MPLAB XC8 C Compiler User Guide For PIC

MPLAB® XC8 C Compiler
User’s Guide for PIC® MCU
 2012-2018 Microchip Technology Inc. DS50002737A

Note the following details of the code protection feature on Microchip devices:
• Microchip products meet the specification contained in their particular Microchip Data Sheet.
• Microchip believes that its family of products is one of the most secure families of its kind on the market today, when used in the
intended manner and under normal conditions.
• There are dishonest and possibly illegal methods used to breach the code protection feature. All of these methods, to our
knowledge, require using the Microchip products in a manner outside the operating specifications contained in Microchip’s Data
Sheets. Most likely, the person doing so is engaged in theft of intellectual property.
• Microchip is willing to work with the customer who is concerned about the integrity of their code.
• Neither Microchip nor any other semiconductor manufacturer can guarantee the security of their code. Code protection does not
mean that we are guaranteeing the product as “unbreakable.”
Code protection is constantly evolving. We at Microchip are committed to continuously improving the code protection features of our
products. Attempts to break Microchip’s code protection feature may be a violation of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. If such acts
allow unauthorized access to your software or other copyrighted work, you may have a right to sue for relief under that Act.
Information contained in this publication regarding device Trademarks

applications and the like is provided only for your convenience The Microchip name and logo, the Microchip logo, AnyRate, AVR,
and may be superseded by updates. It is your responsibility to AVR logo, AVR Freaks, BeaconThings, BitCloud, CryptoMemory,
ensure that your application meets with your specifications. CryptoRF, dsPIC, FlashFlex, flexPWR, Heldo, JukeBlox, KEELOQ,
MICROCHIP MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR KEELOQ logo, Kleer, LANCheck, LINK MD, maXStylus,
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND WHETHER EXPRESS OR maXTouch, MediaLB, megaAVR, MOST, MOST logo, MPLAB,
IMPLIED, WRITTEN OR ORAL, STATUTORY OR OptoLyzer, PIC, picoPower, PICSTART, PIC32 logo, Prochip
OTHERWISE, RELATED TO THE INFORMATION, Designer, QTouch, RightTouch, SAM-BA, SpyNIC, SST, SST
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ITS CONDITION, Logo, SuperFlash, tinyAVR, UNI/O, and XMEGA are registered
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the buyer’s risk, and the buyer agrees to defend, indemnify and mTouch, Precision Edge, and Quiet-Wire are registered
hold harmless Microchip from any and all damages, claims, trademarks of Microchip Technology Incorporated in the U.S.A.
suits, or expenses resulting from such use. No licenses are Adjacent Key Suppression, AKS, Analog-for-the-Digital Age, Any
conveyed, implicitly or otherwise, under any Microchip Capacitor, AnyIn, AnyOut, BodyCom, chipKIT, chipKIT logo,
intellectual property rights unless otherwise stated. CodeGuard, CryptoAuthentication, CryptoCompanion,
CryptoController, dsPICDEM, dsPICDEM.net, Dynamic Average
Matching, DAM, ECAN, EtherGREEN, In-Circuit Serial
Programming, ICSP, Inter-Chip Connectivity, JitterBlocker,
KleerNet, KleerNet logo, Mindi, MiWi, motorBench, MPASM, MPF,
MPLAB Certified logo, MPLIB, MPLINK, MultiTRAK, NetDetach,
Omniscient Code Generation, PICDEM, PICDEM.net, PICkit,
PICtail, PureSilicon, QMatrix, RightTouch logo, REAL ICE, Ripple
Blocker, SAM-ICE, Serial Quad I/O, SMART-I.S., SQI,
SuperSwitcher, SuperSwitcher II, Total Endurance, TSHARC,
USBCheck, VariSense, ViewSpan, WiperLock, Wireless DNA, and
ZENA are trademarks of Microchip Technology Incorporated in the
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SQTP is a service mark of Microchip Technology Incorporated in
Microchip received ISO/TS-16949:2009 certification for its worldwide the U.S.A.
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Tempe, Arizona; Gresham, Oregon and design centers in California Silicon Storage Technology is a registered trademark of Microchip
and India. The Company’s quality system processes and procedures Technology Inc. in other countries.
are for its PIC® MCUs and dsPIC® DSCs, KEELOQ® code hopping
devices, Serial EEPROMs, microperipherals, nonvolatile memory and GestIC is a registered trademark of Microchip Technology
analog products. In addition, Microchip’s quality system for the design Germany II GmbH & Co. KG, a subsidiary of Microchip Technology
and manufacture of development systems is ISO 9001:2000 certified. Inc., in other countries.
All other trademarks mentioned herein are property of their
QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

respective companies.
© 2012-2018, Microchip Technology Incorporated, All Rights
CERTIFIED BY DNV Reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-5224-2815-2
== ISO/TS 16949 ==
DS50002737A-page 2  2012-2018 Microchip Technology Inc.

MPLAB® XC8 C COMPILER
USER’S GUIDE FOR PIC
Table of Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 1. Compiler Overview
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 11
1.2 Compiler Description and Documentation .................................................... 11
1.3 Device Description ....................................................................................... 12
Chapter 2. How To’s
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Installing and Activating the Compiler .......................................................... 13
2.3 Invoking the Compiler ................................................................................... 15
2.4 Writing Source Code .................................................................................... 17
2.5 Getting My Application to Do What I Want ................................................... 28
2.6 Understanding the Compilation Process ...................................................... 33
2.7 Fixing Code That Does Not Work ................................................................. 41
Chapter 3. XC8-CC Command-line Driver
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 45
3.2 Invoking the Compiler ................................................................................... 46
3.3 The Compilation Sequence .......................................................................... 48
3.4 Runtime Files ............................................................................................... 51
3.5 Compiler Output ........................................................................................... 52
3.6 Compiler Messages ...................................................................................... 53
3.7 Option Descriptions ...................................................................................... 56
Chapter 4. C Language Features
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 83
4.2 C Standard Compliance ............................................................................... 83
4.3 Device-Related Features .............................................................................. 86
4.4 Supported Data Types and Variables .......................................................... 95
4.5 Memory Allocation and Access .................................................................. 112
4.6 Operators and Statements ......................................................................... 120
4.7 Register Usage ........................................................................................... 122
4.8 Functions .................................................................................................... 123
4.9 Interrupts .................................................................................................... 131
4.10 Main, Runtime Startup and Reset ............................................................ 142
4.11 Libraries .................................................................................................... 146
4.12 Mixing C and Assembly Code .................................................................. 148
4.13 Optimizations ............................................................................................ 157
4.14 Preprocessing .......................................................................................... 159
4.15 Linking Programs ..................................................................................... 170
 2012-2018 Microchip Technology Inc. DS50002737A-page 3

MPLAB® XC8 C Compiler User’s Guide for PIC
Chapter 5. Macro Assembler

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 179
5.2 MPLAB XC8 Assembly Language .............................................................. 180
5.3 Assembly-Level Optimizations ................................................................... 206
5.4 Assembly List Files ..................................................................................... 207
Chapter 6. Linker
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 217
6.2 Operation .................................................................................................... 217
6.3 Relocation and Psects ................................................................................ 225
6.4 Map Files .................................................................................................... 226
Chapter 7. Utilities
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 231
7.2 Librarian ..................................................................................................... 232
7.3 HEXMATE .................................................................................................. 233
Appendix A. Library Functions
A.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 251
Appendix B. Error and Warning Messages
B.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 281
Appendix C. Implementation-Defined Behavior
C.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 413
C.2 Overview .................................................................................................... 413
C.3 Translation ................................................................................................. 414
C.4 Environment ............................................................................................... 414
C.5 Identifiers ................................................................................................... 415
C.6 Characters ................................................................................................. 415
C.7 Integers ...................................................................................................... 416
C.8 Floating-Point ............................................................................................. 417
C.9 Arrays and Pointers ................................................................................... 418
C.10 Hints ......................................................................................................... 418
C.11 Structures, Unions, Enumerations, and Bit Fields ................................... 419
C.12 Qualifiers .................................................................................................. 419
C.13 Pre-Processing Directives ....................................................................... 419
C.14 Library Functions ..................................................................................... 421
C.15 Architecture .............................................................................................. 424
Glossary .....................................................................................................................425
Index ...........................................................................................................................445
Worldwide Sales and Service ...................................................................................614

USER’S GUIDE FOR PIC
Preface
NOTICE TO CUSTOMERS
All documentation becomes dated, and this manual is no exception. Microchip tools and
documentation are constantly evolving to meet customer needs, so some actual dialogs
and/or tool descriptions can differ from those in this document. Please refer to our web site
(www.microchip.com) to obtain the latest documentation available.
Documents are identified with a “DS” number. This number is located on the bottom of each
page, in front of the page number. The numbering convention for the DS number is
“DSXXXXXA”, where “XXXXX” is the document number and “A” is the revision level of the
document.
For the most up-to-date information on development tools, see the MPLAB® IDE online help.
Select the Help menu, and then Topics to open a list of available online help files.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter contains general information that will be useful to know before using the
MPLAB® XC8 C Compiler User’s Guide for PIC® MCU. Items discussed in this chapter
include:
• Document Layout
• Conventions Used in this Guide
• Recommended Reading
• The Microchip Web Site
• Development Systems Customer Change Notification Service
• Customer Support
• Document Revision History
DOCUMENT LAYOUT
The MPLAB XC8 C Compiler User’s Guide for PIC is organized as follows:
• Chapter 1. Compiler Overview
• Chapter 2. How To’s
• Chapter 3. XC8-CC Command-line Driver
• Chapter 4. C Language Features
• Chapter 5. Macro Assembler
• Chapter 6. Linker
• Chapter 7. Utilities
• Appendix A. Library Functions
• Appendix B. Error and Warning Messages
• Appendix C. Implementation-Defined Behavior
• Glossary
• Index

CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS GUIDE

This manual uses the following documentation conventions:
DOCUMENTATION CONVENTIONS
Description Represents Examples
Arial font:
Italic characters Referenced books MPLAB® IDE User’s Guide
Emphasized text ...is the only compiler...
Initial caps A window the Output window
A dialog the Settings dialog
A menu selection select Enable Programmer
Quotes A field name in a window or “Save project before build”
dialog
Underlined, italic text with A menu path File>Save
right angle bracket
Bold characters A dialog button Click OK
A tab Click the Power tab
N‘Rnnnn A number in verilog format, 4‘b0010, 2‘hF1
where N is the total number of
digits, R is the radix and n is a
digit.
Text in angle brackets < > A key on the keyboard Press <Enter>, <F1>
Courier New font:
Plain Courier New Sample source code #define START
Filenames autoexec.bat
File paths c:\mcc18\h
Keywords _asm, _endasm, static
Command-line options -Opa+, -Opa-
Bit values 0, 1
Constants 0xFF, ‘A’
Italic Courier New A variable argument file.o, where file can be
any valid filename
Square brackets [ ] Optional arguments mcc18 [options] file
[options]
Curly brackets and pipe Choice of mutually exclusive errorlevel {0|1}
character: { | } arguments; an OR selection
Ellipses... Replaces repeated text var_name [,
var_name...]
Represents code supplied by void main (void)
user { ...
}

Preface
RECOMMENDED READING
This user’s guide describes how to use MPLAB XC8 C Compiler. Other useful docu-
ments are listed below. The following Microchip documents are available and
recommended as supplemental reference resources.
Readme for MPLAB XC8 C Compiler
For the latest information on using MPLAB XC8 C Compiler, read MPLAB® XC8 C
Compiler Release Notes (an HTML file) in the Docs subdirectory of the compiler’s
installation directory. The release notes contain update information and known issues
that cannot be included in this user’s guide.
Readme Files
For the latest information on using other tools, read the tool-specific Readme files in
the Readmes subdirectory of the MPLAB IDE installation directory. The Readme files
contain update information and known issues that cannot be included in this user’s
guide.
THE MICROCHIP WEB SITE

Microchip provides online support via our web site at www.microchip.com. This web
site is used as a means to make files and information easily available to customers.
Accessible by using your favorite Internet browser, the web site contains the following
information:
• Product Support – Data sheets and errata, application notes and sample
programs, design resources, user’s guides and hardware support documents,
latest software releases and archived software
• General Technical Support – Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs), technical
support requests, online discussion groups, Microchip consultant program
member listing
• Business of Microchip – Product selector and ordering guides, latest Microchip
press releases, listing of seminars and events, listings of Microchip sales offices,
distributors and factory representatives

DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS CUSTOMER CHANGE NOTIFICATION SERVICE

Microchip’s customer notification service helps keep customers current on Microchip
products. Subscribers will receive e-mail notification whenever there are changes,
updates, revisions or errata that are related to a specified product family or
development tool of interest.
To register, access the Microchip web site at www.microchip.com, click on Customer
Change Notification and follow the registration instructions.
The Development Systems product group categories are:
• Compilers – The latest information on Microchip C compilers, assemblers, linkers
and other language tools. These include all MPLAB® C compilers; all MPLAB
assemblers (including MPASM™ assembler); all MPLAB linkers (including
MPLINK™ object linker); and all MPLAB librarians (including MPLIB™ object
librarian).
• Emulators – The latest information on Microchip in-circuit emulators.This
includes the MPLAB REAL ICE™ and MPLAB ICE 2000 in-circuit emulators.
• In-Circuit Debuggers – The latest information on the Microchip in-circuit
debuggers. This includes MPLAB ICD 3 in-circuit debuggers and PICkit™ 3
debug express.
• MPLAB® IDE – The latest information on Microchip MPLAB IDE, the Windows®
Integrated Development Environment for development systems tools. This list is
focused on the MPLAB IDE, MPLAB IDE Project Manager, MPLAB Editor and
MPLAB SIM simulator, as well as general editing and debugging features.
• Programmers – The latest information on Microchip programmers. These include
production programmers such as MPLAB REAL ICE in-circuit emulator, MPLAB
ICD 3 in-circuit debugger and MPLAB PM3 device programmers. Also included
are nonproduction development programmers such as PICSTART® Plus and
PICkit 2 and 3.
CUSTOMER SUPPORT
Users of Microchip products can receive assistance through several channels:
• Distributor or Representative
• Local Sales Office
• Field Application Engineer (FAE)
• Technical Support
Customers should contact their distributor, representative or field application engineer
(FAE) for support. Local sales offices are also available to help customers. A listing of
sales offices and locations is included in the back of this document.
Technical support is available through the web site at:
http://www.microchip.com/support

Preface
DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

Revision A (March 2018)
Initial release of this document, adapted from the MPLAB® XC8 C Compiler User’s
Guide, DS 50002053.

NOTES:

USER’S GUIDE FOR PIC® MCU
Chapter 1. Compiler Overview
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is an overview of the MPLAB® XC8 C Compiler for PIC devices, including
these topics.
• Compiler Description and Documentation
• Device Description
1.2 COMPILER DESCRIPTION AND DOCUMENTATION

The MPLAB XC8 C Compiler is a free-standing, optimizing ISO C99 compiler. It sup-
ports all 8-bit PIC® and AVR microcontrollers; however, this document describes the
compiler use when using the C99 Standard and targeting Microchip PIC devices. See
the MPLAB® XC8 C Compiler User’s Guide for AVR® MCU1, for information on using
this compiler when targeting Microchip AVR devices.
Note: Features described as being part of MPLAB XC8 in this document assume
that you are using a Microchip PIC device and are building for the C99 C
standard. These features may differ if you choose to instead compile for a
Microchip AVR device or for the C90 standard.
The compiler is available for several popular operating systems, including Professional
editions of Microsoft® Windows® 7 (32/64 bit), Windows® 8 (64 bit), and Windows® 10
(64 bit); Ubuntu 16.04 (32/64 bit); Fedora 23 (64 bit) or Mac OS X 10.12 (64 bit).
The compiler is available in three operating modes: Free, Standard2 or PRO. The Stan-
dard and PRO operating modes are licensed modes and require a serial number to
enable them. Free mode is available for unlicensed customers. The basic compiler
operation, supported devices and available memory are identical across all modes.
The modes only differ in the level of optimization employed by the compiler.
1.2.1 Conventions
Throughout this manual, the term “compiler” is used. It can refer to all, or a subset of,
the collection of applications that comprise the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler. When it is not
important to identify which application performed an action, it will be attributed to “the
compiler”.
In a similar manner, “compiler” is often used to refer to the command-line driver;
although specifically, the driver for the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler package is named
xc8-cc. The driver and its options are discussed in Section 3.7 “Option Descriptions.”
Accordingly, “compiler options” commonly refers to command-line driver options.
In a similar fashion, “compilation” refers to all or a selection of steps involved in
generating an executable binary image from source code.
1. This document is being prepared for release.

