Semiconductor Devices:

Diode:

Diode is a two terminal electronic device. It is a P-N junction formed by using Silicon or Germanium.
Anode is P-type and Cathode is N-type region. Arrow direction indicates the conventional direction of
current flow.

Anode Cathode
(+) (-)

It is a non linear device. The reason is a potential barrier across its depletion region. When applied
voltage is less than the barrier, very small current flows. When applied voltage exceeds the barrier
potential diode current increases rapidly.
Diode Un-Biased:

Un-Biased

P N
Depletion
region
If no voltage applied is across a semiconductor diode(un-biased), a thin depletion region is developed
around the region of the P-N junction. The depletion region is almost free of charge carriers, and acts as an
insulator, preventing the current flow.

Diode Forward Biased:

Depletion Depletion region

region fully Collapsed

P N P N
Partial Forward Biased Forward Biased
0.4V 0.7V
+ +

If a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the depletion region collapses becoming
thinner. The diode becomes less resistive to current through it. For large current to go through the diode,
the depletion region must be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. For silicon this voltage is 0.7V
minimum.

Diode Reverse Biased:

 Depletion region

P N
Reversed Biased

If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied depletion region expands, further resisting any current through it. A
very small amount of current flows through the diode, called the leakage curren. If the applied reverse-bias
voltage becomes too great, the diode will experience a condition known as breakdown which is usually
destructive. A diode's maximum reverse-bias voltage rating is known as the Peak Inverse Voltage.

Diode V – I Curve:

 The region between knee voltage & breakdown voltage is known as non-ohmic region.

 Above the knee & breakdown voltage the current increases.

  Breakdown voltage is due to thermally broken covalent bonds.

 Diode is conducting in forward bias & non-conducting in reverse bias.

Diode Equation:

𝒒 𝑽𝑫
ID = IS (𝒆 𝑵𝑲𝑻 - 1)
Where,

ID = Diode Current in Amperes

IS = Saturation Current in Amperes

e = Euler number(constant) = 2.718281828……

q = absolute value of electron charge (1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs)

VD = Applied voltage across the terminals of the diode

n = ideality factor, a number

between 1 and 2 which typically increases as the current decreases

k = Boltzmann's constant (1.38 x 10-23)

T = Absolute temperature (K)

This equation shows that voltage drop across diode changes fairly small for a wide range of current.

Since temperature is a factor of the equation, a forward biased diode can be used as a temperature sensor.

Under reverse bias voltages the exponential in the diode equation is negligible, and the current is a constant
(negative) reverse current value of −IS.

Junction Capacitance:

Diode Parameters:

Bulk resistance
Above Knee voltage VK, P and N sides of the Diode have separate resistance. The sum of both resistances
is called Bulk resistance.

RB = RP + RN

The Bulk resistance depends upon the size of P and N regions, and their material and Doping levels. The
Bulk resistance is less than 1Ω.

RB can be calculated as: RB = (V – VK)/IF

Diode Equivalent:

Rr

+ Rf 0.7V Ideal Diode

-
A + C
Here,

Rr is Reverse Bias Resistance

Rf is Forward Bias Resistance

0.7 volt battery is Junction Potential Barrier for Silicon

Diode Power Dissipation:

Power dissipation of a diode , when a voltage VD is applied across it and a current ID passes through it is:

PD = VDID

If maximum voltage for diode is Vmax, and maximum current is Imax than maximum power handling
capacity of diode is:

Pmax = Vmax . Imax

For example if diode has maximum voltage and current of 1V and 2A, than its power rating will be 2W.
Diode Ideal V-I Curve:

Ideal Diode Characteristics

Mode ON OFF

Current through I>0 I=0

Voltage across V=0 V<0

Behavior Short Circuit Open Circuit

Diode Parameters:

Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV) It is the Maximum Reverse Voltage, that can be applied to the Diode without
destruction.

Average Forward Current IF(av) It is the continuous forward current, which diode can pass at the normal
temperature

Forward Surge Current IFS It is the large current which a diode can safely pass for a very short time.

Maximum Forward voltage VFM It is the maximum forward voltage that the diode can withstand
without damage.
Forward voltage VF It is the forward voltage of a diode at given temperature and for a specific value of
forward current.

Reverse Current IR It is the maximum reverse saturation current at the maximum reverse voltage at a
given temperature.

Power Dissipation It is the maximum power that a diode can safely dissipate on continuous basis in free
air at 25̊C.

Reverse Recovery Time trr It is the maximum time taken by the diode to switch fro ON to OFF state.

Diode Types:

Rectifier Diode: these are used in low frequency rectifier applications

Zener diode: This type of diode provides a stable reference voltage

PIN diode: useful for switching applications as well as for use in photodiodes

Tunnel diode: It is used as high speed switch

Varactor Diode: This diode acts as a capacitor when used in reverse bias.

