Mineral Resources

L Johansson Westholm, Mälardalen University, Västerås, Sweden

D Alderton, University of London, Surrey, UK
ã 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction 1
References 3

Introduction

Most people on planet Earth go through life unaware of what may be happening beneath their feet, deep down in planet Earth, and
only appreciate these processes when they experience a geologic event such as an earthquake or volcanic eruption. However, every
day, people will use common objects and utensils that are made from minerals that form from the geologic processes that are
slowly and continuously transforming our planet. As such, mineral deposits are extremely important resources that have been key
contributors to the development of society.
Natural processes are responsible for the generation of minerals. The Earth’s interior (‘endogenic’) forces are slowly transform-
ing our planet deep down and are forcing the crust to move (the process of plate tectonics). The resulting ‘drift’ of the continents
and the associated subduction and mountain building generate geologic environments that can lead to the formation of mineral
deposits: Magmas and fluids can concentrate and transport materials, fractures allow fluid flow, and at sites where the temperature,
pressure, and chemistry of the environment may be sufficiently different, significant accumulations of a mineral can occur.
In contrast, weathering and sedimentation are surface (‘exogenic’) processes that are reshaping the surface of the planet. These
processes are eroding mountains, and the resulting material may be transported elsewhere, by either water or wind, where they
subsequently accumulate as sediments. Materials in these sediments, such as sand and clay, have been extensively used by humans
throughout history (Fuchs, 2005; see Figure 1).
Minerals are used for a large variety of purposes, either directly or processed into other useful products (Davis, 2005b; Kesler,
1994). These minerals can be conveniently divided into three categories: fuel minerals, industrial minerals, and metallic minerals
(see Table 1) (Davis, 2005a). (And although we are mostly dealing here with minerals, in reality, the scope is much larger, and it is
usual for rocks to be included as mineral resources as well. Note that coal and hydrocarbon deposits are not usually considered as
mineral resources and are dealt with in a separate section; similarly, nuclear energy resources are also covered elsewhere.)
Industrial minerals (the ‘nonmetallics’) have chemical and/or physical properties that are of importance, especially in various
industrial processes and for the manufacture of chemicals and fertilizers. A few illustrative examples are given in Table 1. There are
however very many other industrial minerals that are used for a variety of purposes, and the list of industrial minerals is long.
Probably, the largest category is that of the construction materials: common rocks containing minerals such as feldspar, clay
minerals, and quartz. They are often widespread and mainly mined and used for construction purposes; structures made from rocks
have been utilized by many cultures throughout human history, and their use continues today (Hatheway, 2005). Rocks with an
attractive appearance, like marble or granite, have also been mined, but in this case, the main use is as an ornamental feature. For
the production of cement, one of the most important building materials in the world, rocks like limestone and chalk are mined
because they are dominated by the mineral calcite (Worrell, 2014). The addition of crushed stone (‘aggregate’) to cement or
bitumen also leads to important products such as concrete and road surface coatings. In these cases, the properties of the aggregates
used must fulfill certain criteria with regard to their physical and chemical behavior. For this, a large number of tests that measure
characteristics such as particle shape, strength, elasticity, and durability are used extensively in the industry (Eden and French,
2005). Clay minerals have been used as raw material for producing building materials such as bricks and lightweight aggregate
blocks and for ceramic wares.
Another group of minerals that are less abundant but often with an exceptional beauty are the gemstones such as diamonds,
emeralds, rubies, and sapphires. Gemstones are found as primary concentrations in igneous rocks or in secondary, alluvial/eluvial
deposits (Oldershaw, 2005). Gemstones are regarded as precious, and consequently, they have mostly been used for personal
adornment or jewelry. However, smaller and less attractive forms of these minerals may still have important industrial applications,
for example, the use of diamond in drill bits and abrasives because of this mineral’s high degree of hardness.
Other examples are phosphate deposits that are used for the manufacture of fertilizers (Piper and Perkins, 2013) and fluorite
that is used in the metallurgical industry. Fluorite is an example of a mineral that can have various uses depending on its appearance
and purity; it can be used as a decorative material, in optics, in producing fluorine-bearing chemicals, or as a flux in metallurgy.
Metallic mineral deposits (often referred to as ‘ores’) are rocks that contain economically valuable concentrations of metals.
They are found in ore bodies that can be formed in different ways, for example, through hydrothermal, magmatic, metamorphic,
sedimentary, and precipitation processes (Brown, 2014; McKibben, 2005; Mungall, 2005; Ramanaidou and Wells, 2014). The
metal concentration in the ore bodies can be tens of % for some metals (e.g., iron) down to parts per million for more valuable
metals (e.g., gold) – it depends on the value of the commodity in question. Like the industrial minerals, ores are also unevenly

Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.09147-8 1

2 Mineral Resources

Figure 1 Extraction of kaolinite clay from a pit in Devon, the United Kingdom. Clay forms flat-lying beds alternating with those of sand and lignite.

Table 1 A classification of mineral resources with some important examples

Category Example Use

Metallic Copper, lead, zinc sulfides Extraction of metals

Iron oxides (e.g., hematite)
Gold ores
Nonmetallic (‘industrial’) Gems (e.g., diamond, ruby, and sapphire) Ornamental/jewelry
Clay Ceramics
Limestone Cement
Sand and gravel Construction (concrete)
Gypsum Plaster
Granite Construction
Salt (halite) Chemicals industry
Phosphates of calcium Fertilizer
Fluorite Chemicals, metallurgy
Fuel Uranium minerals Nuclear energy

Figure 2 Large open-pit copper deposit at Panguna (Bougainville, Papua New Guinea).

spread in the crust of the Earth, and the understanding of the distribution of ores in relation to specific geologic environments
(e.g., tectonic plate boundaries) has been developed in recent decades. Compared to the industrial minerals (that in most cases can
be used directly after mining or with some simple modifications), metallic ore minerals typically need to be treated to extract the
pure metals, using various multiprocessing methods depending on the metals of interest.
Mineral extraction methods are highly dependent on the form and location of the deposit. Minerals that are buried deep down
in the crust are excavated in subsurface mines, as is the case with many diamond and metal deposits. If the mineral deposit is found
close to the surface, it may be worked using open-pit quarries such as those for many rocks like clay and limestone (Figure 1) or
large low-grade metal deposits (Figure 2). Minerals can also be extracted from the seafloor, a largely untapped region that has great
 Mineral Resources 3

potential for the future (e.g., the ferromanganese crusts and nodules that might be regarded as resources for a variety of elements in
the future; Hein and Koschinsky, 2014).
Throughout history, mining has been carried out without having much thought about the future availability of minerals. The
need for minerals has never seemed to decrease, but some minerals are becoming scarce. One example is phosphate rock that is
used for the manufacture of fertilizers (Cordell et al., 2011). New resources of phosphate need to be found, and for this, skilled
geologists, capable of locating deposits, are needed. Similarly, there is currently an urgent need to locate new resources of elements
such as the rare earths, which are crucial in the manufacture of new energy-producing systems (e.g., solar panels and wind turbines)
but which appear to have an uneven geographic distribution and are currently found in economic concentrations in only a few
localities worldwide. Mining in a responsible fashion is also now an important consideration, and care for the environment is
crucial. Similarly, the conservation of resources through recycling is becoming increasingly important. The challenge therefore is to
locate and maintain an adequate supply of mineral resources for the needs of mankind and industry yet, at the same time,
minimize the effects of mining on the environment.

References
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Fuchs Y (2005) Clays, economic uses. Elsevier pp. 366–370.
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