2. A Standard license is no longer available for purchase; however, licensed compilers can be made
to operate in Standard mode for legacy projects.

MPLAB® XC8 C Compiler User’s Guide for PIC® MCU
1.3 DEVICE DESCRIPTION

This compiler guide describes The MPLAB XC8 support for all 8-bit Microchip PIC
devices with baseline, mid-range, Enhanced mid-range, and PIC18 cores. The follow-
ing descriptions indicate the distinctions within those device cores:
The baseline core uses a 12-bit-wide instruction set and is available in PIC10, PIC12
and PIC16 part numbers.
The enhanced baseline core also uses a 12-bit instruction set, but this set includes
additional instructions. Some of the enhanced baseline chips support interrupts and the
additional instructions used by interrupts. These devices are available in PIC12 and
PIC16 part numbers.
The mid-range core uses a 14-bit-wide instruction set that includes more instructions
than the baseline core. It has larger data memory banks and program memory pages,
as well. It is available in PIC12, PIC14 and PIC16 part numbers.
The Enhanced mid-range core also uses a 14-bit-wide instruction set but incorporates
additional instructions and features. There are both PIC12 and PIC16 part numbers
that are based on the Enhanced mid-range core.
The PIC18 core instruction set is 16 bits wide and features additional instructions and
an expanded register set. PIC18 core devices have part numbers that begin with
PIC18.
The compiler takes advantage of the target device’s instruction set, addressing modes,
memory, and registers whenever possible.
See Section 3.7.2.8 “print-devices.” for information on finding the full list of devices that
are supported by the compiler.

Chapter 2. How To’s
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This section contains help and references for situations that are frequently encountered
when building projects for Microchip 8-bit PIC devices. Click the links at the beginning
of each section to assist in finding the topic relevant to your question. Some topics are
indexed in multiple sections.
Start here:
• Installing and Activating the Compiler
• Invoking the Compiler
• Writing Source Code
• Getting My Application to Do What I Want
• Understanding the Compilation Process
• Fixing Code That Does Not Work
2.2 INSTALLING AND ACTIVATING THE COMPILER

This section details questions that might arise when installing or activating the compiler.
• How Do I Install and Activate My Compiler?
• How Can I Tell if the Compiler has Activated Successfully?
• Can I Install More Than One Version of the Same Compiler?
2.2.1 How Do I Install and Activate My Compiler?

Installation of the compiler and activation of the license are performed simultaneously
by the XC compiler installer. The guide Installing and Licensing MPLAB XC C Compil-
ers (DS52059) is available on www.microchip.com/compilers, under the Docu-
mentation tab. It provides details on single-user and network licenses, as well as how
to activate a compiler for evaluation purposes.
2.2.2 How Can I Tell if the Compiler has Activated Successfully?

If you think the compiler has not installed correctly or is not activated, it is best to verify
its operation outside of MPLAB X IDE to isolate any potential compiler or IDE problems.
The xclm application, which is shipped with the compiler, can be queried to determine
the status of your compiler. For example, from your DOS-prompt, type the following
line, using the appropriate compiler path.
"C:\Program Files\Microchip\xc8\v2.00\bin\xclm" -status
This will show the licenses installed on the machine, allowing you to see if the compiler
was activated successfully.

2.2.3 Can I Install More Than One Version of the Same Compiler?
Yes, the compilers and installation process has been designed to allow you to have
more than one version of the same compiler installed, and you can easily move
between the versions by changing options in MPLAB X IDE; see Section 2.3.4 “How
Can I Select Which Compiler I Want to Build With?”
Compilers should be installed into a directory whose name is related to the compiler
version. This is reflected in the default directory specified by the installer. For example,
the 1.44 and 1.45 MPLAB XC8 compilers would typically be placed in separate
directories.
C:\Program Files\Microchip\xc8\v1.44\
C:\Program Files\Microchip\xc8\v1.45\

How To’s
2.3 INVOKING THE COMPILER

This section discusses how the compiler is run, on the command-line or from the
MPLAB X IDE. It includes information about how to get the compiler to do what you
want it to do, in terms of options and the build process itself.
• How Do I Compile From Within MPLAB X IDE?
• How Do I Compile on the Command-line?
• How Do I Compile Using a Make Utility?
• How Can I Select Which Compiler I Want to Build With?
• How Do I Build Libraries?
• How Do I Know What Compiler Options Are Available and What They Do?
• What is Different About an MPLAB X IDE Debug Build?
See also the following linked information in other sections.
• What Do I Need to Do When Compiling to Use a Debugger?
• How Do I Use Library Files in My Project?
• How Do I Place a Function Into a Unique Section?
• What Optimizations Are Employed by the Compiler?
2.3.1 How Do I Compile From Within MPLAB X IDE?

MPLAB® X IDE User’s Guide and online help provide directions for setting up a project
in the MPLAB X integrated development environment.
Alternatively, download the MPLAB® XC8 User’s Guide for Embedded Engineers
(DS50002400) from the Documentation tab on the Compilers’ web page or open the
MPLAB® XC8 Getting Started Guide (DS50002173) from the compiler’s docs direc-
tory.
2.3.2 How Do I Compile on the Command-line?

The compiler driver is called xc8-cc for all 8-bit PIC devices; e.g., in Windows, it is
named xc8-cc.exe. This application should be invoked for all aspects of compilation.
It is located in the bin directory of the compiler distribution. Avoid running the individual
compiler applications (such as the assembler or linker) explicitly. You can compile and
link in the one command, even if your project is made up of multiple source files.
The driver command format is introduced in Section 3.2 “Invoking the Compiler” See
Section 2.3.4 “How Can I Select Which Compiler I Want to Build With?” to ensure you
are running the correct driver if you have more than one installed. The command-line
options to the driver are detailed in Section 3.7 “Option Descriptions” The files that can
be passed to the driver are listed and described in Section 3.2.3 “Input File Types”.
2.3.3 How Do I Compile Using a Make Utility?

When compiling using a make utility (such as make), the compilation is usually per-
formed as a two-step process: first generating the intermediate files, then the final com-
pilation and link step to produce one binary output (as described in
Section 3.3.3 “Multi-Step Compilation”).
The MPLAB XC8 compiler uses a unique technology called OCG that uses an interme-
diate file format that is different than traditional compilers (including XC16 and XC32).
The intermediate file format used by XC8 is a p-code file (.p1 extension), not an object
file.

2.3.4 How Can I Select Which Compiler I Want to Build With?

The compilation and installation process has been designed to allow you to have more
than one compiler installed at the same time. You can create a project in MPLAB X IDE
and then build this project with different compilers by simply changing a setting in the
project properties.
To select which compiler is actually used when building a project under MPLAB X IDE,
go to the Project Properties dialog. Select the Configuration category in the Project
Properties dialog (Conf: [default]). A list of MPLAB XC8 compilers is shown in the
Compiler Toolchain, on the far right. Select the compiler that you require.
Once selected, the controls for that compiler are then shown by selecting the MPLAB
XC8 global options, MPLAB XC8 Compiler and MPLAB XC8 Linker categories. These
reveal a pane of options on the right. Note that each category has several panes which
can be selected from a pull-down menu that is near the top of the pane.
2.3.5 How Do I Build Libraries?

Use the librarian, xc8-ar, to build libraries from p-code (.p1 extension files). See
Section 3.3.3 “Multi-Step Compilation” for information on building p-code files and
Section 7.2 “Librarian” for the librarian options.
For example:
xc8-cc --chip=16f877a -c lcd.c utils.c io.c
xc8-ar -r myLib.a lcd.p1 utils.p1 io.p1
creates a library file called myLib.a.
The MPLAB X IDE allows you to create a library project which will build a library file as
the final output.
Note that if you intend to step through your library code at a C level in MPLAB X IDE,
you will need to place the library source files so that the relative path between their
location and the project that is using them is the same as the relative path between
where the library build command was executed and where the source files were
located when they were built.
2.3.6 How Do I Know What Compiler Options Are Available and What
They Do?
A list of all compiler options can be obtained by using the --help option on the com-
mand line (see Section 3.7.2.7 “help”).
Alternatively, all options are listed in Section 3.7 “Option Descriptions” of this user’s
guide.
2.3.7 What is Different About an MPLAB X IDE Debug Build?

In MPLAB X, there are distinct build buttons and menu items to build (production build)
a project and to debug (debug build) a project.
When performing a debug build, the IDE will also set the configuration bit to allow
debugging of the project by a debug tool, such as the MPLAB ICD 4.
In MPLAB X IDE, memory is reserved for your debugger (if selected) only when you
perform a debug build. See Section 2.5.4 “What Do I Need to Do When Compiling to
Use a Debugger?”
Another difference is the setting of a preprocessor macro called __DEBUG, which is
assigned 1 when performing a debug build. This macro is not defined for production
builds. You can make code in your source conditional on this macro using #ifdef
directives, etc., (see Section 4.14.1 “Preprocessor Directives”); so that you can have
your program behave differently when you are still in a development cycle.

How To’s
2.4 WRITING SOURCE CODE

This section presents issues that pertain to the source code you write. It has been
subdivided into the sections listed below.
• C Language Specifics
• Device-Specific Features
• Memory Allocation
• Variables
• Functions
• Interrupts
• Assembly Code
2.4.1 C Language Specifics

This section discusses commonly asked source code issues that directly relate to the
C language itself.
• When Should I Cast Expressions?
• Can Implicit Type Conversions Change the Expected Results of My Expressions?
• How Do I Enter Non-English Characters Into My Program?
• How Can I Use a Variable Defined in Another Source File?
• How Can I Use a Function Defined in Another Source File?
2.4.1.1 WHEN SHOULD I CAST EXPRESSIONS?

Expressions can be explicitly cast using the cast operator -- a type in round brackets,
e.g., (int). In all cases, conversion of one type to another must be done with caution
and only when absolutely necessary.
Consider the example:
unsigned long l;
unsigned int i;
i = l;
Here, a long type is being assigned to an int type and the assignment will truncate
the value in l. The compiler will automatically perform a type conversion from the type
of the expression on the right of the assignment operator (long) to the type of the value
on the left of the operator (int).This is called an implicit type conversion. The compiler
typically produces a warning concerning the potential loss of data by the truncation.
A cast to type int is not required and should not be used in the above example if a
long to int conversion was intended. The compiler knows the types of both operands
and performs the conversion accordingly. If you did use a cast, there is the potential for
mistakes if the code is later changed. For example, if you had:
i = (int)l;
the code works the same way; but if in the future, the type of i is changed to a long,
for example, then you must remember to adjust the cast, or remove it, otherwise the
contents of l will continue to be truncated by the assignment, which cannot be correct.
Most importantly, the warning issued by the compiler will not be produced if the cast is
in place.

Only use a cast in situations where the types used by the compiler are not the types
that you require. For example, consider the result of a division assigned to a floating
point variable:
int i, j;
float fl;
fl = i/j;
In this case, integer division is performed, then the rounded integer result is converted
to a float format. So if i contained 7 and j contained 2, the division yields 3 and this
is implicitly converted to a float type (3.0) and then assigned to fl. If you wanted the
division to be performed in a float format, then a cast is necessary:
fl = (float)i/j;
(Casting either i or j forces the compiler to encode a floating-point division.) The
result assigned to fl now is 3.5.
An explicit cast can suppress warnings that might otherwise have been produced. This
can also be the source of many problems. The more warnings the compiler produces,
the better chance you have of finding potential bugs in your code.
2.4.1.2 CAN IMPLICIT TYPE CONVERSIONS CHANGE THE EXPECTED

RESULTS OF MY EXPRESSIONS?
Yes! The compiler will always use integral promotion and there is no way to disable this
(see Section 4.6.1 “Integral Promotion”). In addition, the types of operands to binary
operators are usually changed so that they have a common type, as specified by the C
Standard. Changing the type of an operand can change the value of the final expres-
sion, so it is very important that you understand the type C Standard conversion rules
that apply when dealing with binary operators. You can manually change the type of an
operand by casting; see Section 2.4.1.1 “When Should I Cast Expressions?”
2.4.1.3 HOW DO I ENTER NON-ENGLISH CHARACTERS INTO MY PROGRAM?

The C standard (and accordingly, the MPLAB XC8 C compiler) does not support
extended characters set in character and string literals in the source character set. See
Section 4.4.7 “Constant Types and Formats” to see how these characters can be
entered using escape sequences.
2.4.1.4 HOW CAN I USE A VARIABLE DEFINED IN ANOTHER SOURCE FILE?

Provided the variable defined in the other source file is not static (see
Section 4.5.2.1.1 “Static Objects”) or auto (see Section 4.5.2.2 “Automatic Storage
Duration Objects”), then adding a declaration for that variable into the current file will
allow you to access it. A declaration consists of the keyword extern in addition to the
type and the name of the variable, as specified in its definition, e.g.,
extern int systemStatus;
This is part of the C language. Your favorite C textbook will give you more information.
The position of the declaration in the current file determines the scope of the variable.
That is, if you place the extern declaration inside a function, it will limit the scope of
the variable to that function. If you place it outside of a function, it allows access to the
variable in all functions for the remainder of the current file.
Often, declarations are placed in header files and then they are #included into the C
source code (see Section 4.14.1 “Preprocessor Directives”).

How To’s
2.4.1.5 HOW CAN I USE A FUNCTION DEFINED IN ANOTHER SOURCE FILE?
Provided the function defined in the other source file is not static, then adding a dec-
laration for that function into the current file will allow you to call it. A declaration option-
ally consists of the keyword extern in addition to the function prototype. You can omit
the names of the parameters, e.g.,
extern int readStatus(int);
This is part of the C language. Your favorite C textbook will give you more information.
Often, declarations are placed in header files and then they are #included into the C
source code (see Section 4.14.1 “Preprocessor Directives”).
2.4.2 Device-Specific Features

This section discusses the code that needs to be written to set up or control a feature
that is specific to Microchip PIC devices.
• How Do I Set the Configuration Bits?
• How Do I Use the PIC Device’s ID Locations?
• How Do I Determine the Cause of Reset on Mid-range Parts?
• How Do I Access SFRs?
2.4.2.1 HOW DO I SET THE CONFIGURATION BITS?

These should be set in your code using a pragma. See Section 4.3.5 “Configuration Bit
Access” for details about how these are set.
2.4.2.2 HOW DO I USE THE PIC DEVICE’S ID LOCATIONS?

There is a pragma that allows these values to be programmed (see Section 4.3.6 “ID
Locations”).
2.4.2.3 HOW DO I DETERMINE THE CAUSE OF RESET ON MID-RANGE

PARTS?
The TO and PD bits in the STATUS register allow you to determine the cause of a
Reset. However, these bits are quickly overwritten by the runtime startup code that is
executed before main(); see Section 4.10.2 “Runtime Startup Code” for more infor-
mation. You can have the STATUS register saved into a location that is later accessible
from C code, so that the cause of Reset can be determined by the application after it is
running again (see Section 4.10.2.4 “STATUS Register Preservation”).
2.4.2.4 HOW DO I ACCESS SFRS?

