Assignment 1 | Dariusz Zielinski

SHEFFIELD
HALLAM MHD (MAGNETO-HYDRO-DYNAMIC) ENERGY
UNIVERSIT GENERATORS
Y
Contents
Introduction...........................................................................................................................................3
MHD Principles......................................................................................................................................4
MHD Systems........................................................................................................................................5
Fluid and Thermo Dynamics in MHD generator...................................................................................10
MHD generator performance..............................................................................................................18
Environmental MHD impact................................................................................................................21
Hybrid MHD power generators...........................................................................................................22
MHD Optimization...............................................................................................................................24
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................25
Table of Figures...................................................................................................................................26
Bibliography.........................................................................................................................................27

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Introduction
Since generation of electric energy began the main task in human lives, we permanently try to
increase the efficiency of use of fuels, as well as reduce the pollution to the atmosphere. As the
traditional methods are only up to 40% efficient, what practically mean that waste of heat is unused
in process and emitted to the atmosphere, and the developments of traditional installations are
restricted by many physical factors.

As MHD implies, magneto-hydro-dynamic (MHD) is concerned with the flow of conducting fluid in
presence of magnetic and electric field. This fluid may be gas at elevated temperature or liquid metal
like sodium or potassium. A MHD generator is a device for converting heat energy of fuel directly
into electric energy without a conventional complex electric generator. The MHD principles had
been first published by Michael Faraday in 1893, but due to unsuccessful experiment on river
Thames the idea had been abandoned for next 4 decades, until the attempt of develop of MHD
generator around 1936 by Westing House research laboratory in USA.

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MHD Principles

[ CITATION MHD \l 2057 ]The principle of MHD generator adopts the same principles as the
traditional generators. The electric energy is produced due to the movement of conductor across the
magnetic field and Faraday’s electromotive force induces electric current. In MHD process the
traditional solid conductor is replaced by gaseous conductor such as ionised gas, or liquid ionized
metal, which is passed through magnetic field perpendicular to high velocity vector of the fluid.

Figure 1 MHD Principles [ CITATION MHD10 \l 2057 ]

The process may be described by Faraday’s Law of Induction:

B
E=U∗B o r U=
E

Where E is electromotive force, which is proportional to electric potential difference U (volt) and
magnetic density B (Tesla). Since the conductor is not a solid element but fluid the Lorentz force
applies to MHD generator to govern the principles of current generation in MHD process. Due to
magnetic field direction the positive and negative particles are accelerated towards electrodes hence
the Lorentz Law apply.

F=J∗B

Where F is force (Newton) and J is current density. Hence the positive ions will be attracted by
negative electrode and negative ions by positive electrode.

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Figure 2 Physics of MHD [ CITATION Bég10 \l 2057 ]

Implementing both equations for Faraday’s and Lorentz Laws the general expression for current
power become

P=J∗E and the lost enthalpy ∆ h=U∗J∗B

Thus gas energy directly converted into electrical energy. This is the principle of MHD generator. A
MHD conversion is known as direct energy conversion because it produced electricity directly from
heat source without the necessity of the additional stage of steam generation as in a steam power
plant.

One of the MHD power generation advantage is that the process doesn’t require high speed rotating
parts hence advanced materials may be used, which may operate in higher temperatures. Used
materials include high temperature ceramics, which allow to flow of high ionized plasma, which is
hotter that electric arc. Also because there is no requirement for moving elements, and the high
current density the size of MHD generator may be reduced what allow using it in many close space
applications such as space ships or submarines. The submarines application also benefit from quiet
operation.

MHD Systems
The MHD energy generators primarily may be divided into two types depending on operation
principles, open or close cycle systems.

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[ CITATION MHD \l 2057 ]An elementary open cycle MHD system, consist of open flow channel
surrounded by a magnet. A fuel is used to produce hot gas, which is then seeded with an ionized
alkali metal (caesium or potassium) to increase the electrical conductivities of gas. The gas expands
through the generator surrounded by high power magnet. During the flow of gas the positive and
negative ions move to the electrodes and constitute an electric current. The rejected gas passes
through an air heater for preheating the inlet air. The seed material is recovered for reuse, the
nitrogen and sulphur, which are the side effects, are removed for pollution controlled and then
gasses are discharged to the atmosphere.

