Joseph Ong

Research Question: How does the Oxidation duration (0,2,4,6,8,10 hours) of Sodium Citrate
(Na3C6H5O7) solution affect the conducivity (mS/m) of the solution; by measuring the changes in
the current pasing through the solution using a constant voltage of 9V?

Introduction:

After a game of tennis, my favourite drink to consume is Pocari Sweat. Given my personal
experiences with this drink, I conducted some research and found that in Japan this drink is given to
students before exams - by Japanese parents. One thing I found strange was that some parents
would oxidise the solution for a certain duration before giving it to a student on the examination
day. One parents claimed that the mineral content (which I found to mostly be Na3C6H5O7) would
“stimulate neurological activity by providing the brain with more minerals” – if the drink is left out
over time. I highly doubted this theory and so I wondered how exactly the conductivity of this ionic
drink is actually affected with the time it is left out as this should also be dependent on the ionic
concentration that could change with oxidation duration.

The mineral ions in Pocari Sweat are mostly Sodium Citrate ions according to the official website
(Otsuka, 2017).

Investigation:

Main equation for the reaction:

Symbol Equation: C3H5O (COO)33−(aq)+ H2O(l) ⇌ HC3H5O(COO) 32- (aq)+ OH-(aq) (Minotti & Aust, 1987)

Word Equation: Citrate ion3- + Water ⇌ Oxalosuccinate2- +Hydroxide Ions

The equation (above) is the reaction showing the oxidation (losing of electrons) of citrate ions; this
reaction is induced by electrolysis whereby one electron is lost by C3H5O (COO) 33− ions this process.
This reaction occurs when the electrolyte is dissolved into water. The electrolyte is the same
concentration as (Wolf, 1966) allowing for a comparison of experimental conductivity data with
literature values. This reaction is an oxidative hydrolysis reaction (Minotti & Aust, 1987). The
concentration of citrate ions affects the conductivity of the solution.

The mechanism of this reaction involves the Citrate ions (already dissolved in the solution) are further
oxidised to form Oxalosuccinate ions when dissolved into water (Minotti & Aust, 1987). In
electrolysis, hydroxide ions are attracted to the anode and hydrogen ions to the cathode which in turn
allows for the completion of a circuit and the reduction and oxidation of the two respective ions.

Figure 1- Mechanism of electrolysis

*The conductivity is affected by the
1 Anode: H+(aq)+e-12H2(g) concentration of mobile citrate ions because
-
Cathode: OH(aq) 1O2(g) + H2O(l)+e- the lower the ionic concentration, the lower
2 2

the conductivity of the electrolyte.

Na+ and C3H5O (COO)3-3 are

in the solution.

Na3C6H5O7 (Sodium
citrate solution) 1
(Hewitt, 2004)
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Electrolysis is a process that drives redox reactions with dissolved ions. These ions transfer current
between electrodes and depending on the concentration of mobile ions, the current recorded varies.
However, with time oxidising reactions (reference main equation, above) reduce the concentration of
citrate ions in solution. This most likely is done with oxygen being dissolved from the air to oxidise
the citrate anions. The concentration shall be 9.88×10-2 mol dm-3 (±0.00098) the same concentration
as (Wolf, 1966) as it will allow the experimental values at 0h to be compared with a literature value to
determine the uncertainty and the reliability of the experimental values.

*Conductivity is a solution’s ability to pass an electric current. (Hewitt, 2004).

HL Background Information of conductivity:

𝑲
𝑲= be Equation 1 (College, n.d.) For Equation 1: K is conductivity (Sm-1), 𝑲 is the length of
𝑲𝑲
wire (m), A is cross-sectional area (m2), and R is overall resistance (Ω) of the solution (including the
electrolyte).

It is axinomatic that the K-value (conductivity) of a solution will decrease with the resistance of the
𝑲
solution, as K is inversely proportionate to R. In accordance with Ohm’s law 𝑲 = . Therefore,𝑲
changes in the electrolyte resistance will result in changes to the concentration of the electrolyte.
Figure 2- Graph showing conductivity against resistance, demonstrating the inversely proportional relationship between
resistance and conductivity (S/m) (Hewitt, 2004)

Conductivity

Calculations used to produce the sodium citrate electrolyte:

𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲
Calculations of concentration= 5.1𝑲 (±0.05𝑲) × 0.5(±0.0005c𝑲3 ) = 9.88 × 10−2 mol d𝑲3 = × 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲
258.06 𝑲𝑲

0.05 0.0005
Uncertainty calculation = ( × 100%) + ( × 100%) = 0.0005 + 0.98 ≈ ±0.99%
5.1 5

Absolute uncertainty = 0.99 × 9.88 × 10−2 = ±0.00098 mol dm-3

100

Introducing the calculations required to calculate conductivity:

Calculation proceedures:

1. Calculating resistance (Ω) at 9V and measured current (A) values at each oxidation duration.
2. Calculate conductance by inversing resistance value (done by dividing one by resistance
value).