The compiler ships with header files (see Section 4.3.3 “Device Header Files”) that
define the variables that are mapped over the top of memory-mapped SFRs. Since
these are C variables, they can be used like any other C variables and no new syntax
is required to access these registers.
Bits within SFRs can also be accessed. Individual bit-wide variables are defined that
are mapped over the bits in the SFR. Bit-fields are also available in structures that map
over the SFR as a whole. You can use either in your code (see Section 4.3.7 “Using
SFRs From C Code”).
The name assigned to the variable is usually the same as the name specified in the
device data sheet. See Section 2.4.2.5 “How Do I Find The Names Used to Represent
SFRs and Bits?” if these names are not recognized.

2.4.2.5 HOW DO I FIND THE NAMES USED TO REPRESENT SFRS AND BITS?
Special function registers, and the bits within them, are accessed via special variables
that map over the register (see Section 2.4.2.4 “How Do I Access SFRs?”). However,
the names of these variables sometimes differ from those indicated in the data sheet
for the device you are using.
If required, you can examine the <xc.h> header file to find the device-specific header
file that is relevant for your device. This file will define the variables that allow access
to these special variables. However, an easier way to find these variable names is to
look in any of the preprocessed files left behind from a previous compilation. Provided
the corresponding source file included <xc.h>, the preprocessed file will show the
definitions for all the SFR variables and bits for your target device.
If you are compiling under MPLAB X IDE, the preprocessed file(s) are left under the
build/default/production directory of your project for regular builds, or under
build/default/debug for debug builds. They are typically left in the source file
directory if you are compiling on the command line. These files have a .i extension.
2.4.3 Memory Allocation

Here are questions relating to how your source code affects memory allocation.
• How Do I Position Variables at an Address I Nominate?
• How Do I Place a Variable Into a Unique Section?
• How Do I Position a Variable Into an Address Range?
• How Do I Position Functions at an Address I Nominate?
• How Do I Place Variables in Program Memory?
• How Do I Position a Function Into an Address Range?
• Why Are Some Objects Positioned Into Memory That I Reserved?
• How Do I Use High-Endurance Flash for Data, Not Code?
2.4.3.1 HOW DO I POSITION VARIABLES AT AN ADDRESS I NOMINATE?

The easiest way to do this is to make the variable absolute by using the
__at(address) construct (see Section 4.5.4 “Absolute Variables”), but you might
consider also placing the variable in a unique section (see Section 4.15.3 “Changing
and Linking the Allocated Section”). Absolute variables use the address you nominate
in preference to the variable’s symbol in generated code.
2.4.3.2 HOW DO I PLACE A VARIABLE INTO A UNIQUE SECTION?

Use the __section() specifier to have the variable positioned in a new section
(psect). After this has been done, the section can be linked to the desired address by
using the -Wl driver option. See Section 4.15.3 “Changing and Linking the Allocated
Section” for examples of both these operations.
2.4.3.3 HOW DO I POSITION A VARIABLE INTO AN ADDRESS RANGE?

You need to move the variable into a unique psect (section), define a memory range,
and then place the new section in that range.
Use the __section() specifier to have the variable positioned in a new section. Use
the -Wl driver option to define a memory range and to place the new section in that
range. See Section 4.15.3 “Changing and Linking the Allocated Section” for examples
of all these operations.

How To’s
2.4.3.4 HOW DO I POSITION FUNCTIONS AT AN ADDRESS I NOMINATE?
The easiest way to do this is to make the functions absolute by using the
__at(address) construct, (see Section 4.8.4 “Changing the Default Function Alloca-
tion”), but you might consider also placing the variable in a unique section (see
Section 4.15.3 “Changing and Linking the Allocated Section”). This means that the
address you specify is used in preference to the function’s symbol in generated code.
2.4.3.5 HOW DO I PLACE VARIABLES IN PROGRAM MEMORY?

The const qualifier implies that the qualified variable is read-only. As a consequence
of this, any const-qualified variables with static storage duration are placed in program
memory, thus freeing valuable data RAM. See Section 4.5.2 “Objects in Data Memory”
for more information. Variables that are qualified const can also be made absolute, so
they can be positioned at an address you nominate (see Section 4.5.4.2 “Absolute
Objects in Program Memory”).
2.4.3.6 HOW DO I PLACE A FUNCTION INTO A UNIQUE SECTION?

Use the __section() specifier to have the function positioned into a new section
(psect). When this has been done, the section can be linked to the desired address by
using the -Wl driver option. See Section 4.15.3 “Changing and Linking the Allocated
Section” for examples of both these operations.
2.4.3.7 HOW DO I POSITION A FUNCTION INTO AN ADDRESS RANGE?

Having one or more functions located in a special area of memory might mean that you
can ensure they are code protected, for example. To do this, you need to move the
function into a unique section (psect), define a memory range, and then place the new
section in that range.
Use the __section() specifier to have the function positioned into a new section.
Use the -Wl driver option to define a memory range and to place the new section into
that range. See Section 4.15.3 “Changing and Linking the Allocated Section” for exam-
ples of all these operations.
2.4.3.8 HOW DO I STOP THE COMPILER FROM USING CERTAIN MEMORY

LOCATIONS?
Memory can be reserved when you build. The -mreserve option allow you to adjust
the ranges of data and program memory, respectively, when you build (see
Section 3.7.1.17 “reserve”). By default, all the available on-chip memory is available for
use. However, these options allow you to reserve parts of this memory.

2.4.4 Variables
This sections examines questions that relate to the definition and usage of variables
and types within a program.
• Why Are My Floating-point Results Not Quite What I Am Expecting?
• How Can I Access Individual Bits of a Variable?
• How Do I Share Data Between Interrupt and Main-line Code?
• How Do I Position Variables at an Address I Nominate?
• How Do I Place Variables in Program Memory?
• How Do I Place Variables in the PIC18 Device’s External Program Memory?
• How Can I Rotate a Variable?
• How Do I Utilize/Allocate the RAM Banks on My Device?
• How Do I Utilize the Linear Memory on Enhanced Mid-range PIC Devices?
• How Do I Find Out Where Variables and Functions Have Been Positioned?
2.4.4.1 WHY ARE MY FLOATING-POINT RESULTS NOT QUITE WHAT I AM

EXPECTING?
The size of the floating point type can be adjusted for both float and double types
(see Section 3.7.14.2 “short-float” and Section 3.7.14.1 “short-double”).
Since floating-point variables only have a finite number of bits to represent the values
they are assigned, they only hold an approximation of their assigned value (see
Section 4.4.4 “Floating-Point Data Types”). A floating-point variable can only hold one
of a set of discrete real number values. If you attempt to assign a value that is not in
this set, it is rounded to the nearest value. The more bits used by the mantissa in the
floating-point variable, the more values can be exactly represented in the set, and the
average error due to the rounding is reduced.
Whenever floating-point arithmetic is performed, rounding also occurs. This can also
lead to results that do not appear to be correct.
2.4.4.2 HOW CAN I ACCESS INDIVIDUAL BITS OF A VARIABLE?

There are several ways of doing this. The simplest and most portable way is to define
an integer variable and use macros to read, set, or clear the bits within the variable
using a mask value and logical operations, such as the following.
#define testbit(var, bit) ((var) & (1 <<(bit)))
#define setbit(var, bit) ((var) |= (1 << (bit)))
#define clrbit(var, bit) ((var) &= ~(1 << (bit)))
These, respectively, test to see if bit number, bit, in the integer, var, is set; set the
corresponding bit in var; and clear the corresponding bit in var. Alternatively, a
union of an integer variable and a structure with bit-fields (see
Section 4.4.5.2 “Bit-Fields in Structures”) can be defined, e.g.,
union both {
unsigned char byte;
struct {
unsigned b0:1, b1:1, b2:1, b3:1, b4:1, b5:1, b6:1, b7:1;
} bitv;
} var;
This allows you to access byte as a whole (using var.byte), or any bit within that
variable independently (using var.bitv.b0 through var.bitv.b7).
Note that the compiler does support bit variables (see Section 4.4.2.1 “Bit Data Types
and Variables”), as well as bit-fields in structures.

How To’s
2.4.5 Functions
This section examines questions that relate to functions.
• What is the Optimum Size For Functions?
• How Do I Stop An Unused Function Being Removed?
• How Do I Make a Function Inline?
• How Can I Tell How Big a Function Is?
• How Do I Position Functions at an Address I Nominate?
• How Do I Know Which Resources Are Being Used by Each Function?
• How Do I Use Interrupts in C?
2.4.5.1 WHAT IS THE OPTIMUM SIZE FOR FUNCTIONS?

Generally speaking, the source code for functions should be kept small, as this aids in
readability and debugging. It is much easier to describe and debug the operation of a
function that performs a small number of tasks. And they typically have fewer side
effects, which can be the source of coding errors.
In the embedded programming world, a large number of small functions, and the calls
necessary to execute them, can result in excessive memory and stack usage, so a
compromise is often necessary.
The PIC10/12/16 devices employ pages in the program memory that are used to store
and execute function code. Although you are able to write C functions that will generate
more than one page of assembly code, functions of such a size should be avoided and
split into smaller routines where possible. The assembly call and jump sequences to
locations in other pages are much longer than those made to destinations in the same
page. If a function is so large as to cross a page boundary, then loops (or other code
constructs that require jumps within that function) can use the longer form of jump on
each iteration (see Section 4.8.3 “Allocation of Executable Code”).
PIC18 devices are less affected by internal memory paging and the instruction set
allows for calls and jumps to any destination with no penalty. But you should still
endeavor to keep functions as small as possible.
Interrupt functions must be written so that they do not exceed the size of a memory
page. They cannot be split to occupy more than one page.
With all devices, the smaller the function, the easier it is for the linker to allocate it to
memory without errors.
2.4.5.2 HOW DO I STOP AN UNUSED FUNCTION BEING REMOVED?

If a C function’s symbol is referenced in hand-written assembly code, the function will
never be removed, even if it is not called or has never had its address taken in C code.
Create an assembly source file and add this file to your project. You only have to
reference the symbol in this file; so the file can contain the following
GLOBAL _myFunc
where myFunc is the C name of the function in question (note the leading underscore
in the assembly name, see Section 4.12.3.1 “Equivalent Assembly Symbols”). This is
sufficient to prevent the function removal optimization from being performed.

2.4.5.3 HOW DO I MAKE A FUNCTION INLINE?
You can ask the compiler to inline a function by using the inline specifier (see
Section 4.8.1.2 “Inline Specifier”) or #pragma inline. This is only a suggestion to the
compiler and cannot always be obeyed. Do not confuse this specifier/pragma with the
intrinsic pragma1 (see Section 4.14.3.4 “The #pragma Intrinsic Directive”), which
is for functions that have no corresponding source code and which will be specifically
expanded by the code generator during compilation.
2.4.6 Interrupts
Interrupt and interrupt service routine questions are discussed in this section.
How Do I Use Interrupts in C?
• How Can I Make My Interrupt Routine Faster?
2.4.6.1 HOW DO I USE INTERRUPTS IN C?

Be aware of what sort of interrupt hardware is available on your target device. Most
baseline PIC devices do not implement interrupts at all; baseline devices with interrupts
and mid-range devices utilize a single interrupt vector. PIC18 devices implement two
separate interrupt vector locations and use a simple priority scheme. Some PIC18
devices use an interrupt controller macro module that can use a vector table to invoke
multiple interrupt functions.
In C source code, a function can be written to act as the interrupt service routine (see
Section 4.9.1 “Writing an Interrupt Service Routine”). Such functions save and/or
restore program context before and/or after executing the function body code and a
different return instruction is used (see Section 4.9.4 “Context Switching”).
Code inside the interrupt function can do anything you like, but see Section 2.6.7 “How
Can I Make My Interrupt Routine Faster?” for suggestions to enhance real-time
performance.
Prior to any interrupt occurring, your program must ensure that peripherals are
correctly configured and that interrupts are enabled (see Section 4.9.5 “Enabling
Interrupts”). On PIC18 devices, you must specify the priority of interrupt sources by
writing the appropriate SFRs.
1. This specifier was originally named in-line but was changed to avoid confusion.

How To’s
2.4.7 Assembly Code

This section examines questions that arise when writing assembly code as part of a C
project.
• How Should I Combine Assembly and C Code?
• What Do I Need Other than Instructions in an Assembly Source File?
• How Do I Access C Objects from Assembly Code?
• How Can I Access SFRs from Within Assembly Code?
• What Things Must I Manage When Writing Assembly Code?
2.4.7.1 HOW SHOULD I COMBINE ASSEMBLY AND C CODE?

Ideally, any hand-written assembly should be written as separate routines that can be
called. This offers some degree of protection from interaction between compiler-gener-
ated and hand-written assembly code. Such code can be placed into a separate
assembly module that can be added to your project (see Section 4.12.1 “Integrating
Assembly Language Modules”).
If necessary, assembly code can be added in-line with C code using either of two meth-
ods (see Section 4.12.2 “Inline Assembly”). The code added in-line should ideally be
limited to instructions such as NOP, SLEEP or CLRWDT. Macros are already provided
which in-line all these instructions (see Appendix A. Library Functions). More complex
in-line assembly that changes register contents and the device state can cause code
failure if precautions are not taken and should be used with caution. See
Section 4.7 “Register Usage” for those registers used by the compiler.
2.4.7.2 WHAT DO I NEED OTHER THAN INSTRUCTIONS IN AN ASSEMBLY

SOURCE FILE?
Assembly code typically needs assembler directives as well as the instructions them-
selves. The operation of all the directives are described in the subsections of
Section 5.2.9 “Assembler Directives”. Common directives required are mentioned
below.
All assembly code must be placed in a psect so it can be manipulated as a whole by
the linker and placed in memory. See Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects” for
general information on psects; see Section 5.2.9.3 “PSECT” for information on the
directive used to create and specify psects.
The other commonly used directive is GLOBAL, defined in Section 5.2.9.1 “GLOBAL”
which is used to make symbols accessible across multiple source files.
2.4.7.3 HOW DO I ACCESS C OBJECTS FROM ASSEMBLY CODE?

Most C objects are accessible from assembly code. There is a mapping between the
symbols used in the C source and those used in the assembly code generated from
this source. Your assembly should access the assembly-equivalent symbols which are
detailed in Section 4.12.3 “Interaction between Assembly and C Code”.
Instruct the assembler that the symbol is defined elsewhere by using the GLOBAL
assembler directive (see Section 5.2.9.1 “GLOBAL”). This is the assembly equivalent
of a C declaration, although no type information is present. This directive is not needed
and should not be used if the symbol is defined in the same module as your assembly
code.
Any C variable accessed from assembly code will be treated as if it were qualified
volatile (see Section 4.4.8.2 “Volatile Type Qualifier”). Specifically specifying the
volatile qualifier in C code is preferred as it makes it clear that external code can
access the object.

2.4.7.4 HOW CAN I ACCESS SFRS FROM WITHIN ASSEMBLY CODE?
The safest way to gain access to SFRs in assembly code is to have symbols defined
in your assembly code that equate to the corresponding SFR address. Header files are
provided with the compiler so that you do not need to define these yourselves (detailed
in Section 4.12.3.2 “Accessing Registers from Assembly Code”).
There is no guarantee that you will be able to access symbols generated by the
compilation of C code, even the code that accesses the SFR that you require.
2.4.7.5 WHAT THINGS MUST I MANAGE WHEN WRITING ASSEMBLY CODE?