The above cycle is not suitable for commercial use. The exhaust gases of MHD unit are still at
a sufficiently hot temperature it is possible to use for additional power generation in a steam turbine
alternator unit. This is increase the efficiency of process. Such cycle is known as hybrid MHD-steam
plant cycle.

Figure 3 Schematic MHD open cycle hybrid generator [ CITATION MHD \l 2057 ]

Figure 3 shows hybrid MHD steam cycle, coal is processed and burnt in the combustor at
high temperature (2750 to 3000 °K) and pressure (7 to 15 at atmosphere), with preheated air to
form the plasma. The plasma is then seeded with small fraction (1%) of an alkali metal (potassium)
introduced usually as a carbonate powder or solution.

[ CITATION MHD \l 2057 ]Second type of MHD generator is close cycle. The inert gas MHD system
was conceived 1965. Since the main disadvantage of the open cycle system is very high temperature
requirement and a very chemically active flow could be removed, by closed cycle MHD system. As
the name suggests the working fluid, is circulated in a closed loop. The working fluid is helium or
argon with caesium seeding. The complete system has three distinct but interlocking loops. First is
the external heating loop, coal is gasified and the gas has a high heat value of about 5.35 MJ/kg and
temperature of about 530°C, then it is burnt in a combustor to produce heat. In the heat exchanger
HX, this heat is transferred to the working fluid for MHD cycle. The combustion products after
passing through another heat exchanger, to preheat combustion air (to recover a part of the heat of
combustion product) and purifiers (To remove harmful emissions) and discharged to atmosphere.

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 Second loop is the MHD loop. The hot gas is seeded with caesium and send to MHD
generator. The DC power output of MHD generator is converted to AC by the inverter and is then
feed into the grid.

The third loop in fig 4 is the steam loop for further recover the heat of the working fluid and
convert this heat into electrical energy, by producing steam in another heat exchanger, which is use
by turbine, which generate electric output and power to drive compressor.

Figure 4 Close loop MHD generator[ CITATION MHD \l 2057 ]

As the described above are the MHD systems, there are also three different MHD generator. The
basic generator is Faraday’s generator show in figure 5.

Figure 5 Faraday generator [ CITATION MHD10 \l 2057 ]

Faraday generator consist a wedge-shaped pipe or tube made of non-conductive material such as
ceramic. When an electrically conductive fluid flows through the tube, in the presence of a
significant perpendicular magnetic field, a charge is induced. This charge is drawn off as electrical
energy by placing the electrodes on the sides at 90 o angles to the magnetic field. The amount of

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produced power is proportional to the cross section area of the tube and the speed of the
conductive flow. The main practical problem of a Faraday generator is that different voltages and
currents have to be consolidated to inventor to produce AC output voltage. The most powerful
waste is from the Hall Effect current.

[ CITATION Ele10 \l 2057 ]The Hall Effect in plasma can take any value. The Hall parameter β in a
plasma is the ratio between the electron gyro frequency Ωe and the electron-heavy particles collision
frequency ν:

Ωe eB
β= =
v me v

where

e is the electron charge (1.6 × 10-19 coulomb)

B is the magnetic field (in teslas)
me is the electron mass (0.9 × 10-30 kg)

As seen from expression above the Hall parameter value increases with the magnetic field
strength.

Physically, when the Hall parameter is low, the trajectories of electrons between two encounters
with heavy particles are almost linear. But if the Hall parameter is high, the electron movements are
highly curved. The current density vector is no more collinear with the electric field vector. The two
vectors make the Hall angle θ which also gives the Hall parameter:

β=tan θ

Another type of MHD generator is Hall type generator. The Hall generator posses arrays of short,
vertical electrodes on the sides of the duct, and the load is connected to first and last electrodes in
the duct, each other electrode is shorted to an electrode on the opposite side of the duct. These
shorts of the Faraday current induce a powerful magnetic field within the fluid, but in a chord of a
circle at right angles to the Faraday current. This secondary, induced field makes current flow in a
rainbow shape between the first and last electrodes. Losses are less than a Faraday generator, and
voltages are higher.