Schottky diode: these are used in high frequency rectifier applications

Transient Suppressor Diode: diode enters in to the avalanche breakdown region on some transient

Photo Diode: Photodiodes are used to detect light

Constant Current diode: The function of the diode is regulating the voltage at a particular current

LED: when this diode permits the transfer of electric current between the electrodes, light is produced

7-Segment Display Diodes: These are 7-segment LEDs. Used for numeric valves display purpose.

Diode Applications:

Rectifier Diode:
Bi polar AC waveform is applied to the Anode of the Diode. During the Positive half cycle, Diode will be
forward biased and Positive Cycle will appear across the load resistor.

During the negative half cycle, Diode will be reverse biased. So no current will get through.

This rectified half wave voltage produces a unidirectional pulsating current through the load resistor.

Average and RMS Values

A Sinusoidal waveform is given below. Its Average and RMS values are given here.

Average Value:

The average value of a whole sinusoidal waveform over one complete cycle is zero as the two
halves cancel each other out, so the average value is taken over half a cycle. The average value of a sine
wave of voltage or current is 0.637 times the peak value, (Vp or Ip. This mathematical relationship between
the average values applies to both AC current and AC voltage
RMS Value:

The effective value or root-mean-square (RMS) value of the waveform is the effective heating value
of the wave compared to a steady DC value and is the square root of the mean of the squares of the
instantaneous values taken over one complete cycle

Average value Full Wave Rectifier = 0.637 × maximum or peak value, Vpk

RMS value Full Wave Rectifier = 0.707 × maximum or peak value, Vpk

𝑽𝒑𝒌
RMS value Half Wave Rectifier =
𝟐
Transformer:

Electrical power transformer is a static device which transforms electrical energy from one circuit to
another without any direct electrical connection and with the help of mutual induction between two
windings. It transforms power from one circuit to another without changing its frequency but may be in
different voltage level.

If a 50Hz sinusoidal signal flows through the Primary coil of the Transformer. A varying current in the
primary winding creates a varying magnetic Flux in the core.

This Flux passes through the Secondary coil of the transformer. So EMF is induced in the secondary coil.

By Faraday's law of induction

From above
If we neglect all losses then Input Power = Output Power

VPIP = VSIS so

For a transformer NP = 2200 Turns, NS = 200Turns,

VP = 220VAC then

VS = (220 x 200)/2200 = 20VAC

Question:

Can a transformer operate on DC ?

Full Wave Rectification:

With Center Tapped Transformer

Full Bridge rectifier:

With Normal Transformer(Single Secondary Winding)

Full Bridge rectifier with Smoothing capacitor:

It is a DC Power Supply with a smoothing Capacitor

The Ripple in the Power Supply depends upon three Factors

1. Value of Capacitor
2. Frequency of the AC supply
3. Load applied on the supply

This type of DC power Supply is called a Un-Regulated Power Supply.

Calculation of Smoothing Capacitor:

Since the capacitor is usually used at the input of a regulator, the current discharging it is constant. If
powered by the AC line, assuming full-wave rectification, the capacitor must supply current to the regulator
for 1/2cycle (8.3ms or 10ms, depending if it is 60Hz or 50Hz)

The Charge Q (Coulombs) removed from the capacitor is Q=I*t, where I is current and t is time.

Q also = C*ΔV, where C is the capacitance and ΔV is the voltage drop as the current flows out.

So C*ΔV = Q = I*t

Rearranging gives C = I*t/ΔV.

For a 2A power supply, 60Hz, full-wave, where you can tolerate a 3V sag in the filter capacitor voltage
without the regulator dropping out of regulation,

C = 2 * 0.008/3 = 0.0053F = 5300uF

Regulated Power Supply:

In the Regulated Power supplies a voltage Regulator is used. Regulator may be consists of a
simple Zener Diode, a regulator circuit consisting of Zener Diode and few transistors or a suitable voltage
regulator IC.
Input to transformer VP = 220VRMS

Output of transformer VS = 15VRMS

VPEAK = 15(1.414) = 21.21V

Two Diodes come across in full bridge rectifier. So net output voltage will be :

Vo = 21.21 – 1.4 = 20.17VD C

A filter capacitor has been added to smooth the pulsating output.

Ripple on the smoothed out put will be Vripple = I/2fC

Here Vripple is ripple voltage, I is load Current, F is Frequency and C is smoothing Capacitor

Filtered output is applied to Variable Regulator’s(LM317) input.

Regulator can give output 1.25V DC to 37VDC @ 1.5A,

For an input of 3VDC to 40VDC.

Load Regulation:

Load regulation is the capability to maintain a constant voltage (or current) level on the output
channel of a power supply despite changes in the supply's load (such as a change in resistance value
connected across the supply output)
Load regulation of a constant-voltage source is defined by the equation.