When writing assembly code by hand, you assume responsibility for managing certain
features of the device and formatting your assembly instructions and operands. The
following list describes some of the actions you must take.
• Whenever you access a RAM variable, you must ensure that the bank of the vari-
able is selected before you read or write the location. This is done by one or more
assembly instructions. The exact code is based on the device you are using and
the location of the variable. Bank selection is not be required if the object is in
common memory, (which is called the access bank on PIC18 devices) or if you
are using an instruction that takes a full address (such as the movff instruction on
PIC18 devices). Check your device data sheet to see the memory architecture of
your device, as well as the instructions and registers which control bank selection.
Failure to select the correct bank will lead to code failure.
The BANKSEL pseudo instruction can be used to simplify this process (see
Section 5.2.1.2 “Bank and Page Selection”).
• You must ensure that the address of the RAM variable you are accessing has
been masked so that only the bank offset is being used as the instruction’s file
register operand. This should not be done if you are using an instruction that takes
a full address (such as the movff instruction on PIC18 devices). Check your
device data sheet to see what address operand instructions requires. Failure to
mask an address can lead to a fixup error (see Section 2.7.8 “How Do I Fix a
Fixup Overflow Error?”) or code failure.
The BANKMASK macro can truncate the address for you (see
Section 4.12.3.2 “Accessing Registers from Assembly Code”).
• Before you call or jump to any routine, you must ensure that you have selected
the program memory page of this routine using the appropriate instructions. You
can either use the PAGESEL pseudo instruction (see Section 5.2.1.2 “Bank and
Page Selection”), or the fcall or LJMP pseudo instructions (not required on
PIC18 devices) (see Section 5.2.1.8 “Long Jumps and Calls”) which will
automatically add page selection instructions, if required.
• You must ensure that any RAM used for storage has memory reserved. If you are
only accessing variables defined in C code, then reservation is already done by
the compiler. You must reserve memory for any variables you only use in the
assembly code using an appropriate directive such as DS or DABS (see
Section 5.2.9.11 “DS” or Section 5.2.9.12 “DABS”). It is often easier to define
objects in C code rather than in assembly code.

How To’s
• You must place any assembly code you write in a psect (see
Section 5.2.9.3 “PSECT” for the directive to do this, and
Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects” for general information about
psects). A psect you define may need flags (options) to be specified. Take particu-
lar notice of the delta, space, reloc and class flags (see
Section 5.2.9.3.4 “Delta” and Section 5.2.9.3.17 “Space”
Section 5.2.9.3.15 “Reloc” and Section 5.2.9.3.3 “Class”). If these are not set cor-
rectly, compile errors or code failure will almost certainly result. If the psect speci-
fies a class and you are happy with it being placed anywhere in the memory range
defined by that class (see Section 6.2.1 “-Aclass =low-high,...”), it does not need
any additional options to be linked; otherwise, you will need to link the psect using
a linker option (see Section 6.2.18 “-Pspec” for the usual way to link psects and
Section 3.7.12 “Mapped Linker Options” which indicates how you can specify this
option without running the linker directly).
Assembly code that is placed in-line with C code will be placed in the same psect
as the compiler-generated assembly and you should not place this into a separate
psect.
• You must ensure that any registers you write to in assembly code are not already
in used by compiler-generated code. If you write assembly in a separate module,
then this is less of an issue because the compiler will, by default, assume that all
registers are used by these routines (see Section 4.7 “Register Usage”). No
assumptions are made for in-line assembly (although the compiler will assume
that the selected bank was changed by the assembly, see Section 4.12.2 “Inline
Assembly”) and you must be careful to save and restore any resources that you
use (modify) and which are already in use by the surrounding compiler-generated
code.

2.5 GETTING MY APPLICATION TO DO WHAT I WANT

This section provides programming techniques, applications and examples. It also
examines questions that relate to making an application perform a specific task.
• What Can Cause Glitches on Output Ports?
• Where Am I Allowed To Manually Link Psects?
• How Do I Link Bootloaders and Downloadable Applications?
• How Can I Have Code Executed Straight After Reset?
• How Can I Prevent Misuse of My Code?
• How Do I Use Printf to Send Text to a Peripheral?
• How Do I Setup the Oscillator in My Code?
• How Do I Place Variables in the PIC18 Device’s External Program Memory?
• How Can I Implement a Delay in My Code?
• How Can I Rotate a Variable?
• How Can I Stop Variables Being Cleared at Startup?
• How Do I Use High-Endurance Flash for Data, Not Code?
2.5.1 What Can Cause Glitches on Output Ports?

In most cases, this is caused by using ordinary variables to access port bits or the entire
port itself. These variables should be qualified volatile.
The value stored in a variable mapped over a port (hence the actual value written to
the port) directly translates to an electrical signal. It is vital that the values held by these
variables only change when the code intends them to and that they change from their
current state to their new value in a single transition (see Section 4.4.8.2 “Volatile Type
Qualifier”). The compiler attempts to write to volatile variables in one operation.
2.5.2 Where Am I Allowed To Manually Link Psects?

It is recommended that the linker options for compiler-generated psects (sections) are
not modified. If these must be changed or if there are user-defined psects that need
special allocation, there might be device- or compiler-imposed restrictions on where
these can be placed in memory.
Try to link psects in a suitable compiler linker class (as shown in Section 4.15.2 “Default
Linker Classes”) as the definitions for these memory ranges take into consideration any
restrictions. Define your own linker class, if necessary (see Section 2.4.3.3 “How Do I
Position a Variable Into an Address Range?”). Refer to
Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects” to see the memory placement restrictions
that apply to compiler-generated psects which hold similar content to your psect.
Most limitations relate to psects straddling some memory boundary, such as a data
bank or program memory page. One typical limitation is that all psects holding execut-
able code cannot straddle a device page boundary. Compiler-generated psects holding
variables must also be typically linked within the data bank for which they were created.
These boundaries, therefore, impose limits on the size to which the psect can grow.

How To’s
2.5.3 How Do I Link Bootloaders and Downloadable Applications?

Exactly how this is done depends on the device you are using and your project require-
ments, but the general approach when compiling applications that use a bootloader is
to allocate discrete program memory space to the bootloader and application so they
have their own dedicated memory. In this way the operation of one cannot affect the
other. This will require that either the bootloader or the application is offset in memory.
That is, the Reset and interrupt location are offset from address 0 and all program code
is offset by the same amount.
On PIC18 devices, the application code is typically offset and the bootloader is linked
with no offset so that it populates the Reset and interrupt code locations. The boot-
loader Reset and interrupt code merely contains code which redirects control to the real
Reset and interrupt code defined by the application and which is offset.
On mid-range devices, this is not normally possible to perform when interrupts are
being used. Consider offsetting all of the bootloader with the exception of the code
associated with Reset, which must always be defined by the bootloader. The applica-
tion code can define the code linked at the interrupt location. The bootloader will need
to remap any application code that attempts to overwrite the Reset code defined by the
bootloader.
The option -mcodeoffset, (see Section 3.7.1.3 “codeoffset”), allows the program
code (Reset and vectors included) to be moved by a specified amount. The option also
restricts the program from using any program memory from address 0 (Reset vector)
to the offset address. Always check the map file (see Section 3.7.12 “Mapped Linker
Options”), to ensure that nothing remains in reserved areas.
The contents of the HEX file for the bootloader can be merged with the code of the
application by adding the HEX file as a project file, either on the command line, or in
MPLAB X IDE. This results in a single HEX file that contains the bootloader and appli-
cation code in the one image. HEX files are merged by the HEXMATE application (see
Section 7.3 “HEXMATE”). Check for warnings from this application about overlap,
which can indicate that memory is in use by both bootloader and the downloadable
application.
2.5.4 What Do I Need to Do When Compiling to Use a Debugger?

You can use debuggers, such as the MPLAB ICD4 or REAL ICE, to debug code built
with the MPLAB XC8 compiler. These debuggers use some of the data and program
memory of the device for its own use, so it is important that your code does not also
use these resources.
There is a command-line option (see Section 3.7.1.6 “debugger”), that can be used to
tell the compiler which debugger is to be used. The compiler can then reserve the
memory used by the debugger so that your code will not be located in these locations.
In the MPLAB X IDE, the appropriate debugger option is specified if you perform a
debug build. It will not be specified if you perform a regular Build Project or Clean and
Build.
Since some device memory is being used up by the debugger, there is less available
for your program and it is possible that your code or data might not fit in the device when
a debugger is selected.
Note that which specific memory locations used by the debuggers is an attribute of
MPLAB X IDE, not the device. If you move a project to a new version of the IDE, the
resources required can change. For this reason, you should not manually reserve
memory for the debugger, or make any assumptions in your code as to what memory
is used. A summary of the debugger requirements is available in the MPLAB X IDE help
files.

To verify that the resources reserved by the compiler match those required by the
debugger, do the following. Compile your code with and without the debugger selected
and keep a copy of the map file produced for both builds. Compare the linker options
in the map files and look for changes in the -A options (see Section 6.2.1 “-Aclass
=low-high,...”). For example, the memory defined for the CODE class with no debugger
might be specified by this option:
-ACODE=00h-0FFh,0100h-07FFh,0800h-0FFFhx3
and with the ICD3 selected as the debugger, it becomes:
-ACODE=00h-0FFh,0100h-07FFh,0800h-0FFFhx2,01800h-01EFFh
This shows that a memory range from 1F00 to 1FFF has been removed by the compiler
and cannot be used by your program (See also Section 2.6.16 “Why Are Some Objects
Positioned Into Memory That I Reserved?”).
2.5.5 How Can I Have Code Executed Straight After Reset?

A special hook has been provided so you can easily add special “powerup” assembly
code that will be linked to the Reset vector (see Section 4.10.3 “The Powerup Rou-
tine”). This code will be executed before the runtime startup code, which in turn is exe-
cuted before the main() function (see Section 4.10 “Main, Runtime Startup and
Reset”).
2.5.6 How Do I Share Data Between Interrupt and Main-line Code?

Variables accessed from both interrupt and main-line code can easily become cor-
rupted or mis-read by the program. The volatile qualifier (see
Section 4.4.8.2 “Volatile Type Qualifier”) tells the compiler to avoid performing optimi-
zations on such variables. This will fix some of the issues associated with this problem.
The other issues relates to whether the compiler/device can access the data atomically.
With 8-bit PIC devices, this is rarely the case. An atomic access is one where the entire
variable is accessed in only one instruction. Such access is uninterruptible. You can
determine if a variable is being accessed atomically by looking at the assembly code
the compiler produces in the assembly list file (see Section 5.4 “Assembly List Files”).
If the variable is accessed in one instruction, it is atomic. Since the way variables are
accessed can vary from statement to statement it is usually best to avoid these issues
entirely by disabling interrupts prior to the variable being accessed in main-line code,
then re-enable the interrupts afterwards (see Section 4.9.5 “Enabling Interrupts”).
2.5.7 How Can I Prevent Misuse of My Code?

First, many devices with flash program memory allow all or part of this memory to be
write protected. The device Configuration bits need to be set correctly for this to take
place; see Section 4.3.5 “Configuration Bit Access” and your device data sheet.
Second, you can prevent third-party code being programmed at unused locations in the
program memory by filling these locations with a value rather than leaving them in an
unprogrammed state. You can chose a fill value that corresponds to an instruction or
set all the bits so as the values cannot be further modified. (Consider what will happen
if your program somehow reaches and starts executing from these filled values.)
The compiler’s HEXMATE utility (see Section 7.3 “HEXMATE”) has the capability to fill
unused locations and this operation can be requested using a command-line driver
option (see Section 3.7.11.8 “fill”). As HEXMATE only works with HEX files, this feature
is only available when producing HEX/COF file outputs (as opposed to binary, for
example), which is the default operation.
And last, if you wish to make your library files or intermediate p-code files available to
others but do not want the original source code to be viewable, then you can obfuscate
the files using the -mshroudoption (see Section 3.7.1.20 “shroud”).

How To’s
2.5.8 How Do I Use Printf to Send Text to a Peripheral?

The printf function does two things: it formats text based on the format string and
placeholders you specify, and sends (prints) this formatted text to a destination (or
stream); see Appendix A. Library Functions. The printf function performs all the for-
matting; then it calls a helper function, called putch, to send each byte of the formatted
text. By customizing the putch function you can have printf send data to any periph-
eral or location (see Section 4.12 “Mixing C and Assembly Code”). You can choose the
printf output go to an LCD, SPI module or USART, for example.
A stub for the putch function can be found in the compiler’s sources directory. Copy
it into your project then modify it to send the single byte parameter passed to it to the
required destination. Before you can use printf, peripherals that you use will need to
be initialized in the usual way. Here is an example of putch for a USART on a mid-range
device.
void putch(char data) {
while( ! TXIF) // check buffer
continue; // wait till ready
TXREG = data; // send data
}
You can get printf to send to one of several destinations by using a global variable
to indicate your choice. Have the putch function send the byte to one of several des-
tinations based on the contents of this variable.
2.5.9 How Do I Setup the Oscillator in My Code?

All PIC devices have several oscillator modes that must be selected by programming
the device’s configuration bits in your project. See your device data sheet for informa-
tion on the modes and Section 4.3.5 “Configuration Bit Access” for assistance with pro-
gramming the configuration bits.
Some devices have an OSCCON register, which further controls such runtime attri-
butes as clock sources and internal clock frequencies. In C source, this register can be
written to in the usual way, based on information in your device data sheet.
Some devices allow the internal oscillator to be tuned at runtime via the OSCTUNE reg-
ister. Other devices allow for calibration of their internal oscillators using values
pre-programmed into the device. The runtime startup code generated by the compiler,
(see Section 4.10.2 “Runtime Startup Code”), will by default provide code that performs
oscillator calibration. This can be disabled, if required, using an option (see
Section 3.7.1.14 “osccal”).
If you intend to use some of the compiler’s built-in delay functions, you will need to set
the _XTAL_FREQ macro, which indicates the system frequency to the compiler. This
macro in no way affects the operating frequency of the device (see
Section “__DELAY_MS, __DELAY_US, __delaywdt_us, __delaywdt_Ms”).
2.5.10 How Do I Place Variables in the PIC18 Device’s External

Program Memory?
If all you mean to do is place read-only variables in program memory, qualify them as
const (see Section 4.5.2 “Objects in Data Memory”). If you intend the variables to be
located in the external program memory then use the __far qualifier and specify the
memory using the -mram option (see Section 3.7.1.16 “ram”). The compiler will allow
__far-qualified variables to be modified. Note that the time to access these variables
will be longer than for variables in the internal data memory. The access mode to exter-
nal memory can be specified with an option (see Section 3.7.1.9 “emi”).

2.5.11 How Can I Implement a Delay in My Code?

If an accurate delay is required, or if there are other tasks that can be performed during
the delay, then using a timer to generate an interrupt is the best way to proceed.
If these are not issues in your code, then you can use the compiler’s in-built delay
pseudo-functions: _delay, __delay_ms or __delay_us; see Appendix A. Library
Functions. These all expand into in-line assembly instructions or a (nested) loop of
instructions that will consume the specified number of cycles or time. The delay
argument must be a constant and less than 50,463,240.
Note that these code sequences will only use the nop instruction and/or instructions
which form a loop. The alternate versions of these pseudo-functions, e.g., _delaywdt,
can use the clrwdt instruction as well.
2.5.12 How Can I Rotate a Variable?

The C language does not have a rotate operator, but rotations can be performed using
the shift and bitwise OR operators. Since the PIC devices have a rotate instruction, the
compiler will look for code expressions that implement rotates (using shifts and ORs)
and use the rotate instruction in the generated output wherever possible (see
Section 4.6.2 “Rotation”).
2.5.13 How Can I Stop Variables Being Cleared at Startup?