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Figure 6 Hall generator [ CITATION MHD10 \l 2057 ]

Third type of MHD generator is Disc generator. The disc generator has fluid flow from centre of a
disc, to a duct wrapped around the edge. The magnetic excitation field is performed by a pair of
circular coils above and below the disc. The Faraday currents flow tangentially and the Hall effect
currents flow between radially between inert and outer electrodes. Because hall current interacting
with magnetic field the flow became spiral and the Hall current is equal to centrifugal force. Another
significant advantage of this design is that the magnet is more efficient.

Figure 7 Disc generator [ CITATION MHD10 \l 2057 ]

Another type is Diagonal MHD generator. It is build similarly to the Faraday the common difference
is that the electrodes are not loaded separately, but connected in a slanted way and the load is
connected to first and the last electrode. Since there is Faraday current in the plasma the electrodes
are connected at optimum angle. This type of generators is not suffered from Hall current.

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Figure 8 Diagonal generator [ CITATION MHD10 \l 2057 ]

Fluid and Thermo Dynamics in MHD generator

Figure 9 Transient flow physical model with coordinate system [ CITATION SKG09 \l 2057 ]

[ CITATION SKG09 \l 2057 ]When considering transient, hydromagnetic, viscous, incompressible

Newtonian flow in parallel channel as show in figure 9, with constant pressure and uniform magnetic
field. All the physical quantities with exception of pressure are functions of independent variables.
Also assumptions are considered as follow:

q=( ú , v́ , 0 ) ; B=( Bx + B0 sinθ , B y , B 0 cosθ ) ; E=( E x , E y , E z ) ∧J=(J x , J y , J z )

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Where q , B, E , J are representing vectors respectively, velocity, magnetic field, electric field and
current density. The conservations equations for the flow i.e. momentum conservation and magnetic
induction conservation are represented as follow:
2
∂ ú −1 ∂ p ∂2 ú σ B0 2
−2 Ω v́= +v 2 − cos θ ú
∂t ρ∂x ∂z ρ
2
∂ v́ ∂2 v́ σ B0
−2 Ω ú=v 2 − v́
∂t ∂z ρ
2
−1 ∂ p σ B0
0= + ¿
ρ∂ z ρ

∂2 B x ∂ Bx ∂ ú
ε 2
+σ =σ B0 cosθ
∂t ∂t ∂z

∂2 B y ∂By ∂ v́
ε 2
+σ =σ B0 cosθ
∂t ∂t ∂z

“Where ú and v́ are the velocity components in the x- and y-directions, t is time, ρ is the fluid
density, p is pressure, u is kinematic viscosity, σ is fluid electrical conductivity, B0 is the applied
magnetic field, ε is the dielectric constant, θ is inclination of the applied magnetic field, B0 to the
positive z-axis (i.e. axis of rotation) and Bx and B y are magnetic induction components in the x- and
y-directions.”[ CITATION SKG09 \l 2057 ]

For mathematical and analytical scale less solution proposes dimension less parameters are
introduced.

z L L Bx By L2 v L3 −∂ p Ω L2
η= ,u= ú , v= v́ , b x =
L v v
,b =
σ μ e v B0 y σ μ e v B0
, t= T , ώ= 2 ω , R= 2
v L ρ v ∂x
2
,K =
v (
, M =B0 L)ρ √
Where

η is dimensionless z coordinate
u∧v are dimensionless velocities in x and y direction
b x ∧b y are dimensionless magnetic induction components in x and y direction

T is dimensionless time
ω is dimensionless angular frequencies
R is dimensionless longitudinal pressure gradient

K 2 is dimensionless inverse off Ekman number

M is Hartmann hydromagnetic parameter

Pm is magnetic Prandtl number

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d c is dielectric strength related to Maxwell displacement current effect

μe is magnetic permeability

Implementing conservations equations with dimensionless parameters the flow is represented by

expressions as follow

∂u 2 ∂2 u 2 2
−2 K v =R+ 2 −M cos θu
∂t ∂η

∂v 2 ∂2 v 2
−2 K u= 2 −M v
∂T ∂η

∂2 b x ∂ b x 1 ∂u
dc 2
+ = cosθ
∂T ∂T P m ∂η

∂2 b y ∂ b y 1 ∂v
dc 2
+ = cosθ
∂T ∂T P m ∂η

The tables bellow show numerical simulations using above equations with varying different elements
driving flow.