Where:

 is the voltage at maximum load. The maximum load is the one that draws the greatest
current, i.e., the lowest specified load resistance (never short circuit);
 is the voltage at minimum load. The minimum load is the one that draws the least
current, i.e. the highest specified load resistance (possibly open circuit for some types of linear
supplies, usually limited by pass transistor minimum bias levels);
 is the voltage at the typical specified load

Line Regulation:

Any change in the line voltage out of the nominal value (i.e., 220V ac) will affect the
performance of the power supply. The line regulation is defined as:

𝑽𝑯𝑳 −𝑽𝑳𝑳
Line regulation = ( ) 100%
𝑽𝑳𝑳

where
VHL= load voltage with high line
VLL=load voltage with low line

The smaller the line regulation, the better the power supply. A well-regulated power supply
can have a line regulation of less than 0.1%.

Power Factor:

Understanding Power Factor

In an AC circuit, power is used most efficiently when the current is aligned with the voltage.

However, most equipment tend to draw current with a delay, misaligning it with the voltage. What this
means is more current is being drawn to deliver the necessary amount of power to run the equipment. And
the more an equipment draws current with a delay, the less efficient the equipment is.
Power factor is a way of measuring how efficiently electrical power is being used within a facility's
electrical system, by taking a look at the relationship of the components of electric power in an AC circuit.
These components are referred to as Real Power, Reactive Power and Apparent Power:

 Real power (kW) — the work-producing power that is used to actually run the equipment
 Reactive power (kVAr) — the non-work producing power that is required to magnetize and start
up equipment
 Apparent power (kVA) — the combination of real power and reactive power

Calculating Power Factor

As a commercial customer, it is important to understand how power factor is calculated, since you may be
charged a reactive power fee if your facility's power factor is below 95%.

The power factor triangle below illustrates how real power, reactive power and apparent power relate to
each other to get the power factor angle. One way to get the power factor is by getting the cosine of the
power factor angle.

The best way to calculate power factor is by using the following formula:

The example below shows a power factor rating of less than 95%, which means the customer would be
responsible for a reactive power charge.
 Maximum Real Power for billing period = 1,000 kW

Reactive Power at the time of maximum kW demand = 750 kVAr

Apparent Power = SQRT [(1,000 kW)2 + (750 kVar)2] = 1,250 kVA

1,000 kW
Power Factor = = 0.80 = 80%
1,250 kVA

Because the power factor is below 95%, a charge of $0.40 per kVar is applied to the bill. To lessen the
charge, Orange & Rockland subtracts 1/3 of the kW (real power) when calculating for billable kVar
(reactive power), as shown below.

Billable kVar = 750kVar – 1/3(1,000) = 416.7 kVar

Reactive Power charge = 416.7kVar X $0.40 = $166.68

Voltage Multiplier:

This circuit gives a high output DC voltage than the AC input. High voltage is required in:

1. Voltage Doubler
 During the negative half cycle Capacitors C1 and C2 charge up to Vin through D1 and D2.

Charge Stays on the capacitors as there is no way to discharge.

During the positive half cycle, D1 is reverse biased and D2 is forward biased. As voltage across C1
is already equal to Vin, and Vin is in series with voltage stored in C1 so Voltage stored on C2 will be two
times “Vin”.

Vout = 2Vin

2. Voltage Tripler

Here a single Diode capacitor Stage has been added, before the Doubler stage. This circuit will
give Vout = 3Vin

Here diode D3 charges C3 up to 1Vin (Peak)and blocks it from discharging. Then a added second
Doubler stage makes the output three times the peak input voltage. Vout = 3Vin
3. Voltage Quadruple

Here two Doubler circuits have been added in series. First Stage Doubles the Peak input Voltage.
The second stage further doubles this out put. So this circuit gives output, which is 4-times the Peak input
Voltage. Vout = 4Vin

4. Voltage Multiplier:

Diode - Clippers:
 Diode Clipper is a circuit, which clips or cuts a desired amount of voltage level from a input
voltage signal on positive, negative or both sides. It works for both, AC and DC signals.

1. Simple Positive Clipper

2. Simple Negative Clipper

4. Simple Double Clipper

5. Positive Bias Clipper

6. Negative Bias Clipper

7. Double Bised Clipping

Zener diodes of different voltages can be used instead of Power Supplies.

Diode - Clampers:

Clamper circuits Shifts the AC reference level. Clamper adds a DC offset to the AC signal. There
can be Positive as well as Negative clamping for an AC signal. Clampers are widely used in the signal
conditioning.