Use the __persistent qualifier (see Section 4.4.9.5 “__persistent Type Qualifier”),
which will place the variables in a different psect that is not cleared by the runtime
startup code.
2.5.14 How Do I Use High-Endurance Flash for Data, Not Code?

For devices that implement this Flash in the program memory space, it will need to be
reserved so that the compiler does not use it for executable code (see
Section 2.4.3.8 “How Do I Stop the Compiler From Using Certain Memory Locations?”).

How To’s
2.6 UNDERSTANDING THE COMPILATION PROCESS

This section tells you how to find out what the compiler did during the build process,
how it encoded output code, where it placed objects, etc. It also discusses the features
that are supported by the compiler.
• What’s the Difference Between the Free, Standard and PRO Modes?
• How Can I Make My Code Smaller?
• How Can I Reduce RAM Usage?
• How Can I Make My Code Faster?
• How Can I Speed Up Programming Times
• How Does the Compiler Place Everything in Memory?
• How Can I Make My Interrupt Routine Faster?
• How Big Can C Variables Be?
• How Do I Utilize/Allocate the RAM Banks on My Device?
• How Do I Utilize the Linear Memory on Enhanced Mid-range PIC Devices?
• What Devices are Supported by the Compiler?
• How Do I Know What Code the Compiler Is Producing?
• How Can I Tell How Big a Function Is?
• How Do I Know Which Resources Are Being Used by Each Function?
• Why Are Some Objects Positioned Into Memory That I Reserved?
• How Do I Know How Much Memory Is Still Available?
• How Do I Use Library Files in My Project?
• What Optimizations Are Employed by the Compiler?
• Why Do I Get Out-of-memory Errors When I Select a Debugger?
• How Do I Know Which Stack Model the Compiler Has Assigned to a Function?
• How Do I Know What Value Has Been Programmed in the Configuration Bits or ID
Location?
• How Do I Find Out What an Warning/Error Message Means?
• How Do I Stop An Unused Function Being Removed?
• How Do I Build Libraries?
2.6.1 What’s the Difference Between the Free, Standard and PRO
Modes?
These modes (see Section 1.2 “Compiler Description and Documentation”) mainly dif-
fer in the optimizations that are performed when compiling. Compilers operating in Free
(formerly called Lite) and Standard mode can compile for all the same devices as sup-
ported by the Pro mode. The code compiled in Free and Standard mode can use all the
available memory for the selected device. What will be different is the size and speed
of the generated compiler output. Free mode output will be much less efficient when
compared to that produced in Standard mode, which in turn will be less efficient than
that produce when in Pro mode.
All these modes use the OCG compiler framework, so the entire C program is compiled
in one step and the source code does not need many non-standard extensions.

2.6.2 How Can I Make My Code Smaller?

There are a number of ways that this can be done, but results vary from one project to
the next. Use the assembly list file, (see Section 5.4 “Assembly List Files”), to observe
the assembly code produced by the compiler to verify that the following tips are relevant
to your code.
Use the smallest data types possible as less code is needed to access these. (This also
reduces RAM usage.) Note that a bit type and non-standard 24-bit integer type
(short long) exists for this compiler. Avoid multi-bit fields whenever possible. The
code used to access these can be very large. See Section 4.4 “Supported Data Types
and Variables” for all data types and sizes.
There are two sizes of floating-point type, as well, and these are discussed in the same
section. Avoid floating-point if at all possible. Consider writing fixed-point arithmetic
code.
Use unsigned types, if possible, instead of signed types; particularly if they are used in
expressions with a mix of types and sizes. Try to avoid an operator acting on operands
with mixed sizes whenever possible.
Whenever you have a loop or condition code, use a “strong” stop condition, i.e., the
following:
for(i=0; i!=10; i++)
is preferable to:
for(i=0; i<10; i++)
A check for equality (== or !=) is usually more efficient to implement than the weaker
< comparison.
In some situations, using a loop counter that decrements to zero is more efficient than
one that starts at zero and counts up by the same number of iterations. This is more
likely to be the case if the loop index is a byte-wide type. So you might be able to rewrite
the above as:
for(i=10; i!=0; i--)
There might be a small advantage in changing the order of function parameters so that
the first parameter is byte sized. A register is used if the first parameter is byte-sized.
For example consider:
char calc(char mode, int value);
over
char calc(int value, char mode);
Ensure that all optimizations are enabled (see Section 3.7.6 “Options for Controlling
Optimization”). Be aware of what optimizations the compiler performs (see
Section 4.13 “Optimizations” and Section 5.3 “Assembly-Level Optimizations”) so you
can take advantage of them and don’t waste your time manually performing optimiza-
tions in C code that the compiler already handles, e.g., don’t turn a multiply-by-4
operation into a shift-by-2 operation as this sort of optimization is already detected.

How To’s
2.6.3 How Can I Reduce RAM Usage?

Use the smallest data types possible. (This also reduces code size as less code is
needed to access these.) Note that a __bit type and non-standard 24-bit integer type
(__int24 and __uint24) exists for this compiler. See Section 4.4 “Supported Data
Types and Variables” for all data types and sizes. There are two sizes of floating-point
type, as well, and these are discussed in the same section.
Consider using auto variables over global or static variables as there is the poten-
tial that these can share memory allocated to other auto variables that are not active
at the same time. Memory allocation of auto variables is made on a compiled stack
(described in Section 4.5.2.2 “Automatic Storage Duration Objects”).
Rather than pass large objects to or from, functions pass pointers which reference
these objects. This is particularly true when larger structures are being passed, but
there might be RAM savings to be made even when passing long variables.
Objects that do not need to change throughout the program can be located in program
memory using the const qualifier (see Section 4.4.8.1 “Const Type Qualifier” and
Section 4.5.2 “Objects in Data Memory”). This frees up precious RAM, but slows exe-
cution.
Ensure that all optimizations are enabled (see Section 3.7.6 “Options for Controlling
Optimization”). Be aware of which optimizations the compiler performs (see
Section 4.13 “Optimizations”), so that you can take advantage of them and don’t waste
your time manually performing optimizations in C code that the compiler already
handles.
2.6.4 How Can I Make My Code Faster?

To a large degree, smaller code is faster code, so efforts to reduce code size often
decrease execution time (see Section 2.6.2 “How Can I Make My Code Smaller?” and
Section 2.6.7 “How Can I Make My Interrupt Routine Faster?”). However, there are
ways some sequences can be sped up at the expense of increased code size.
One of the compiler optimization settings is for speed (the alternate setting is for
space), so ensure this is selected (see Section 3.7.6 “Options for Controlling
Optimization”). This will use alternate output in some instances that is faster, but larger.
Some library multiplication routines operate faster when one of their operands is a
smaller value. See Section 4.3.9 “Multiplication” for more information on how to take
advantage of this.
Generally, the biggest gains to be made in terms of speed of execution come from the
algorithm used in a project. Identify which sections of your program need to be fast.
Look for loops that might be linearly searching arrays and choose an alternate search
method such as a hash table and function. Where results are being recalculated,
consider if they can be cached.
2.6.5 How Can I Speed Up Programming Times

The linker can allocate sections to both ends of program memory: some sections ini-
tially placed at a low address and built up through memory; other sections assembled
at a high address and extended down. This does not affect code operation and makes
linking easier, but it can produce a HEX file covering the entire device memory space.
Programming this HEX file into the device may take a long time.
To reduce programming times in this situation, instruct the linker to not use all the
device’s program memory. Use the -mreserve option to reserve the upper part of pro-
gram memory (see Section 3.7.1.17 “reserve”).

2.6.6 How Does the Compiler Place Everything in Memory?

In most situations, assembly instructions and directives associated with both code and
data are grouped into sections, called psects, and these are then positioned into con-
tainers that represent the device memory. An introductory explanation into this process
is given in Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects”. The exception is for absolute
variables (see Section 4.5.4 “Absolute Variables”), which are placed at a specific
address when they are defined and which are not placed in a psect.
2.6.7 How Can I Make My Interrupt Routine Faster?

Consider suggestions made in Section 2.6.2 “How Can I Make My Code Smaller?”
(code size) for any interrupt code. Smaller code is often faster code.
In addition to the code you write in the ISR there is the code the compiler produces to
switch context. This is executed immediately after an interrupt occurs and immediately
before the interrupt returns, so must be included in the time taken to process an inter-
rupt (see Section 4.9.4 “Context Switching”). When the compiler is operating in Pro
mode, this code is optimal, in that only registers used in the ISR will be saved by this
code. Thus, the fewer registers that are used in your ISR means that potentially less
context switch code will be executed. Register use increases with the complexity of
code, so avoid complex statements and calls to functions that might also contain com-
plex code. Use the assembly list file to see which registers are being used by the
compiler in the interrupt code (see Section 5.4 “Assembly List Files”).
Mid-range devices have only a few registers that are used by the compiler, and there
is little context switch code. Some devices save context automatically into shadow reg-
isters, which further reduces (or eliminates entirely) the compiler-generated switch
code (see Section 4.7 “Register Usage”).
Consider having the ISR simply set a flag and return. The flag can then be checked in
main-line code to handle the interrupt. This has the advantage of moving the compli-
cated interrupt-processing code out of the ISR so that it no longer contributes to its reg-
ister usage. Always use the volatile qualifier (see Section 4.4.8.2 “Volatile Type
Qualifier” for variables shared by the interrupt and main-line code; see
Section 2.5.6 “How Do I Share Data Between Interrupt and Main-line Code?”).
2.6.8 How Big Can C Variables Be?

This question specifically relates to the size of individual C objects, such as arrays or
structures. The total size of all variables is another matter.
To answer this question you need to know in which memory space the variable will be
located. Objects qualified const will be located in program memory; other objects will
be placed in data memory. Program memory object sizes are discussed in
Section 4.5.3.1 “Object Size Limitations”. Objects in data memory are broadly grouped
into autos and non-autos and the size limitations of these objects (see
Section 4.5.2.2.1 “Object Size Limits” and Section 4.5.2.1.2 “Object Size Limits”).
2.6.9 How Do I Utilize/Allocate the RAM Banks on My Device?

The compiler will automatically use all the available RAM banks on the device you are
programming. It is only if you wish to alter the default memory allocation that you need
take any action. Special bank qualifiers (see Section 4.4.9.1 “__bank() Type Qualifier”),
and an option (see Section 3.7.1.1 “addrqual”) to indicate how these qualifiers are
interpreted are used to manually allocate variables.
Note that there is no guarantee that all the memory on a device can be utilized as data
and code is packed in sections, or psects.

How To’s
2.6.10 How Do I Utilize the Linear Memory on Enhanced Mid-range PIC

Devices?
The linear addressing mode is a means of accessing the banked data memory as one
contiguous and linear block (see Section 4.5.1 “Address Spaces”). Use of the linear
memory is fully automatic. Objects that are larger than a data bank can be defined in
the usual way and will be accessed using the linear addressing mode (see
Section 4.5.2.2.1 “Object Size Limits”). If you define absolute objects at a particular
location in memory, you can use a linear address if you prefer, or the regular banked
address (see Section 4.5.4.1 “Absolute Objects in Data Memory”).
2.6.11 What Devices are Supported by the Compiler?

Support for new devices usually takes place with each compiler release. To find
whether a device is supported by your compiler, you can do several things (see also,
Section 4.3.1 “Device Support”).
• HTML listings are provided in the compiler’s docs directory. Open these in your
favorite web browser. They are called pic_chipinfo.html and
pic18_chipinfo.html.
• Run the compiler driver on the command line (see Section 3.2 “Invoking the Com-
piler”) with the -target-help option; (see Section 3.7.2.8 “print-devices”). A full
list of all devices is printed to the screen.
2.6.12 How Do I Know What Code the Compiler Is Producing?

The assembly list file (see Section 5.4 “Assembly List Files”) shows the assembly out-
put for almost the entire program, including library routines linked in to your program,
as well a large amount of the runtime startup code (see Section 4.10.2 “Runtime
Startup Code”). The list file is produced by default if you are using MPLAB X IDE. If you
are using the command-line, the option -Wa,-a will produce this file for you (see
Section 3.7.10 “Mapped Assembler Options”). The assembly list file will have a .lst
extension.
The list file shows assembly instructions, some assembly directives and information
about the program, such as the call graph (see Section 5.4.6 “Call Graph”), pointer
reference graph (see Section 5.4.5 “Pointer Reference Graph”), and information for
every function. Not all assembly directives are shown in the list file if the assembly
optimizers are enabled (they are produced in the intermediate assembly file).
Temporarily disable the assembly optimizers (see Section 3.7.6 “Options for
Controlling Optimization”), if you wish to see all the assembly directives produced by
the compiler.
2.6.13 How Can I Tell How Big a Function Is?

Information that includes the size of functions is presented in the map file. Look for the
header “MODULE INFORMATION” near the bottom of the file. This information is
discussed in Section 6.4.2.8 “Module Information”.

2.6.14 How Do I Know Which Resources Are Being Used by Each

Function?
In the assembly list file there is information printed for every C function, including library
functions (see Section 5.4 “Assembly List Files”). This information indicates what reg-
isters the function used, what functions it calls (this is also found in the call graph; see
Section 5.4.6 “Call Graph” and how many bytes of data memory it requires. Note that
auto, parameter and temporary variables used by a function can overlap with those
from other functions as these are placed in a compiled stack by the compiler (see
Section 4.5.2.2 “Automatic Storage Duration Objects”).
2.6.15 How Do I Find Out Where Variables and Functions Have Been
Positioned?
You can determine where variables and functions have been positioned from either the
assembly list file (see Section 5.4 “Assembly List Files”), or the map file (see
Section 6.4 “Map Files”). Only symbols associated with objects with static storage
duration are shown in the map file; all symbols (including those with automatic storage
duration) are listed in the assembly list file, but only for the code represented by that
list file. Each assembly module has its own list file.
There is a mapping between C identifiers and the symbols used in assembly code,
which are the symbols shown in both of these files (see Section 4.12.3.1 “Equivalent
Assembly Symbols”). The symbol associated with a variable is assigned the address
of the lowest byte of the variable; for functions it is the address of the first instruction
generated for that function.
2.6.16 Why Are Some Objects Positioned Into Memory That I

Reserved?
The memory reservation options (see Section 2.4.3.6 “How Do I Place a Function Into
a Unique Section?”) will adjust the range of addresses associated with classes used by
the linker. Most variables and function are placed into sections (see
Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects”) that are linked anywhere inside these
class ranges and so are affected by these reservation options.
Some sections are explicitly placed at an address rather than being linked anywhere in
an address range, e.g., the sections that holds the code to be executed at Reset is
always linked to address 0 because that is where the Reset location is defined to be for
8-bit devices. Such a section will not be affected by the -mrom option, even if you use
it to reserve memory address 0. Sections that hold code associated with Reset and
interrupts can be shifted using the -mcodeoffset option (see
Section 3.7.1.3 “codeoffset”).
Check the assembly list file (see Section 5.4 “Assembly List Files”) to determine the
names of sections that hold objects and code. Check the linker options in the map file
(see Section 6.4 “Map Files”), to see if psects have been linked explicitly or if they are
linked anywhere in a class. See also, the linker options -p (Section 6.2.18 “-Pspec”)
and -A (Section 6.2.1 “-Aclass =low-high,...”).

How To’s
2.6.17 How Do I Know How Much Memory Is Still Available?

Although the memory summary printed by the compiler after compilation (see
Section 3.7.12 “Mapped Linker Options” options), or the memory display available in
MPLAB X IDE both indicate the amount of memory used and the amount still available,
neither of these features indicate whether this memory is one contiguous block or bro-
ken into many small chunks. Small blocks of free memory cannot be used for larger
objects and so out-of-memory errors can be produced even though the total amount of
memory free is apparently sufficient for the objects to be positioned (see
Section 2.7.6 “How Do I Fix a “Can’t find space...” Error?”).
The “UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES” section (see Section 6.4.2.5 “Unused Address
Ranges”) in the map file indicates exactly what memory is still available in each linker
class. It also indicated the largest contiguous block in that class if there are memory
bank or page divisions.
2.6.18 How Do I Use Library Files in My Project?