Figure 10 Spatial induced magnetic field distribution for M2 = 10, ω = 0.2, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 with K2 = 5 [ CITATION
SKG09 \l 2057 ]

Figure 11 Spatial induced magnetic field distribution for K2 = 5, ω = 0.2, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 with M2 = 5 [ CITATION
SKG09 \l 2057 ]

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Figure 12 Spatial induced magnetic field distribution for M2 = 10, K2 = 5, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 with ω = 0.6 [ CITATION
SKG09 \l 2057 ]

And graphically represented calculations show in figures 13, 14, 15 indicate that the b x ∧b y
magnetic induction components in x and y direction varnish at the centre of channel hence the
magnetic flux induction doesn’t take place in the channel centre

Figure 13 Graphical interpretation for M2 = 10, ω = 0.2, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 with K2 = 5, 7 and 9 [ CITATION SKG09 \l 2057 ]

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Figure 14 Graphical interpretation for K2 = 5, ω = 0.2, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 for M2 = 6, 8 and 10 [ CITATION SKG09 \l 2057 ]

Figure 15 Graphical interpretation for M2 = 10, K2 = 5, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 for ω = 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 [ CITATION SKG09 \l
2057 ]

[ CITATION Joa09 \l 2057 ]When considering steady, dissipative laminar two-dimensional Newtonian
flow, heat and mass transfer over a flat surface which temperature is T w, surface concentration C w
,where both are constant. Thermal conductivity k f , which are described by linear temperature law
k f =k 0 [ 1+ α ( T −T ∞ ) =k 0 (1+ βθ) ] where

k 0 is thermal conductivity

α is thermophysical constant which value is <0 for hydromagnetic fluids and 0< for water and air

β is thermal conductivity variation parameter and may be represented by β=α ( T w −T ∞ )

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If the Reynolds magnetic number is considered small, what allow ignoring induced magnetic field
effect, then for the case show in figure 16 under boundary layer assumption the follow conservation
expressions are as follow:

Mass conservation

∂u ∂ v
+ =0
∂x ∂ y

Momentum conservation

∂u ∂ v ∂2 u σB 2 x
U +v = − [ u−u ∞ ]
∂x ∂ y ∂ y2 ρ

Energy conservation (heat)

2
∂T ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T μ ∂u σ B2 Q
u
∂x
+v =
∂ y ρ cp ∂ y
kf [+ ] [ ]
∂ y ρc p ∂ y
+
ρc p
[
2
u−u∞ ] + 0 [ T −T ∞ ]
ρcp

Species conservation (concentration)

∂C ∂C ∂2 C ∂
u +v =D − (V T C )
∂x ∂y ∂ y2 ∂ y

Where

u and v are x and y-direction velocities

m is the kinematic fluid viscosity

σ is electrical conductivity

T is fluid temperature

C is species concentration (of particles)

u∞ and T ∞ are the free stream velocity and temperature

ρ is density

c p is specific heat capacity of the fluid at constant pressure

D is the Fickian mass diffusion coefficient

V T is thermophoretic velocity

B is the magnetic field strength

Q 0 is heat source/sink parameter

μ is dynamic viscosity of the fluid

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k f is the thermal conductivity of the fluid

Figure 16 Physical model and coordinate system [ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ]

When thermophoretic diffusivity and thermophoretic conductivity adopted, and computed for
dimensionless values Lingen Chen[ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ] obtained following date shown on
graphs bellow.

In figure 17 may be observed increase in dimensionless velocities of fluid when Hartman number
increases. The reason of this increase of velocity is because magnetic stream is moving with the free
stream. When η approaches value of 0.35 independently on Ha velocity is close to unity. Similarity
may be observed on graph in figure 19 representing non dimensional concentration versus Hartman
number, in this case the concentration increase with increase of Hartmann number and achieving
unity at η around 5. But in figure 18 the drop of dimensionless temperature with increase of
Hartman number may be seen. Also all curves decay from maximum temperature at the channel
wall to zero in the stream. The reason for this behaviour is because Joule heating is generated due to
resistance of the fluid to the flow of current. Similar behaviour of the non dimensional temperature
and concentration is observed in figures 20 and 21 with different values of Eckert numbers,
temperature decrease when Eckert number rise and concentration increase with higher Eckert
numbers.