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 3. Calculating the cross sectional area (Acm2) of the electrolyte by multiplying the height (cm)
and length of the beaker (cm).
4. Multiply condutance (Ω-1) by length of beaker (cm) and divide value by cross sectional area
(cm2) to get conducativity (Siemens)
5. Multiply conductivity by 1000 to get conductivity in millisiemens which is the same as (Wolf,
1966).

Hypothesis

The conductivity will decrease as the greater the oxidation duration of the solution. This is
because the oxidation reaction of citrate ions is spontaneous (Randall & Templeton, 1991). Therefore,
with time (h) the solution will oxidise and the number of ions in the solution will decrease. When a
more dilute solution (with more oxidised ions) is used as the electrolyte contains less mobile ions the
charge carried would likely decrease - changing the overall resistance of the circuit. As the lower the
ionic concentration of mobile citrate ions, the lower the conductivity of the solution. When
oxidisation occurs, the concentration of mobile citrate ion is reduced leading to the conductivity of
sodium citrate to be reduce as oxidation duration increases.

During this investigation the only thing studied was the conductivity of the solution. However, it was
assumed that this could only be affected by concentration of the electrolyte. Therefore, several
variables were controlled in order to measure how the concentration, and subsequently the
conductivity were affected by the duration of oxidation.

Methodology

There are two parts of the methodology used to determine the conductivity based on oxidation
duration. 1) Producing and oxidising a sodium citrate electrolyte 2) Electrolysing sidum citrate
to measure resistance by measuring current and then calculating conductivity. These two
methods were modified established methods adapted from the Journal of International Environmental
Sciences (Ahmet Alıcılar, 2008) and the Biomedical Researchers from Yale University (Lobo, 2017).

Modifications made to the oxidation methodology (Ahmet Alıcılar, 2008)

a. The chemical used was sodium citrate instead of Iron Suplphide Hexahydride, as that is the
primary chemical under investigation.
b. The lab’s absence of a T-piece, to pump air into the centre of a solution meant that
adjustments had to be made to the original method which required a T-piece; prolonging
oxidation duration (independent variable) instead of increasing the air flow into the centre of
the Sodium Citrate solution. However, this may cause evaporation of water during this
duration as well.

Modifications made to the electrolysis methodology (Lobo, 2017)

I. This method did not factor in distance apart of electrodes. Therefore, I chose to control this
variable (reference control variable section).
II. Instead of a conductivity sensor (prescribed by the method) I used a ammeter as our
laboratory did not have a conductivity sensor.

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 List of apparatus

1. Memmert Water Bath (±0.1°C) set to 25.0°C

2. 5.1g (±0.05g) of Sodium Citrate powder for each experiment (per 5 experimental repeats)
(this is to produce a concentration similar to that used by (Wolf, 1966) allowing for a
comparison of these quantitative results and a literature value.
3. Mass Balance (±0.01g)
4. 500cm3 (±0.5cm3) of distilled water and 500cm3 beaker
5. Five 100 cm3 beaker
6. 500cm3 (±0.05cm3) volumetric flask
7. 100cm3 (±0.05cm3) volumetric flask
8. 2 three centimeter graphite electrodes
9. Ammeter (±0.005A)
10. Battery pack (9V)
11. 4 copper wires with alligator clips.
12. Stopwatch (±0.01s)
13. Ruler (±0.1cm)
14. Spatula
15. Tongs
16. Thermometer (±0.1°C)
Figure 3- Electrolysis experimental set-up

Graphite electrodes
Battery pack (9V) (5cm apart measured Ruler (used to calculate the
using ruler) cross section area and height
of beaker and distance apart
of electrodes

Copper wires (with alligator clips

connecting wires from batter to
Sodium citrate graphite electrodes)
electrolyte
Ammeter (A)