See Section 2.3.5 “How Do I Build Libraries?” for information on how you build your
own library files. The compiler will automatically include any applicable standard library
into the build process when you compile, so you never need to control these files.
To use one or more library files that were built by yourself or a colleague, include them
in the list of files being compiled on the command line. The library files can be specified
in any position in the file list relative to the source files, but if there is more than one
library file, they will be searched in the order specified in the command line. For exam-
ple:
xc8-cc -mcpu=16f1937 main.c int.c lcd.a
If you are using MPLAB X IDE to build a project, add the library file(s) to the Libraries
folder that will shown in your project, in the order in which they should be searched. The
IDE will ensure that they are passed to the compiler at the appropriate point in the build
sequence.
2.6.19 What Optimizations Are Employed by the Compiler?

Optimizations are employed at both the C and assembly level of compilation. This is
described in Section 4.13 “Optimizations” and Section 5.3 “Assembly-Level Optimiza-
tions” respectively. The options that control optimization are described in
Section 3.7.6 “Options for Controlling Optimization”.
2.6.20 Why Do I Get Out-of-memory Errors When I Select a Debugger?

If you use a hardware tool debugger, such as the REAL ICE or ICD3, these require
memory for the on-board debug executive. When you select a debugger using the com-
piler’s -mdebugger option (Section 3.7.1.6 “debugger”), or the IDE equivalent, the
memory required for debugging is removed from that available to your project (see
Section 2.5.4 “What Do I Need to Do When Compiling to Use a Debugger?”).
2.6.21 How Do I Know Which Stack Model the Compiler Has Assigned
to a Function?
Look in the function information section in the assembly list file (see
Section 5.4.3 “Function Information”). The last line of this block will indicate whether
the function uses a reentrant or non-reentrant model.

2.6.22 How Do I Know What Value Has Been Programmed in the

Configuration Bits or ID Location?
Check the file startup.s (see Section 3.4.2 “Startup and Initialization”). This contains
the output of the #pragma config directive. You will see the numerical value pro-
grammed to the appropriate locations. In the following example, the configuration value
programmed is 0xFFBF. A breakdown of what this value means is also printed.
; Config register CONFIG @ 0x2007
; BOREN = OFF, BOR disabled
; ...
; PWRTE = 0x1, unprogrammed default
psect config
org 0x0
dw 0xFFBF

How To’s
2.7 FIXING CODE THAT DOES NOT WORK

This section examines issues relating to projects that do not build due to compiler
errors, or those that build, but do not work as expected.
• How Do I Find Out What an Warning/Error Message Means?
• How Do I Find the Code that Caused Compiler Errors or Warnings in My
Program?
• How Can I Stop Spurious Warnings From Being Produced?
• Why Can’t I Even Blink an LED?
• How Do I Know If the Hardware Stack Has Overflowed?
• How Do I Fix a “Can’t find space...” Error?
• How Do I Fix a “Can’t generate code...” Error?
• How Do I Fix a Fixup Overflow Error?
• What Can Cause Corrupted Variables and Code Failure When Using Interrupts?
2.7.1 How Do I Find Out What an Warning/Error Message Means?

Each warning or error message has a description and possibly sample code that might
trigger such an error, listed in the messages chapter (see Appendix B. Error and Warn-
ing Messages).
2.7.2 How Do I Find the Code that Caused Compiler Errors or

Warnings in My Program?
In most instances, where the error is a syntax error relating to the source code, the
message produced by the compiler indicates the offending line of code (see
Section 3.6 “Compiler Messages”). If you are compiling in MPLAB X IDE, then you can
double-click the message and have the editor take you to the offending line. But
identifying the offending code is not always so easy.
In some instances, the error is reported on the line of code following the line that needs
attention. This is because a C statement is allowed to extend over multiple lines of the
source file. It is possible that the compiler cannot be able to determine that there is an
error until it has started to scan to statement following. So in the following code
input = PORTB // oops - forgot the semicolon
if(input>6)
// ...
The missing semicolon on the assignment statement will be flagged on the following
line that contains the if() statement.
In other cases, the error might come from the assembler, not the code generator. If the
assembly code was derived from a C source file then the compiler will try to indicate
the line in the C source file that corresponds to the assembly that is at fault. If the
source being compiled is an assembly module, the error directly indicates the line of
assembly that triggered the error. In either case, remember that the information in the
error relates to some problem is the assembly code, not the C code.
Finally, there are errors that do not relate to any particular line of code at all. An error
in a compiler option or a linker error are examples of these. If the program defines too
many variables, there is no one particular line of code that is at fault; the program as a
whole uses too much data. Note that the name and line number of the last processed
file and source can be printed in some situations even though that code is not the direct
source of the error.
To determine the application that generated the error or warning, check the message
section of the manual, see Appendix B. Error and Warning Messages. At the top of
each message description, on the right in brackets, is the name of the application that

produced this message. Knowing the application that produced the error makes it eas-
ier to track down the problem. The compiler application names are indicated in
Section 3.3 “The Compilation Sequence”. If you need to see the assembly code gen-
erated by the compiler, look in the assembly list file (see Section 5.4 “Assembly List
Files”). For information on where the linker attempted to position objects, see the map
file discussed in Section 6.4 “Map Files”.
2.7.3 How Can I Stop Spurious Warnings From Being Produced?

Warnings indicate situations that could possibly lead to code failure. In many situations
the code is valid and the warning is superfluous. Always check your code to confirm
that it is not a possible source of error and in cases where this is so, there are several
ways that warnings can be hidden.
• The warning level threshold can be adjusted so that only warnings of a certain
importance are printed (see Section 3.6.4.1 “Disabling Messages”).
• All warnings with a specified ID can be inhibited.
• In some situations, a pragma can be used to inhibit a warning with a specified ID
for certain lines of source code (see Section 4.14.3.11 “The #pragma warning
Directive”).
2.7.4 Why Can’t I Even Blink an LED?

Even if you have set up the TRIS register and written a value to the port, there are
several things that can prevent such a seemingly simple program from working.
• Make sure that the device’s Configuration registers are set up correctly (see
Section 4.3.5 “Configuration Bit Access”). Make sure that you explicitly specify
every bit in these registers and don’t just leave them in their default state. All the
configuration features are described in your device data sheet. If the Configura-
tion bits that specify the oscillator source are wrong, for example, the device clock
cannot even be running.
• If the internal oscillator is being used, in addition to Configuration bits there can be
SFRs you need to initialize to set the oscillator frequency and modes, see
Section 4.3.7 “Using SFRs From C Code” and your device data sheet.
• Either turn off the Watch Dog Timer in the Configuration bits or clear the Watch
Dog Timer in your code (see Section Appendix A. “Library Functions”) so that the
device does not reset. If the device is resetting, it can never reach the lines of
code in your program that blink the LED. Turn off any other features that can
cause device Reset until your test program is working.
• The device pins used by the port bits are often multiplexed with other peripherals.
A pin might be connected to a bit in a port, or it might be an analog input, or it
might the output of a comparator, for example. If the pin connected to your LED is
not internally connected to the port you are using, then your LED will never oper-
ate as expected. The port function tables shown in your device data sheets will
show other uses for each pin that will help you identify peripherals to investigate.

How To’s
• Make sure you do not have a “read-modify-write” problem. If the device you are
using does not have a separate “latch” register (as is the case with mid-range PIC
devices) this problem can occur, particularly if the port outputs are driving large
loads, such as an LED. You can see that setting one bit turns off another or other
unusual events. Create your own latch by using a temporary variable. Rather than
read and write the port directly, make modifications to the latch variable. After
modifications are complete, copy the latch as a whole to the port. This means you
are never reading the port to modify it. Check the device literature for more
detailed information.
2.7.5 How Do I Know If the Hardware Stack Has Overflowed?

An 8-bit PIC device has a limited hardware stack that is used only for function (and
interrupt function) return addresses (see Section 4.3.4 “Stacks”). If the nesting of func-
tion calls and interrupts is too deep, the stack will overflow (wraps around and over-
writes previous entries). Code will then fail at a later point – sometimes much later in
the call sequence – when it accesses the corrupted return address.
The compiler attempts to track stack depth and, when required, swap to a method of
calling that does not need the hardware stack (PIC10/12/16 devices only). You have
some degree of control over what happens when the stack depth has apparently over-
flowed, see Section 3.7.1.22 “stackcall” for the -mstackcall option.
A call graph shows the call hierarchy and depth that the compiler has determined. This
graph is shown in the assembly list file. To understand the information in this graph, see
Section 5.4.6 “Call Graph”.
Since the runtime behavior of the program cannot be determined by the compiler, it can
only assume the worst case and can report that overflow is possible even though it is
not. However, no overflow should go undetected if the program is written entirely in C.
Assembly code that uses the stack is not considered by the compiler and this must be
taken into account.
2.7.6 How Do I Fix a “Can’t find space...” Error?

There are a number of different variants of this message, but all essentially imply a sim-
ilar situation. They all relate to there being no free space large enough to place a block
of data or instructions. Due to memory paging, banking or other fragmentation, this
message can be issued when seemingly there is enough memory remaining. See
Appendix B. Error and Warning Messages for more information on your particular error
number.
2.7.7 How Do I Fix a “Can’t generate code...” Error?

This is a catch-all message which is generated if the compiler has exhausted all possi-
ble means of compiling a C expression, see Appendix B. Error and Warning Messages.
It does not usually indicate a fault in your code. The inability to compile the code can
be a deficiency in the compiler, or an expression that requires more registers or
resources than are available at that point in the code. This is more likely to occur on
baseline devices. In any case, simplifying the offending expression, or splitting a state-
ment into several smaller statements, usually allows the compilation to continue. You
may need to use another variable to hold the intermediate results of complicated
expressions.

2.7.8 How Do I Fix a Fixup Overflow Error?

Fixup – the linker action of replacing a symbolic reference with an actual address – can
overflow if the address assigned to the symbol is too large to fit in the address field of
an assembly instruction. Most 8-bit PIC assembly instructions specify a file address
that is an offset into the currently selected memory bank. If a full unmasked address is
specified with these instructions, the linker will be unable to encode the large address
value into the instruction and this error will be generated. For example, a mid-range
device instruction only allows for file addresses in the range of 0 to 0x7F. However, if
such a device has 4 data banks of RAM, the addresses of variables can range from 0
to 0x1FF.
For example, if the symbol of a variable that will be located at address 0x1D0 has been
specified with one of these instructions, then when the symbol is replaced with its final
value, this value will not fit in the address field of the instruction.
Many of the jump and call instructions also take a destination operand that is a trun-
cated address. (The PIC18 call and goto instructions work with a full address, but the
branch and relative call instructions do not.) If the destination label to any of these
instructions is not masked, a fixup error can result.
The fixup process applies to the operands of assembler directives, as well as instruc-
tions; so if the operand to a directive overflows, a fixup error can also result. For
example, if the symbol error is resolved by the linker to be the value 0x238, the
directive:
DB error
which expects a byte value, will generate a fixup overflow error.
In most cases, fixup errors are caused by hand-written assembly code. When writing
assembly, it is the programmer’s responsibility to add instructions to select the destina-
tion bank or page, and then mask the address being used in the instruction (see
Section 2.4.7.5 “What Things Must I Manage When Writing Assembly Code?”).
In some situations assembly code generated from C code can produce a fixup overflow
message. Typically this will be related to jumps that are out of range. C switch state-
ments that have become too large can trigger such a message. Changing how a com-
piler-generated psect is linked can also cause fixup overflow, as the new psect location
may break an assumption made by the compiler.
It is important to remember that this is an issue with an assembly instruction, and that
you need to find the instruction at fault before you can proceed. See the relevant error
number in Appendix B. Error and Warning Messages for specific details about how to
track down the offending instruction.
2.7.9 What Can Cause Corrupted Variables and Code Failure When
Using Interrupts?
This is usually caused by having variables used by both interrupt and main-line code.
If the compiler optimizes access to a variable or access is interrupted by an interrupt
routine, then corruption can occur. See Section 2.5.6 “How Do I Share Data Between
Interrupt and Main-line Code?” for more information.

Chapter 3. XC8-CC Command-line Driver
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The name of the MPLAB XC8 command-line driver is xc8-cc. This driver can be
invoked to perform all aspects of compilation, including C code generation, assembly,
and link steps, and is the recommended way to use the compiler, as it hides the com-
plexity of all the internal applications and provides a consistent interface for all compi-
lation steps. Even if an IDE is used to assist with compilation, the IDE will ultimately call
xc8-cc.
If you are building a legacy project or would prefer to use the old command-line driver
and its command-line options, you may instead run the xc8 driver application. It’s use
is described in its own user’s guide, MPLAB® XC8 C Compiler User’s Guide, which also
covers the C90 aspect of compilation.
This chapter describes the steps that the driver takes during compilation, the files that
the driver can accept and produce, as well as the command-line options that control
the compiler’s operation.
The following topics are examined in this chapter of the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler User’s
Guide:
• Invoking the Compiler
• The Compilation Sequence
• Runtime Files
• Compiler Output
• Compiler Messages
• Option Descriptions

3.2 INVOKING THE COMPILER

This section explains how to invoke xc8-cc on the command line, as well as the files
that it can read.
3.2.1 Driver Command-line Format

The xc8-cc driver has the following basic command format:
xc8-cc [options] files [libraries]
Throughout this manual, it is assumed that the compiler applications are in the con-
sole’s search path (see Section 3.2.2 “Driver Environment Variables”) or that the full
path is specified when executing an application.
It is customary to declare options (identified by a leading dash “-” or double dash
“--”) before the files’ names. However, this is not mandatory.
The formats of the options are supplied in Section 3.7 “Option Descriptions” along with
corresponding descriptions of the options.
The files can be an assortment of C and assembler source files and precompiled
intermediate files. While the order in which these files are listed is not important, it can
affect the allocation of code or data and can affect the names of some of the output
files.
Libraries is a list of user-defined library files that will be searched by the compiler,
in addition to the standard C libraries. The order of these files will determine the order
in which they are searched. It is customary to insert the Libraries list after the list of
source file names. However, this is not mandatory.
If you are building code using a make system, familiarity with the unique intermediate
p-code file format (described in Section 3.3.3 “Multi-Step Compilation”), is
recommended. Object files are seldom used with the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler, unless
assembly source modules are in the project.
3.2.1.1 LONG COMMAND LINES

The xc8-cc driver can be passed a command-line file containing driver options and
arguments to circumvent any operating-system-imposed limitation on command line
length.
A command file is specified by the @ symbol, which should be immediately followed
(i.e., no intermediate space character) by the name of the file containing the arguments.
This same system of argument passing can be used by most of the internal applications
called by the compiler driver.
Inside the file, each argument must be separated by one or more spaces and can
extend over several lines. The file can contain blank lines, which will be ignored.
The following is the content of a command file, xyz.xc8 for example, that was con-
structed in a text editor and that contains the options and the file names required to
compile a project.
-mcpu=16F877A -Wl,-Map=proj.map -Wa,-a \
-O2 main.c isr.c
After this file is saved, the compiler can be invoked with the following command:
xc8-cc @xyz.xc8
Command files can be used as a simple alternative to a make file and utility, and can
conveniently store compiler options and source file names.
3.2.2 Driver Environment Variables

No environment variables are defined or required by the compiler for it to execute.