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Figure 17 Dimensionless velocity (df/dg) versus g for Ha = 0, 1, 2, 5, 10 with Ec = 0.1, D = 0.1, Pr = 0.7, Sc = 0.6, b = 0.5,
f0 = 0.1, s = 0.5. [ CITATION Joa09 \l 2057 ]

Figure 18 Dimensionless temperature (h) versus g for Ha = 0, 1, 2, 5, 10 with Ec = 0.1, D = 0.1, Pr = 0.7, Sc = 0.6, b = 0.5, f0
= 0.1, s = 0.5. [ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ]

Figure 19 Dimensionless concentration (U) versus g for Ha = 0, 1, 2, 5, 10 with Ec = 0.1, D = 0.1, Pr = 0.7, Sc = 0.6, b = 0.5,
f0 = 0.1, s = 0.5. [ CITATION Joa09 \l 2057 ]

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Figure 20 Dimensionless temperature (h) versus g for Ec = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, with Ha = 1, D = 0.1, Pr = 0.7, Sc = 0.6, b = 0.5, f0
= 0.1, s = 0.5 [ CITATION Joa09 \l 2057 ]

Figure 21 Dimensionless concentration (U) versus g for D = 0.7, 0.2, 0, 0.2, 0.7 with Ha = 1, Ec = 0.1, Pr = 0.7, Sc = 0.6, b =
0.5, f0 = 0.1, s = 0.5 [ CITATION Joa09 \l 2057 ]

MHD generator performance

To analyze efficiency of MHD generator aspect of heat exchanger and compressor have to be
considered. Because the cycle show in figure 22 is similar to the cycle of gas turbine used widely in
traditional power plant, the analysis may be based on these principles.

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 Figure 22 Power cycle for MHD generator[ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ]

Follow Lingen Chen[ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ] in order to investigate power efficiency two cases are
considered for solution, which are the constant gas velocity and constant Mach number. To see
various aspect of constant gas case the parametric calculations outcomes for the constant gas
velocity case are shown below in respect to compressor pressure ratio. Figure 23 shows the effect of
the effectivenesses E H =E L of the hot and cold side heat exchangers on ηu with ηc =0.8 and
ηe =0.9. Figure 24 shows the effect of the compressor efficiency ηc on ηu with ηe =0.9and
E H =E L =0.9, and Figure 25 shows the effect of the MHD generator efficiency ηe on ηu with ηc =0.8
and E H =E L =0.9

Figure 23 Effect of heat exchanger effectiveness on the performance (constant gas velocity). [ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ]

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 Figure 24 Effect of compressor efficiency on the performance (constant gas velocity). [ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ]

Figure 25 Effect of generator efficiency on the performance (constant gas velocity). [ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ]

Second simulation had been undertaken by Lingen Chen[ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ] to investigate
efficiency in case of constant Mach number. The graphical results are shown below. The parameters
used in calculation are as follow:

Figure 26 show effect of Mach number on η M with ηc =0.8 , ηe =0.9 and E H =E L =0.9 Figure
27 show effect of the effectivenesses E H =E L of the hot and cold side heat exchangers on η M with
ηc =0.8 , ηe =0.9 and M =0.8 Figure 28
shows the effect of the compressor efficiency ηc on η M with ηe =0.9 , E H =E L =0.9 and M =0.8 .

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 Figure 26 Effect of Mach number on the performance (constant Mach number). [ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ]

Figure 27 Effect of heat exchanger effectiveness on the performance (constant Mach number). [ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ]

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 Figure 28 Effect of compressor efficiency on the performance (constant Mach number). [ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ]

If compare the diagrams above the pressure ratio π may be delivered for optimum efficiency of the
MHD generator. The efficiency then should be compromised with optimum power output which is
explained in details in Lingen Chen[ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ] work.