Methodology used in order to produce and oxidise the Sodium citrate electrolyte

1. Using a spatula add 10.0g (±0.01g) of Sodium Citrate powder to 500cm3 (±0.05cm3) of
distilled water (measured using a volumetric flask before adding to a beaker).
2. Using a glass rod, stir the powder and ensure that it is fully dissolved into the solution (with
no crystals left undissolved).
3. Set the Memmert water bath to 25.0°C (±0.1°C) by adjusting the knob.
4. Decant 100cm3 (±0.05cm3) of the Sodium citrate solution into a 100cm3 volumetric flask and
then into a 100cm3 beaker and place the beaker into the Memmert water bath for desired
oxidation duration.
5. Remove the beaker carefully using tongs to prevent mechanical injuries.
6. Repeat steps 1-5 five times for each oxidation duration (0,2,4,6,8,10 hours)

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Methodology used in order to find out the electrical current passing through circuit:

1. Add two electrolytes (3cm length) connected to a battery pack of 9V, using copper wires with
alligator clips, to the oxidised solution of sodium citrate. Ensure that electrodes are exactly
5cm (±0.1cm) apart as measured with a ruler.
2. Connect two copper wires to an ammeter in a parallel circuit.
3. Switch on the battery pack (reference step 1)
4. Record the current recording as displayed on the ammeter (±0.01A) after electrolysing
sodium citrate for 30 seconds – this time duration was determined using a preliminary trial
whereby the readings were found to remain constant after around 30s.
5. Repeat steps 1-5 five times for each oxidation duration (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 hours). This will
provide a total of 30 raw data sets which shall be processed.
6. Using a ruler, also measure the height of the beaker and the overall area of the beaker to find
out the A and L values (reference Equation 1, page 1 for full equation).

Monitoring lab conditions

a) Thermometer was placed in the water around the oxidising electrolyte to ensure constant
temperature.
b) Air-conditioning was maintained at 25.0°C for the entire experiment.

Dimensions of a beaker

Figure 3- The proportions of a beaker

*Note that the cross sectional area, or A

(reference Equation 1 on page 1). Can
6cm. This is the Height of be calculated using the formula
the electrolyte solution.
𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲
= 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲ℎ𝑲 𝑲𝑲
*photo not to scale 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲
5cm. This is the × 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝑲𝑲
Diameter of the
𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲
electrolyte

Safety Precautions:

Sodium Citrate can cause mild irritation to the skin and eyes. Therefore, gloves, lab coats and goggles
were worn throughout the experiment. Additionally, Sodium Citrate was disposed of in a sealed
container and sent off to a processing company to handle. Environmental hazards could be the
animals such as birds consume citrate or sodium ions which can lead to renal failure and subsequently
disrupt food chains. While handling using electricity, extra care was taken to not spill any of the
Sodium Citrate solution (or any other liquids) onto the battery pack to prevent an electrical shock.
While using water baths, tongs were used to place beakers of Sodium Citrate into the solution as well
as to remove the beakers from the water bath to prevent mechanical injury due to heat.

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Variables
Table 1- Independent, Dependent and Controlled variables for the experiment
Type Variable
Independent Oxidation duration (0, 2, 4, 6,
8,10 hours) of Sodium citrate.
With 5 repeats for each
duration.
Dependent Conductivity of the sodium
citrate solution
Controlled Initial concentration of sodium
Variables citrate solution was kept at
9.88 × 10−2mol dm-3
Distance (cm) apart of
electrolytes
Temperature (°C) at which
oxidation occurs
Electrode composition
Time for electrolysis
Same apparatus used
Light intensity
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Purpose
This was to provide sufficient
data sets in which to obtain
results from
This dependent variable was
measured to investigate effect of
oxidation duration on the
conductivity of the solution.
That way oxidation process can
be measured with changes in
recorded current. Done by using
the same masses of sodium
citrate and volume of distilled
water.
This ensures that the current is
not affected by the distance apart
of the electrodes.
This ensures that a constant rate
of oxidation occurs over the
different time durations and that
temperature did not change the
electrolysis rates.
This ensures that all
experimental repeats have the
same electrodes and have no
additional electron inference that
many affect current measured.
This was required because as
electrolysis occurs the number of
ions is reduced. To provide
sufficient time for ammeter to
adjust, without depleting too
many ions,
To ensure no factors such as the
conductivity affect the
conductivity of the device.
Some electrons can be excited
with the addition of photons and
so electrolysis can occur faster if
light intensity increases.
How this was
achieved
Using a stopwatch the
number of hours of
oxidation was timed.
Measured by the
reading the ammeter
reading after 30s as a
raw data. This is then
processed to calculate
solution conductivity.
This was done by
using dissolving the
same mass of sodium
citrate (5.1g) into the
same water volume
(500cm3). Air-
conditioner was kept at
25.0°C for the entire
day.
This was measured
using a ruler and along
the diameter of the
beaker.
Placing the sodium
citrate electrolyte into
the Memmert water
bath set to 25.0°C for
specified oxidation
duration.
Graphite electrodes
were used for all
experimentation. This
is because graphite has
inert electrons.
Using a stopwatch the
number of seconds the
electrolyte was
electrolysed was timed.
The same length of
copper wires, battery
pack and ammeters
were used for all sets
of experiments.
Drawing the curtains
throughout the
duration of the
experiment.
 Raw Data
Table 3- Raw data of the dimensions of the beaker
Table 2- Raw data of the current (A) passing through solution obtained from
shown in figure 3 using a ruler.
the prescribed methodology using an ammeter