1. Positive Clamper

2. Negative Clamper
3. Biased Clamper

4. Clamper
5. AC Clamper

Zener Diode:
 The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction.
By varying the doping level and applying sufficient reverse voltage across it, an avalanche break
down takes place in the depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode.
The breakdown process depends upon the applied electric field, so by changing the thickness of the layer to
which the voltage is applied, Zener diodes can be formed which break down at voltages (Zener
voltage)from less than one volts to several hundred volts.

It is used as Voltage reference or Voltage regulator.

Zener Diode V – I Curve:

 In forward bias it behaves just like an ordinary diode.

 In reverse bias region up to breakdown point, it has only a
small leakage current.
 In zener diode the breakdown has a sharp knee point,
followed by a sharp increase of reverse current.
 Notice that Vz (zener voltage) is almost constant.
 A current limiting resistor is used to limit the breakdown
current to a safe limit.
 A small slope in the zener’s breakdown current is due to
zener resistance.

Zener Effect:

 In the Zener diodes, where breakdown voltage is greater

than 6V, the cause of breakdown is Avalanche effect.
 When diode is heavily doped, the depletion layer becomes
very narrow. Due to this reason Electric Field across the
Depletion region is very intense. This field pulls electron
from their valance orbits. Depletion layer is very thin so
 electrons cross the depletion region. This effect is called
Zener Effect.

 For Zener voltages less than 4V, Zener effect occurs.

 For Breakdown greater than 6V, only Avalanche effect
occurs.

 Between the 4 to 6V, both effects are present.

Zener diode – Temperature coefficient:

 The Temperature coefficient is negative for breakdown

voltages less than 4V. Breakdown voltage decreases with
increase of temperature.
 Temperature coefficient is positive for the breakdown
greater than 6V(avalanche effect).
 For zener voltages between 4 to 6V, temperature coefficient
is zero.

Zener Diode - Voltage Regulator:

Resistor RS is selected in such a way that in no load case, maximum current flowing through the Zener
diode is with-in safe limit.
When IL = 0
Then IZ = Maximum
Which result in the maximum power dissipation in the Zener diode.
Maximum current IZ = Zener Wattage/Zener Voltage

RS = (VS – VZ)/IZ

IL = VZ/RL, At full load IZ = IS - IL

Zener Diode - Clipping Circuits

1. Single Zener Diode Clipping Circuits

2. Double Zener Diode Clipping Circuits

Schottky Diode
It consists of a metal-Semiconductor Junction.

Schottky diode has low voltage drop of 0.15 to 0.45V.

This lower voltage drop gives higher switching speed.

No depletion region exists.

Its switching time 100ps.

Can be used up to 2MHz.

Applications include Switching Power Supplies.

Varactor Diode

A varicap diode, varactor diode or tuning diode is a type of diode designed to exploit the voltage-
dependent capacitance of a reversed-biased p–n junction.

They are commonly used in voltage-controlled oscillators, and frequency multipliers. Voltage-
controlled oscillators have many applications such as frequency modulation for FM transmitters and phase-
locked loops. Phase-locked loops are used for the frequency synthesizers that tune many radios, television
sets, and cellular telephones.
Tunnel Diode

It is a two-terminal P-N Junction Diode. It has high doping density, with following properties
1. Due to Heavy Doping , Depletion layer is extremely thin.
2. Reverse Break down voltage is very small.
3. It produces a negative resistance on the V-I characteristics of the diode.

Electrons can easily tunnel through the thin potential barrier, for a forward bias voltage less than
0.05V.
These diodes are made from Germanium, Gallium Arsenide and gallium antimonide. Tunnel Diode is
commonly used for:

High speed (5GHz)oscillators

Used in high temperature, High radiation and High Magnetic field zones.

PIN Diode

A PIN diode is a two terminal device. It is made by embedding an un-doped and wide
Semiconductor piece between a P-type and an N-type heavy doped regions

Applications include:

Voltage controlled Capacitor

High speed Switching

 Radiation Detector

Photo Detector

Peltier Diode

The pairs of P doped Bismuth-Telluride and N doped Bismuth-Telluride semiconductor cubes are
set up and connected in an array so that the pairs have an electrical series connection, but a thermal parallel
connection. When a current is applied to this system (the TEC), the way the current flows through the
semiconductors induces a temperature difference, and causes the heat-sink side of the Peltier element to
heat up, and the cold side to cool.
Optoelectronics

Optoelectronics is the technology that combines Optics and electronics. The devices that convert
electric energy into light are called emitters. The devices those convert light into electricity photo
detectors. LEDs, Photodiodes, opto-couplers, Photo-voltaic diodes are the examples.

X-ray tubes
CRT’s
Flash Lights
Photo Multiplier Tubes
Electron Microscopes
Ozone generators
Junction Capacitance

Opto Electronics devices

Light Emitting Diodes

Photo Emission devices

Photo multiplier

Photo Diodes

DC Power supply

Rectifiers and Filters

Voltage Multiplier

END