Environmental MHD impact

Since the main concern about impact of energy generation on environment is the emission of CO 2 in
atmosphere which raise the global temperature, the study have been performed to reduce this
emission. In MHD generation there is requirement of high temperature to obtain optimum
performance of the generator. To achieve the required temperature according to M.
Ishikawa[ CITATION MIS98 \l 2057 ] proposed to use oxygen instead of air. Usage of oxygen in
combustion not only increases the temperature but also increase the purity of the exhaust gasses
emitted by the process. With this system the CO 2 may be recovered as a liquid. M.
Ishikawa[ CITATION MIS98 \l 2057 ] study show that there is not high requirement required to liquid
the gas which may be utilised in deep sea water. His further study show that by utilising part of the
produced energy for 95% oxygen and recovery of 90% CO 2 efficiency of cycle is 42.9%, which is
higher that efficiency of the traditional power plant which cannot be higher that 38-40%. The
arrangement of proposed by M. Ishikawa[ CITATION MIS98 \l 2057 ] plant is show in figure 29.

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Figure 29 Power balance of coal-fired MHD-steam combined system with CO2 recovery (thermal input of about 1000
MW and magnetic flux density of 8 T). [ CITATION MIS98 \l 2057 ]

Performance parameters for 1000MW power input according to M. Ishikawa[ CITATION MIS98 \l
2057 ] are as follow:

“Power output of MHD generator supplied to the a.e. grid: 217.9 MW

Power output of synchronous generator supplied to the a.c. grid: 316.8 MW

Power required for oxygen production: 50.0 MW

Power required for CO2 liquefaction (90% recovery): 64.0 MW

Power output of total system supplied to the a.c. grid: 420.7 MW

Cycle efficiency (including the power for CO2 liquefaction): 42.9% (HHV).”

Hybrid MHD power generators

Since to generate power using MHD technology there is requirement for heat, following Os
Beg[ CITATION Bég10 \l 2057 ] many different sources may be used. Os Beg[ CITATION Bég10 \l 2057
] proposed solar power where sun energy is concentrated and generate heat, which is used in the
plant to produce plasma gas. Plasma gas is injected into MHD channel to produce electric energy.
Figure 30 show solar powered generator with regenerative heat exchanger in close loop
arrangement. The main propose of use of this type generator is in Space.

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Figure 30 Solar MHD generator[ CITATION Bég10 \l 2057 ]

Another solution to MHD hybrid generator, mentioned by Os Beg[ CITATION Bég10 \l 2057 ] is MHD
generator with nuclear reactor working in close loop system. Figure31 show that the heating device
is not like previous example solar it is nuclear reactor which is recognized as long lasting
maintenance free device hence may be used on Space on crewless spaceships. Another proposes for
this type of generator may be submarine use. It is suitable for submarines thanks to the quiet work.

Figure 31 Nuclear MHD power generator[ CITATION Bég10 \l 2057 ]

In recent years development had been performed on seawater MHD generator which uses
electromotive force to generate energy in helical MHD channel. Figure 32 show helical MHD
generator and fluid flow simulation. Study performed by Minoru Takeda[ CITATION Min05 \l 2057 ]
that prototype of as small as 260mm long and 100mm diameter channel can produce 0.05W at the
average flow velocities of 5.6m/s. The helical MHD generator is show in figure 32.

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 Figure 32 Helical - Type seawater MHD generator [ CITATION Min05 \l 2057 ]

MHD Optimization
Most of the recent studies for optimization of MHD generators are performed numerically, but this
is not discrediting obtained values because the numerical solutions are performed on non
dimensional data hence the results may be scaled without discrepancies. One of the numerical case
studies is[ CITATION LIN02 \l 2057 ] “Heat transfer effect on the performance of MHD power plant”
by Lingen Chen. The study shows aspect of constant gas velocity and constant Mach number on
performance. Also experimental analyzes are undertaken one of which is coal – fired MHD Faraday
channel at IEE in China[ CITATION MIS95 \l 2057 ]. The experiments show fields where performance
may be increased. First are the linkages in x and y direction and also the effective electrical
conductivity which may be obtained by complete combustion of coal or better mixing of seeds.

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Conclusion
The MHD generation of energy is still under development but its advantages attract industries and
the possibility of improvement of efficiency of standard power plants. The system may be employed
in existing plants as well may be operated alone. The employment in existing plants may bring
significant reduction of CO2 emission as shown by utilising it in liquid form, or even if from the same
heat input the plant will produce more energy its mean there will be reduction of CO 2 for KW output.