Current (A) (±0.005A) measured when Dimensions of the Measurements of the

electrolysing sodium citrate electrolyte Length and Height
Time (h) Repeat Repeat Repeat Repeat Repeat values
(±0.01seconds) 1 2 3 4 5
0 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42
Height of electrolyte 6.0 (±0.1cm)
2 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.41
solution (cm). This is
4 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 shall be referred to as
H in table 4
6 0.32 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.32
Diameter of 5.0 (±0.1cm)
8 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 electrolyte solution
(cm).
10 0.31 0.32 0.31 0.32 0.32 This is shall be
referred to as L in
table 4
Calculating Average current for 0h
0.42 + 0.42 + 0.42 + 0.42 + 0.42
= 0.42𝑲(±0.005𝑲)
5
Qualitative analysis

1. Occasionally the milliseconds part of the stopwatch were different for each timing
2. Electrolyte volume was reduced slightly after being left to oxidised (observed by reading beaker
measurements).
3. Colourless gas was observed coming off both electrodes due to electrolysis.
4. Reading on the ammeter stayed constant at around 30s before plummeting after 180s.
5. The rate of effervescence decreased as oxidation duration increased.
6. No changes in electrolyte colour were observed.
7. Slight decrease in volume of the electrolyte in the beaker after the specified oxidation duration.
This volume decreased more the greater the time duration of the oxidation. Due to increased Note* Raw
evaporation. data SF is 2
8. Slight bit of rust of the crocodile clips. because the
Note* SF means
ruler used to
Significant figures
Sample Calculations of conductivity for 0h oxidation durations measure
Table 4- Sample calculations of all variables at 0h oxidation duration for sodium citrate electrolyte dimensions
is only
accurate to
2SF)

Raw data SF
is equal
Final data
SF
Final
answer
obtained is
also 2SF
0.1 × 2 0.1
1.19% + ( + ) Random
5 5
error is also
2SF

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 Processed data table
Table 4- Processed data table showing conductance, cross sectional area, and conductivity of sodium citrate electrolyte

Time (h) (±0.003h) Conductance (S-1) Cross-sectional area of Conductivity (mS)

the beaker (cm2) (millisiemens) (2SF)
(A)(±0.2cm2)
0 0.0462 25.0 9.2

2 0.0444 25.0 8.9

4 0.0400 25.0 8.0

6 0.0367 25.0 7.3

8 0.0367 25.0 7.3

10 0.0353 25.0 7.1

Literature value of the conductivity after 0 hours of oxidation 7.4mS (Wolf, 1966)
(Reference sample calculations for 0h values, all other conductivity values for different oxidation durations were obtained
using Microsoft excel)

Graph showing the effects of oxidation duration and conductivity

To explicitly see the effects oxidation duration has on conductivity, the average conductivity
(dependent variable) is plotted against the oxidation duration (independent variable) below.

