, 2001).
5. Leadership identity development – This is composed of the following stages: awareness;
exploration/engagement; leader identified; leadership differentiated; generativity; and
integration or synthesis.

Literatures of McShane (2005), Hayden (2005), Goodbog (2009), and Aadmodt (2001) explain the
five perspectives of leadership: competency (trait) perspective of leadership; behavioral perspective;
contigency perspective; transformational perspective; and implicit leadership perspective.
On leadership competencies. The construct, competency (trait) perspective of leadership began when
experts reexamined the trait approach but with more emphasis on specific competencies. Competencies
encompass a broader range of personal characteristics such as knowledge, skills and abilities, and
values. Experts identified seven competencies (traits) of an effective leader:
1. Emotional intelligence – This is an ability to perceive and express emotions, assimilate emotion
and thought, understand and reason with emotions, and regulate them with others. This
requires a strong self-monitoring personality because leaders must be sensitive to situational
cues and readily adapt their own behavior appropriately (Barron, 2010; Hayden, 2005).
2. Integrity – This refers to a leader’s truthfulness and tendency to translate words into deeds.
Integrity is sometimes called “authentic leadership” because the individual acts with sincerity.
 He or she has a higher moral capacity to judge dilemmas based on sound values and acts
accordingly (Aadmodt, 2001).
3. Drive – Leaders should have a high need for achievement. This represents the inner motivation
that leaders possess to pursue their goals and encourage others to move forward with theirs. A
drive inspires unbridled inquisitiveness and a need for constant learning.
4. Leadership motivation – Leaders have a strong need for power because they want to influence
others. However, they tend to have a need for socialized power.
5. Self-confidence – They possess self-efficacy that they are capable to lead others.
6. Intelligence – Leaders have above average cognitive ability to process enormous amounts
of information. Leaders are not necessarily geniuses, but rather have a superior ability to
analyze alternative scenarios and identify potential opportunities (Barron, 2010).
7. Knowledge of business – Effective leaders understand the business environment in which they
operate. This assists their intuition to recognize opportunities and understand their
organization’s capacity to capture those opportunities.