XC8-CC Command-line Driver
Adjusting the PATH environment variable allows you to run the compiler driver without
having to specify the full compiler path.
This variable can be automatically updated when installing the compiler by selecting
the Add xc8 to the path environment variable checkbox in the appropriate dialog.
Note that the directories specified by the PATH variable are only used to locate the com-
piler driver. Once the driver is running, it will manage access to the internal compiler
applications, such as the assembler and linker, etc.
The MPLAB X IDE allows the compiler to be selected via the Project properties dialog
without the need for the PATH variable.
3.2.3 Input File Types

The xc8-cc driver accepts a number of input file types, which are distinguished by the
file’s extension. Recognized input file extensions are listed in Table 3-1.
TABLE 3-1: INPUT FILE TYPES

Extension File format
.c C source file
.i Preprocessed C source file
.p1 p-code file
.s Assembler source file
.S or .sx Assembly source file requiring preprocessing
.o Relocatable object code file
.a Relocatable p-code or object library file
.hex Intel HEX file
other A file to be passed to the linker
There are no compiler restrictions imposed on the names of source files, but be aware
of case, name-length, and other restrictions that are imposed by your operating sys-
tem.
Avoid using the same base name for assembly and C source files, even if they are
located in different directories, and avoid having source files with the same basename
as the MPLAB X IDE project name.

3.3 THE COMPILATION SEQUENCE

When you compile a project, many internal applications are called to do the work. This
section looks at when these internal applications are executed, and how this relates to
the build process of multiple source files. This section should be of particular interest if
you are using a make system to build projects.
3.3.1 The Compiler Applications

The main internal compiler applications and files are illustrated in Figure 3-1.
The large shaded box represents the compiler, which is controlled by the command line
driver, xc8-cc. You might be satisfied just knowing that C source files (shown on the
far left) are passed to the compiler and the resulting output files (shown here as a HEX
and ELF debug file on the far right) are produced; however, internally there are many
applications and temporary files being produced. An understanding of the internal oper-
ation of the compiler, while not necessary, does assist with using the tool.
The driver will call the required compiler applications when required. These applica-
tions are located in the compiler’s bin directories and are shown in the diagram as the
smaller boxes inside the driver. The temporary files produced by each application can
also be seen in this diagram and are marked at the point in the compilation sequence
where they are generated. The intermediate files for C source are shaded in red. Some
of these temporary files remain after compilation has concluded. There are also driver
options to request that the compilation sequence halt after execution of a particular
application so that the output of that application remains in a file and can be examined.
FIGURE 3-1: COMPILER APPLICATIONS AND FILES

assembly
p-code p-code source
.a .p1 .s .sx
libraries files files
Command-line driver
processed files p-code assembly
(modules) files file preprocessor
C source .i .p1 .s
files
.c code
cod
preprocessor
preproc
cessorr parser
pars
ser assembler
assem
mbler
gener
rator
generator
debug
.i file
preprocessed crom
cromwell
m .elf
C source
files
linker objtohex
objto hex
hexmate
hexm .hex
.o .o .hex
hex file
relocatable absolute hex file
object file object file
relocatable .o .a object hex .hex

object files libraries files
It is recommended that only the hexmate (hexmate) and librarian (xc8-ar) internal
applications be executed directly. Their command-line options are described in Chapter
7. Utilities.

3.3.2 Single-Step Compilation

Compilation of one or more source files can be performed in just one step using the
xc8-cc driver.
The following command will build both the C source files and the assembly source file
listed, passing these files to the appropriate internal applications, then link the gener-
ated code to form the final output.
xc8-cc -mcpu=16F877A main.c io.c mdef.s
The driver will compile all source files, regardless of whether they have changed since
the last build. Development environments (such as MPLAB® X IDE) and make utilities
must be employed to achieve incremental builds (see Section 3.3.3 “Multi-Step Com-
pilation”).
Unless otherwise specified, a HEX file and ELF file are produced as the final output.
The intermediate files remain after compilation has completed, but most other tempo-
rary files are deleted, unless you use the -save_temps option (see
Section 3.7.5.3 “save-temps”) which preserves all generated files except the run-time
start-up file. Note that some generated files can be in a different directory than your
project source files (see also Section 3.7.2.3 “o: Specify Output File”).
3.3.3 Multi-Step Compilation

A multi-step compilation method can be employed to achieve an incremental build of
your project. Make utilities take note of which source files have changed since the last
build and only rebuild these files to speed up compilation. From within MPLAB X IDE,
you can select an incremental build (Build Project icon), or fully rebuild a project (Clean
and Build Project icon).
Make utilities typically call the compiler multiple times: once for each source file to gen-
erate an intermediate file and once to perform the second stage compilation.
The option -c (see Section 3.7.2.1 “c: Compile to Intermediate File”) is used to create
an intermediate file. The option stops compilation after the parser has executed, and
the resulting p-code output file will have a .p1 extension. Always use p-code files as
the intermediate file format if you are using a make system to build projects.
The intermediate files are then specified to the driver during the second stage of com-
pilation, when they will be passed to the code generator and linked.
The first two of the following command lines build an intermediate file for each C source
file, then these intermediate files are passed to the driver again to complete the com-
pilation in the last command.
xc8-cc -mcpu=16F877A -c main.c
xc8-cc -mcpu=16F877A -c io.c
xc8-cc -mcpu=16F877A main.p1 io.p1
As with any compiler, all the files that constitute the project must be present when per-
forming the second stage of compilation.
You might also wish to generate intermediate files to construct your own library files.
See Section 7.2 “Librarian” for more information on library creation.

3.3.4 Compilation of Assembly Source

Assembly files are compiled in a similar way to C source files; however these files are
built first so that information contained in the assembly code can be subsequently
passed to the code generator, see Section 4.12.3 “Interaction between Assembly and
C Code”.
If you wish to use the C preprocessor to parser an assembly source file for preproces-
sor directives, ensure the source file uses a .S or .sx extension, for example
init.sx.
The intermediate file format associated with assembly source files is an object file (.o
extension). The -c option (see Section 3.7.2.1 “c: Compile to Intermediate File”) will
halt compilation after the assembly step when building assembly source files, generat-
ing the object file.

3.4 RUNTIME FILES

In addition to the C and assembly source files specified on the command line, there are
also compiler-generated source files and pre-compiled library files that the compiler
can link into your project. These files are discussed in the following sections.
3.4.1 Library Files

The names of the C standard library files appropriate for the selected target device are
determined by the driver and passed to the code generator and linker. You do not need
to manually include library files into your project.
Most library routines are derived from p-code library files, which the compiler will
search for in the pic/lib/c99 or pic/lib/c90 directory under the compiler instal-
lation directory, based on your language standard selection.
The standard libraries are named family-type-options.a, where the following
apply.
• family can be pic18 for PIC18 devices, or pic for all other 8-bit PIC devices
• type indicates the sort of library functionality provided and can be stdlib for the
standard library functions, or trace, etc.
• options indicates hyphen-separated names to indicate variants of the library to
accommodate different compiler options or modes, e.g., htc for the default flavor
of C used by MPLAB XC8, d32 for 32-bit doubles, sp for space optimizations etc.
For example, the standard library for baseline and midrange devices using 24-bit
double types is pic-stdlib-d24-sz.a.
For more information on libraries, see Section 4.11 “Libraries”.
3.4.2 Startup and Initialization

A file containing the runtime startup code is generated by the compiler each time you
build, and it is automatically linked into your project. Section 4.10.2 “Runtime Startup
Code” details the specific actions taken by this code and how it interacts with programs
you write.
Rather than the traditional method of linking in a generic, precompiled routine, the
MPLAB XC8 C Compiler determines what runtime startup code is required from the
user’s program and then generates this code each time you build.
The default operation of the driver is to keep the startup module; however, you can ask
that it be deleted by using the option -mno-keep-startup (see
Section 3.7.1.13 “no-keep-startup”). If you are using the MPLAB X IDE to build, the file
will be deleted unless you indicate otherwise in the Project Properties dialog.
If the startup module is kept, it will be called startup.s and will be located in the cur-
rent working directory. If you are using an IDE to perform the compilation, the
destination directory will be dictated by the IDE. MPLAB X IDE stores this file in the
dist/default/production|debug directory in your project directory.
Generation of the runtime startup code is an automatic process that does not require
any user interaction; however, some aspects of the runtime code can be controlled, if
required, using the -Wl,-no-data-init option. Section 3.7.12 “Mapped Linker
Options” describes the use of this option.
The runtime startup code is executed before main(). However, if you require any spe-
cial initialization to be performed immediately after Reset, you should use the powerup
feature described later in Section 4.10.3 “The Powerup Routine”.

3.5 COMPILER OUTPUT

There are many files created by the compiler during the compilation. A large number of
these are temporary files. Many are deleted after compilation is complete, but same
remain and are used for programming the device, or for debugging purposes.
Note: Throughout this manual, the term project name will refer to either the name
of the project created in the IDE, or the base name (file name without
extension) of the first C source file specified on the command line.
3.5.1 Output Files

The default behavior of xc8-cc is to produce an ELF and Intel HEX output. Unless
changed by the -o option (see Section 3.7.2.3 “o: Specify Output File”), the base
names of these files will be the project name. The common output file types are shown
inTable 3-2.
TABLE 3-2: COMMON OUTPUT FILES

Extension Type and option to create
.hex Intel HEX file
.elf ELF/Dwarf, generated by default or by -gdwarf-3
.cof COFF, generated by -gcoff
.o Relocatable object file, produced by-c
.s Assembly file, produced by -S
.i Preprocessed C file, produced by -E
The default output file types can be explicitly controlled by the -gcoff and
-gdwarf-3 options, which generate a COFF and ELF file format as output, respec-
tively (described in Section 3.7.5.2 “g: Produce debugging information”).The
ELF/DWARF file is used by debuggers to obtain debugging information about the proj-
ect and allows for more accurate debugging compared to the COFF format. The IDE
will typically request the compiler to produce an ELF file.
The default names of temporary files use the same base name as the source file from
which they were derived. For example, the source file input.c will create a p-code file
called input.p1.
3.5.2 Diagnostic Files

Two valuable files produced by the compiler are the assembly list file generated by the
assembler, and the map file generated by the linker. These are generated by options,
shown in Table 3-3.
TABLE 3-3: DIAGNOSTIC FILES

File format Type and option used
file.lst Assembly list file, produced by -Wa,-a=file.lst
file.map Map file, produced by -Wl,-Map=file.map

3.6 COMPILER MESSAGES

All compiler applications use textual messages to report feedback during the compila-
tion process. A centralized messaging system is used by most applications to produce
the messages; however the Clang front end, used when compiling for C99 projects,
currently bypasses this system and is not controlled by the features described in the
following sections.
A list of warning and error messages can be found in Appendix B. Error and Warning
Messages.
3.6.1 Messaging Overview

Messages produced by applications (excluding Clang) are referenced by a unique
number. The messaging system takes the message number requested by the applica-
tion that needs to convoy the information and determines the corresponding message
type and string from one of several Message Description Files (MDF), which are stored
in the pic/dat directory in the compiler’s installation directory.
A message is referenced by a unique number that is passed to the messaging system
by the compiler application that needs to convey the information. The message string
corresponding to this number is obtained from Message Description Files (MDF), which
are stored in the dat directory in the compiler’s installation directory.
When a message is requested by a compiler application, its number is looked up in the
MDF that corresponds to the currently selected language. The language of messages
can be altered (see Section 3.6.2 “Message Type”).
Once found, the alert system can read the message type and the string to be displayed
from the MDF. Several different message types are described in
Section 3.6.2 “Message Type” and the type can be overridden by the user, as
described in that same section.
The user is also able to set a threshold for warning message importance, so that only
those that the user considers significant will be displayed. In addition, messages with
a particular number can be disabled. A pragma can also be used to disable a particular
message number within specific lines of code. These methods are explained in
Section 3.6.4.1 “Disabling Messages”.
Provided the message is enabled and it is not a warning message whose level is below
the current warning threshold, the message string obtained from the MDF will be dis-
played.
In addition to the actual message string, there are several other pieces of information
that can be displayed, such as the message number, the name of the file for which the
message is applicable, the file’s line number and the application that issued the
message, etc.
If a message is an error, a counter is incremented. After a specific amount of errors has
been reached, compilation of the current module will cease. The default number of
errors that will cause this termination can be adjusted by using the -fmax-errors
option, (see Section 3.7.4.1 “max-errors”). This counter is reset for each internal com-
piler application, thus specifying a maximum of five errors will allow up to five errors
from the parser, five from the code generator, five from the linker, five from the driver,
etc.
Although the information in the MDF can be modified with any text editor, this is not rec-
ommended. Message behavior should only be altered using the options and pragmas
described in the following sections.

3.6.2 Message Type

There are four types of messages. These are described below. The behavior of the
compiler when encountering a message of each type is also listed.
Advisory Messages convey information regarding a situation the compiler has
encountered or some action the compiler is about to take.
The information is being displayed “for your interest,” and
typically requires no action to be taken. Compilation will
continue as normal after such a message is issued.
Warning Messages indicate source code or some other situation that can be
compiled, but is unusual and may lead to runtime failures of
the code. The code or situation that triggered the warning
should be investigated; however, compilation of the current
module will continue, as will compilation of any remaining
modules.
Error Messages indicate source code that is illegal or that compilation of this
code cannot take place. Compilation will be attempted for
the remaining source code in the current module, but no
additional modules will be compiled and the compilation
process will then conclude.
Fatal Error Messages indicate a situation in which the compilation cannot proceed
and requires that the compilation process to stop
immediately.
3.6.3 Message Format

By default, messages are printed in a human-readable format. This format can vary
from one internal application to another, since each application reports information
about different file formats.
Some applications (for example, the parser) are typically able to pinpoint the area of
interest down to a position on a particular line of C source code, whereas other appli-
cations, such as the linker, can at best only indicate a module name and record number,
which is less directly associated with any particular line of code. Some messages relate
to issues in driver options that are in no way associated with the source code.
The format of messages produced by the Clang front end cannot be changed, but the
following information is still relevant for the other compiler applications.
The compiler can use environment variables to whose values are used as a template
for all messages produced by all compiler applications. The names of these environ-
ment variables are given in Table 3-4.
TABLE 3-4: MESSAGING ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES

Variable Effect
HTC_MSG_FORMAT All advisory messages
HTC_WARN_FORMAT All warning messages
HTC_ERR_FORMAT All error and fatal error messages

The value of these environment variables are strings that are used as templates for the
message format. Printf-like placeholders can be placed within the string to allow the
message format to be customized. The placeholders, and what they represent, are
presented in Table 3-5.
TABLE 3-5: MESSAGING PLACEHOLDERS

Placeholder Replacement
%a Application name
%c Column number
%f Filename
%l Line number
%n Message number
%s Message string (from MDF)
If these options are used in a DOS batch file, two percent characters will need to be
used to specify the placeholders, as DOS interprets a single percent character as an
argument and will not pass this on to the compiler. For example:
SET HTC_ERR_FORMAT="file %%f: line %%l"
3.6.4 Changing Message Behavior

The attributes of messages produced by the Clang front end cannot be changed, but
the following driver options and C pragmas are still relevant for the other compiler appli-
cations.
3.6.4.1 DISABLING MESSAGES

Each numbered warning message has a default number indicating a level of impor-
tance. This number is specified in the MDF and ranges from -9 to 9. The higher the
number, the more important the warning.
Warning messages can be disabled by adjusting the warning level threshold using the
-mwarn driver option, (see Section 3.7.4.2 “warn”). Any warnings whose level is below
that of the current threshold are not displayed. Warnings from Clang cannot be dis-
abled.
The default threshold is 0 which implies that only warnings with a warning level of 0 or
higher will be displayed by default. The information in this option is propagated to all
compiler applications, so its effect will be observed during all stages of the compilation
process.
All warnings can be disabled using the -w option.
Note: Disabling error or warning messages in no way fixes the condition that
triggered the message. Always use extreme caution when exercising these
options.
3.6.4.2 CHANGING MESSAGE TYPES

It is also possible to change the type of some messages. This can only be done for
messages generated by the parser or code generator. See Section 4.14.3.11 “The
#pragma warning Directive” for more information on this pragma.