Graph 1- Conductivity of sodium citrate against oxidation duration

The effect of oxidation duration (h) on

conductivity (mS) of sodium citrate
10

9.5

9
Negative correlation
Conductivity (mS)

8.5
Error Bars
8 represent
7.5

7 y = -0.2317x + 9.1365
High R2 value R² = 0.9179
6.5

6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Oxidation duration (h)
Interpreting the graph:

A negative correlation can be observed between the oxidation duration of sodium citrate (h) and the
conductivity of sodium citrate (mS) in Graph 1. The maximum conductivity data point recorded was
at 0h whereby conductivity is 9.2mS. The minimum conductivity data point recorded was at 10h

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whereby conductivity was 7.1mS. Overall the points are well represented with a high R 2 value of
0.9179 which means that the line of best fit is very representative of the points it passes through and
that the trend is reliable (the closer the R2 value is to 1, the more reliable it is). Overall, the data
mostly agrees with the hypothesis that “the greater the oxidation duration, the lower the sodium citrate
conductivity”. An anomalous result is at 8 hours which had a 7.3mS conductivity value (the same
value as the 6h reading which was unexpectedly low). This makes it anomalous because this should
not have been the case given that after 8h of oxidation the conductivity of sodium citrate should be
less than after 6h of oxidation. This ‘anomaly’ can be interested as either forecasting a plateau or
could be attributed to random errors given the uncertainty of the experiment.

Table of uncertainty calculations (sample calculation available on page 7)

Table 3- Table of absolute conductivity uncertainties

Time (h) Conductivity (mS) (mS stands for millisiemens) Percentage Absolute
(±0.003h) uncertainty uncertainty
(%)
0 9.2 ±7.2 ±0.7
2 8.9 ±7.3 ±0.6
4 8.0 ±7.4 ±0.6
6 7.3 ±7.5 ±0.6
8 7.3 ±7.5 ±0.6
10 7.1 ±7.6 ±0.5

Percentage error calculations

To investigate the reliability of this experiment the value 9.2mS (the experimental conductivity value
with 0h of prior oxidation), will be compared with the (Wolf, 1966) value of 7.4mS in order to
determine the overall percentage error for the same Sodium citrate electrolyte concentrations. This
calculation is necessary in order to investigate how unreliable the experimental data is relative to more
accurate secondary sources and the literature value for a starting point. This would allow for the
investigation of the reliability of the obtained experimental values.

9.2 − 7.4
𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 × 100% = 24.3%
𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 = 7.4

Conclusion

In conclusion, the results of the experiment agree with the hypothesis that “The conductivity will
decrease as the greater the oxidation duration of the solution”. The trend shows that the longer
the oxidation duration, the higher the sodium citrate electrolyte’s conductivity. According to
graph 1, the conductivity of the solution steadily decreases as the duration of oxidation increases
(negative correlation). The graph demonstrated a significant overall decrease in conductivity of 2.1mS
over the course of 10 hours of oxidation.

However, while the data is well represented by the “line of best fit” – as determined with the data’s
high R2 value of 0.92 – anomalies are present. Outliers can be observed, in conductivity the trends
between the 6 and 8 hour oxidation durations, whereby conductivity decreased at a decreasing rate.
Also, the relatively small change in conductivity that occurred between 8 to 10 hours (compared to the
large change in conductivity between 4 to 6 hours) (reference graph 1) results imply that oxidation

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rates slow with time as fewer citrate ions are left for oxidation as time passes. This is because mobile
ions are necessary to carry electric charge (Brown & Ford, 2014). As a result, the rate of change in
conductivity is reduced with every passing hour. It would be an interesting area for further
investigation to prolong the oxidation duration to see if the conductivity of sodium citrate eventually
plateaus with more than 6 oxidation durations.

While the linear graph is reasonably representative (with the high R2 value), if the results later plateau
a curve of exponential decay would represent this trend better, however, within the scope of this
experiment a linear graph suffices.

Calculating Systematic Error to determine how much error was attributed to methodological
limitations.

𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 = 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 − 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 = 24.3% − 7.2% = 17.1%

One could have relatively high confidence in experimental results, as the mean random error is 7.2%
is still relatively low and an evident trend is present. However, there still is quite a large percentage
error of 24.3% – from the literature value of Sodium citrate conductivity obtained by (Wolf, 1966)
(reference 15.1 calculations) which is likely attributed to the 17.1% systematic errors based on the
literature value at 0h of oxidation (which are highlighted and evaluated in the evaluation section).
7.4mS was the expected conductivity of the sodium citrate solution with 0 hours of oxidation, but
mine was 9.2mS. Despite the systematic errors causing most of the percentage error, the percentage
error is 24.3% relative to (Wolf, 1966) for the initial conductivity value. The hypothesis is true.