MHD generators may operate with different sources of heat, and the small dimensions of system
may be employed space applications and naval applications.

Table of Figures

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Figure 1 MHD Principles (2)...................................................................................................................4
Figure 2 Physics of MHD (3)...................................................................................................................5
Figure 3 Schematic MHD open cycle hybrid generator (1)....................................................................6
Figure 4 Close loop MHD generator (1).................................................................................................7
Figure 5 Faraday generator (2)..............................................................................................................7
Figure 6 Hall generator (2).....................................................................................................................8
Figure 7 Disc generator (2)....................................................................................................................9
Figure 8 Diagonal generator (2).............................................................................................................9
Figure 9 Transient flow physical model with coordinate system (5)....................................................10
Figure 10 Spatial induced magnetic field distribution for M2 = 10, ω = 0.2, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 with K2 =
5 (5).....................................................................................................................................................12
Figure 11 Spatial induced magnetic field distribution for K2 = 5, ω = 0.2, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 with M2 =
5 (5).....................................................................................................................................................12
Figure 12 Spatial induced magnetic field distribution for M2 = 10, K2 = 5, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 with ω =
0.6 (5)..................................................................................................................................................12
Figure 13 Graphical interpretation for M2 = 10, ω = 0.2, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 with K2 = 5, 7 and 9 (5)...13
Figure 14 Graphical interpretation for K2 = 5, ω = 0.2, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 for M2 = 6, 8 and 10 (5).....13
Figure 15 Graphical interpretation for M2 = 10, K2 = 5, ωT = π/4, θ = π/4 for ω = 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 (5)
.............................................................................................................................................................14
Figure 16 Physical model and coordinate system (7)...........................................................................15
Figure 17 Dimensionless velocity (df/dg) versus g for Ha = 0, 1, 2, 5, 10 with Ec = 0.1, D = 0.1, Pr = 0.7,
Sc = 0.6, b = 0.5, f0 = 0.1, s = 0.5. (6).................................................................................................16
Figure 18 Dimensionless temperature (h) versus g for Ha = 0, 1, 2, 5, 10 with Ec = 0.1, D = 0.1, Pr =
0.7, Sc = 0.6, b = 0.5, f0 = 0.1, s = 0.5. (7).............................................................................................16
Figure 19 Dimensionless concentration (U) versus g for Ha = 0, 1, 2, 5, 10 with Ec = 0.1, D = 0.1, Pr =
0.7, Sc = 0.6, b = 0.5, f0 = 0.1, s = 0.5. (6).............................................................................................17
Figure 20 Dimensionless temperature (h) versus g for Ec = 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, with Ha = 1, D = 0.1, Pr =
0.7, Sc = 0.6, b = 0.5, f0 = 0.1, s = 0.5 (6)..............................................................................................17
Figure 21 Dimensionless concentration (U) versus g for D = 0.7, 0.2, 0, 0.2, 0.7 with Ha = 1, Ec = 0.1,
Pr = 0.7, Sc = 0.6, b = 0.5, f0 = 0.1, s = 0.5 (6).......................................................................................17
Figure 22 Power cycle for MHD generator (7).....................................................................................18
Figure 23 Effect of heat exchanger effectiveness on the performance (constant gas velocity). (7).....18
Figure 24 Effect of compressor efficiency on the performance (constant gas velocity). (7)................19
Figure 25 Effect of generator efficiency on the performance (constant gas velocity). (7)...................19
Figure 26 Effect of Mach number on the performance (constant Mach number). (7)........................20
Figure 27 Effect of heat exchanger effectiveness on the performance (constant Mach number). (7).20
Figure 28 Effect of compressor efficiency on the performance (constant Mach number). (7)............21
Figure 29 Power balance of coal-fired MHD-steam combined system with CO2 recovery (thermal
input of about 1000 MW and magnetic flux density of 8 T). (8)..........................................................22
Figure 30 Solar MHD generator (3)......................................................................................................23
Figure 31 Nuclear MHD power generator (3)......................................................................................23
Figure 32 Helical - Type seawater MHD generator (9).........................................................................24

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