Evaluation:

Table 5- Table of experimental strengths

Strength Justification
Relatively low random error. This is only 7.4% meaning that apparatus used was
relatively accurate.
High R2 value. This means that the processed data is highly well
represented by the 0.91 R2 value which means that the
line of best fit is highly representative of the points it
passes through (as the R2 value is relatively close to 1.0)
Graphite electrons were used. This ensured that electrodes had inert electrons and that
no additional electrons were delocalized into the solution.
Temperature and pressure were controlled variables by This ensured that nothing else that could have affected
using equipment such as water baths. the rate of electrolysis by changing ionic concentration of
sodium citrate was present. This was done by leaving
experiment in a 25°C Memmert water bath. Oxidation of
citrate ions occurred in the better-controlled water bath
environment.
Low standard deviations and variance amongst data sets. Standard deviation is a representation of variance and
since this is low means that data used for each repeat is
over a very small range. As a result, few outlying
anomalies that could undermine the methodology or the
hypothesis are present.
Same electrodes used This ensured that no external electrons from the
electrodes interfere with the experiment as graphite
electrons are inert
Usage of volumetric flasks and highly accurate mass This ensures that the concentration of the sodium citrate
balance were used electrolyte was not altered as the apparatus use to obtain
it had low uncertainty.

10

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Experimental limitations
Table 6- Table of experimental limitations
Limitation
Electrolysis as a method used to
measure conductivity may have
induced oxidation of citrate ions
(systematic error).
Other reactions besides oxidation may
have caused the trend to decrease
(systematic error).
The Sodium citrate salt was exposed
to the air (systematic error).
An insufficient range of independent
variables were obtained (systematic
error).
Measuring equipment was not precise
enough (random error).
Insufficient number of repeats per
oxidation duration (random error).
Evaporation occurred (reference the
change in volume with time in in
qualitative analysis) (systematic
error).
Rust on the crocodile clips
(systematic error).
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Significance
If oxidation of citrate ions
occurred. Less citrate ions would
be able to carry charge – reducing
the recorded conductivity.
This may have overestimated the
effect oxidation duration has on
the conductivity of sodium citrate.
This meant oxidation (due to water
particles in the air) may have
occurred prior to experimenting
Oxidation is a relatively gradual
process and only having a small
scope of 10 hours means the
conclusion is only valid for a small
range.
This increased random error in the
experiment. The main one is the
ruler used to measure proportions
of beaker
Can lead to parallax error and
human reaction time delays (as
noted in qualitative analysis,
sometimes a few milliseconds of
oxidation or electrolysis occurred).
This could lead to incorrect
measurements used or incorrect
concentration obtained.
This would have increased the
concentration of ions – thereby
increasing the conductivity of the
solution.
The lessening of pure metal mass
within the crocodile clips inhibits
current which increases resistance
thereby decreasing the measured
conductivity of solution.
Improvement
Shorten the time of electrolysis to
avoid the oxidation of citrate ions
(electrolysis speeds this up).
Use the same duration but include
the T-piece in the initial
experiment (Ahmet Alıcılar,
2008). This would ensure that
during that period of time more
oxygen was pumped at a constant
rate into the solution (through the
T-piece). This would mean that
most decreases in concentration
would be due to oxidisation of
citrate anions.
Contain the Sodium citrate salt in a
vacuum. This will ensure minimal
exposure to elements like water
vapour.
Increase the range of independent
variables for up to 72 hours to
fully investigate the effects of
oxidation duration on Sodium
citrate concentration.
Using a Vernier Callipers
(±0.01cm uncertainty) instead
would provide a more certain
reading than the ruler (±0.1cm)
Ensure to do more experimental
repeats.
Place a lid on the oxidising beaker
(while placed in water bath) to
minimise the effects of
evaporation.
Ensure to use a rust-free crocodile
clip or use sandpaper to scrap off
the Iron (III) Oxide on the
crocodile clips.
11
Further investigation

This investigation could include a greater range of independent variables to investigate how oxidation
duration affects the conductivity. In addition to this, other factors that affect the conductivity of the
sodium citrate electrolyte could be investigated. This includes the addition of an enzyme called citrate
synthase which provides an alternative pathway for citrate ions to oxidise. How does the
concentration of citrate synthase affect the subsequent conductivity of a sodium citrate
electrolyte? This alternative investigation would be useful as it would allow conclusions to be drawn
as to how the presence or absence of this enzyme in the blood affects the way electrical impulses
travel from the brain. This would allow for a better understanding of the neurological activities of the
brain (as this model could be applied to the brain).

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12

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