3.7 OPTION DESCRIPTIONS

Most aspects of the compilation can be controlled using the command-line driver,
xc8-cc. The driver will configure and execute all required applications, such as the
code generator, assembler and linker.
Many options follow a GCC style; however, the compiler is not based on GCC and you
cannot use any other GCC options that are not documented here. Many of the old-style
xc8 driver options (described in the MPLAB® XC8 C Compiler User’s Guide
Ds50002053) can be used with the xc8-cc if there is no GCC-style option equivalent
listed.
All options are identified by single or double leading dash character, e.g. -c or
--version.
Use the --help option, Section 3.7.2.7 “help”, to obtain a brief description of accepted
options on the command line.
If you are compiling from within the MPLAB X IDE, it will by default issue explicit options
to the compiler specified by the default selections in the Project Properties dialog, and
these options can be different to those used by the compiler when running on the com-
mand line with no options specified.
If you are compiling the same project from the command line and from the MPLAB X
IDE, always check that you explicitly specify each option.
The following categories of options are described.
• Options Specific to PIC Devices
• Options for Controlling the Kind of Output
• Options for Controlling the C Dialect
• Options for Controlling Warnings and Errors
• Options for Debugging
• Options for Controlling Optimization
• Options for Controlling the Preprocessor
• Options for Assembling
• Options for Linking
• Options for Directory Search
• Options for Code Generation Conventions

3.7.1 Options Specific to PIC Devices

The options shown in Table 3-6 are useful when compiling for 8-bit Microchip PIC
devices with the MPLAB XC8 compiler and are discussed in the sections that follow.
TABLE 3-6: MACHINE-SPECIFIC OPTIONS

Option Controls
-maddrqual=action How the compiler will respond to storage qualifiers
-mchecksum=specs The generation and placement of a checksum or hash
-mcodeoffset=offset The offset applied to reset and interrupt vectors
-m[no-]config Whether the device will be programmed with default configu-
ration bit values
-mcpu=device The target device that code will be built for
-mdebugger=type Which debugger will be in use when executing the code
-mdfp=path Which device family pack to use
-m[no-]download How the final HEX file is conditioned
-memi=mode The external memory interface that will be used
-merrata=type Which workarounds to errata will be applied by the compiler
-m[no-]ivt=address The interrupt vector table selected at startup
-mmaxichip Use of a hypothetical device with full memory
-mno-keep-startup Whether the runtime startup source is deleted after compila-
tion
-m[no-]osccal Whether the oscillator will be calibrated
-moscval=value The oscillator calibration value
-mram=ranges Data memory that is available for the program
-mreserve=ranges What memory should be reserved
-m[no-]resetbits Whether the device status bits should be preserved
-mrom=ranges Program memory that is available for the program
-mshroud Whether the output file should obfuscate the source code
-mstack=model[:size] Which data stack will be used by default
-m[no-]stackcall Whether functions can be called via lookup tables
-msummary=types What memory summary information is produced
-mundefints=action How the compiler completes unimplemented interrupts
-m[no-]use-ivt see -m[no-]ivt

3.7.1.1 ADDRQUAL
The -maddrqual=action option indicates the compiler’s response to non-standard
memory qualifiers in C source code, as shown in Table 3-7.
TABLE 3-7: COMPILER RESPONSES TO MEMORY QUALIFIERS

Action Response
require The qualifiers will be honored. If they cannot be met, an error will be
issued.
request The qualifiers will be honored, if possible. No error will be generated if they
cannot be followed.
ignore The qualifiers will be ignored and code compiled as if they were not used.
reject If the qualifiers are encountered, an error will be immediately generated.
The __near qualifier is affected by this option. On PIC18 devices, this option affects
the __far qualifier; and for other 8-bit devices, the __bank(x) qualifier. By default,
these qualifiers are ignored; i.e., they are accepted without error, but have no effect.
Using this option allows these qualifiers to be interpreted differently by the compiler.
For example, when using the option -maddrqual=request, the compiler will try to
honor any non-standard qualifiers, but silently ignore them if they cannot be met.
3.7.1.2 CHECKSUM
The -mchecksum=specs option will calculate a hash value (for example checksum or
CRC) over the address range specified and stores the result at the indicated destina-
tion address. The general form of this option is as follows.
-mchecksum=start-end@destination[,specifications]
The following specifications are appended as a comma-separated list to this option.
TABLE 3-8: CHECKSUM ARGUMENTS

Argument Description
width=n Selects the width of the hash result in bytes for non-Fletcher
algorithms. A negative width will store the result in little-endian
byte order; positive widths in big-endian order. Result widths
from one to four bytes are permitted.
offset=nnnn Specifies an initial value or offset added to the checksum.
algorithm=n Selects one of the hash algorithms implemented in HEXMATE.
The selectable algorithms are described in Table 7-3.
polynomial=nn Selects the polynomial value when using CRC algorithms
code=nn Specifies a hexadecimal code that will trail each byte in the
result. This can allow each byte of the result to be embedded
within an instruction, for example code=34 will embed the
result in a retlw instruction on mid-range devices.
The start, end and destination attributes are, by default, hexadecimal constants.
The addresses defining the input range are typically made multiples of the algorithm
width. If this is not the case, zero bytes will pad any missing input word locations.
If an accompanying --fill option (Section 3.7.11.8 “fill”) has not been specified,
unused locations within the specified address range will be automatically filled with
0xFFF for baseline devices, 0x3FFF for mid-range devices, or 0xFFFF for PIC18
devices. This is to remove any unknown values from the calculations and ensure the
accuracy of the result.
For example:
-mchecksum=800-fff@20,width=1,algorithm=2

will calculate a 1-byte checksum from address 0x800 to 0xfff and store this at address
0x20. A 16-bit addition algorithm will be used. Table 3-9 shows the available algorithms
and Section 7.3.2 “Hash Functions” describes these in detail.
TABLE 3-9: CHECKSUM ALGORITHM SELECTION

Selector Algorithm description
-5 Reflected cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
-4 Subtraction of 32 bit values from initial value
1 Addition of 8 bit values from initial value
5 Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
7 Fletcher’s checksum (8 bit calculation, 2-byte result width)
The hash calculations are performed by the HEXMATE application. The information in
this driver option is passed to the HEXMATE application when it is executed.
3.7.1.3 CODEOFFSET
The -mcodeoffset=offset option shifts the reset and interrupt vector locations up
in memory by the specified offset, and prevents code and data from using memory up
to this offset address. This operation is commonly required when writing bootloaders.
The address is assumed to be a hexadecimal constant. A leading 0x, or a trailing h
hexadecimal specifier can be used but is not necessary.
For example, the option -mcodeoffset=600 will move the reset vector from address
0 to 0x600; and move the interrupt vector from address 4 to 0x604, in the case of
mid-range PIC devices, or to the addresses 0x608 and 0x618 for PIC18 devices. No
code or data will be placed at the addresses 0 thru 0x5FF.
As the reset and interrupt vector locations are at fixed addresses in the PIC device, it
is the programmer’s responsibility to provide code that can redirect control from the
actual vector locations to the reset and interrupt routines in there offset location.
This option differs from the -mreserve option in that it will also move the code asso-
ciated with the reset and interrupt vectors (see Section 3.7.1.17 “reserve”).
3.7.1.4 CONFIG
The -mconfig option can be used to have the compiler program default values for
those configuration bits that have not been specified in the code using the config
pragma. This option can only be used when programming PIC18 devices. The alter-
nate form of this option is -mdefault-config-bits.
The default operation is to not program unspecified bits, and this can be made explicit
using the option -mno-config (-mno-default-config-bits).

3.7.1.5 CPU
The -mcpu=device option must be used to specify the target device for the compila-
tion. This is the only option that is mandatory when compiling code.
For example -mcpu=18f6722 will select the PIC18F6722 device. To see a list of sup-
ported devices that can be used with this option, use the --mprint-devices option
(Section 3.7.2.8 “print-devices”).
3.7.1.6 DEBUGGER
The --mdebugger=type option is intended for use for compatibility with development
tools that can act as a debugger. xc8-cc supports several debuggers and these are
defined in Table 3-10.
TABLE 3-10: SELECTABLE DEBUGGERS

Type Debugger selected
none No debugger (default)
icd2 MPLAB® ICD 2
icd3 MPLAB ICD 3
pickit2 PICkit™ 2
pickit3 PICkit 3
realice MPLAB REAL ICE™ in-circuit emulator
For example:
xc8-cc -mcpu=16F877AA -mdebugger=icd3 main.c
will ensure that none of the source code is allocated resourced that would be used by
the debug executive for an MPLAB ICD 3.
Failing to select the appropriate debugger can lead to runtime failure.
If the debugging features of the development tool are not to be used (for example, if the
MPLAB ICD 3 is only being used as a programmer), then the debugger option can be
set to none, because memory resources are not being used by the tool.
MPLAB X IDE will automatically apply this option for debug builds once you have
indicated the hardware tool in the Project Preferences.
3.7.1.7 DFP
The -mdfp=path option specifies an alternate the path to use for the device family
pack. This option is required if you have installed new device family packs on your host
machine.
3.7.1.8 DOWNLOAD
The -mdownload option conditions the Intel HEX for use by bootloader. The
-mdownload-hex option is equivalent in effect.
When used, this option will pad data records in the Intel HEX file to 16-byte lengths and
will align them on 16-byte boundaries. The compiler-generated startup code will not
assume that certain registers hold their reset values.
The default operation is to not modify the HEX file, and this can be made explicit using
the option -mno-download. (-mno-download-hex)

3.7.1.9 EMI
The -memi=mode option allows you to select the mode used by the external memory
interface available on some PIC18 devices.
The interface can operate in a 16-bit word-write or byte-select mode; or in an 8-bit
byte-write mode, and which are represented in Table 3-11.
TABLE 3-11: EXTERNAL MEMORY INTERFACE MODES

Mode Operation
wordwrite 16-bit word-write mode (default)
byteselect 16-bit byte-select mode
bytewrite 8-bit byte-write mode
For example, the option -memi=bytewrite will select the 8-bit byte-write mode.
The selected mode will affect the code generated when writing to the external data
interface. In word write mode, dummy reads and writes can be added to ensure that an
even number of bytes are always written. In byte-select or byte-write modes, dummy
reads and writes are not generated and can result in more efficient code.
Note that this option does not pre-configure the device for the selected mode. Your
device data sheet will indicate the settings required in your code.
3.7.1.10 ERRATA
The -merrata=type option allows specification of software workarounds to docu-
mented silicon errata issues. A default set of errata apply to each device, but this set
can be adjusted by using this option and the arguments presented in Table 3-12.
TABLE 3-12: ERRATA WORKAROUNDS

Type # Workaround
4000 0 Program memory accesses/jumps across 4000h address boundary
fastints 1 Fast interrupt shadow registers corruption
lfsr 2 Broken LFSR instruction
minus40 3 Program memory reads at -40 degrees
reset 4 goto instruction cannot exist at Reset vector
bsr15 5 Flag problems when BSR holds value 15
daw 6 Broken DAW instruction
eedatard 7 Read EEDAT in immediate instruction after RD set
eeadr 8 Don't set RD bit immediately after loading EEADR
ee_lvd 9 LVD must stabilize before writing EEPROM
fl_lvd 10 LVD must stabilize before writing Flash
tblwtint 11 Clear interrupt registers before tblwt instruction
fw4000 12 Flash write exe must act on opposite side of 4000h boundary
resetram 13 RAM contents can corrupt if async. Reset occurs during write access
fetch 14 Corruptible instruction fetch. – applies FFFFh (NOP) at required locations
clocksw 15 Code corruption if switching to external oscillator clock source – applies
switch to HFINTOSC high-power mode first
branch 16 The PC might become invalid when restoring from an interrupt during a
BRA or BRW instruction — avoids branch instructions
brknop2 17 Hardware breakpoints might be affected by BRA instruction — avoids
branching to the following location
nvmreg 18 The program will access data flash rather than program flash memory
after a reset — adjusts the NVMCON register

At present, workarounds are mainly employed for PIC18 devices, but the clocksw and
branch errata are only applicable for some enhanced mid-range devices.
To disable all software workarounds, use the following.
-merrata=none
To maintain all the default workarounds but disable the jump across 4000 errata, for
example, use the following:
-merrata=default,-4000
The value assigned to the preprocessor macro _ERRATA_TYPES (see
Section 4.14.2 “Predefined Macros”) indicates the errata applied. Each errata listed in
Table 3-12 represents one bit position in the macro’s value, with the topmost errata in
the table being the least significant. That bit position in the _ERRATA_TYPES macro is
set if the corresponding errata is applied. The header file <errata.h> contains defi-
nitions for each errata value, for example ERRATA_4000 and ERRATA_FETCH, which
can be compared with the compiler-defined _ERRATA_TYPES macro.
3.7.1.11 IVT
The -mivt=address option selects the interrupt vector table that will be used at the
beginning of program execution for those PIC18 devices that implement interrupt vec-
tor tables.
The address argument specified is written to the IVTBASE register during startup, for
example, -mivt=0x200 will select the interrupt vector table whose base address is at
200h. This table would need to have been populated with vectors by the interrupt rou-
tine definitions in your source code (see Section 4.9.1 “Writing an Interrupt Service
Routine”). The default operation is to leave the vector table at address 0x8 and this can
be made explicit using the option -mno-ivt.
3.7.1.12 MAXICHIP
The -mmaxichip option tells the compiler to build for a hypothetical device with the
same physical core and peripherals as the selected device, but with the maximum
allowable memory resources permitted by the device family. You might use this option
if your program does not fit in your intended target device and you wish to get an indi-
cation of the code or data size reductions needed to be able to program that device.
The compiler will normally terminate compilation if the selected device runs out of pro-
gram memory, data memory, or EEPROM. When using this option, the program mem-
ory of PIC18 and mid-range devices will be maximized to extend from address 0 to
either the bottom of external memory or the maximum address permitted by the PC reg-
ister, whichever is lower. The program memory of baseline parts is maximized from
address 0 to the lower address of the Configuration Words.
The number of data memory banks is expanded to the maximum number of selectable
banks as defined by the BSR register (for PIC18 devices), RP bits in the STATUS reg-
ister (for mid-range devices), or the bank select bits in the FSR register (for baseline
devices). The amount of RAM in each additional bank is equal to the size of the largest
contiguous memory area within the physically implemented banks.
EEPROM is only maximized if the device implements this memory. If present,
EEPROM is maximized to a size dictated by the number of bits in the EEADR register.
If required, check the map file (see Section 6.4 “Map Files”) to see the size and
arrangement of the memory available when using this option with your device.
Note: When using the -mmaxichip option, you are not compiling for a real
device. The generated code may not load or execute in simulators or the
selected device. This option will not allow you to fit extra code into a device.

3.7.1.13 NO-KEEP-STARTUP
The -mno-keep-startup option deletes the startup assembly module remains after
compilation. By default, this file is not deleted.
3.7.1.14 OSCCAL
The -mosccal option can be used to calibrate the oscillator for some PIC10/12/16
devices.
When using this option, the compiler will generate code which will calibrate the oscilla-
tor using the calibration constant preprogrammed in the device. The option
-mno-osccal will omit the code that performs this initialization from the runtime
startup code.
3.7.1.15 OSCVAL
The -moscval=value option allows you to specify the value that will be used to cali-
brate the oscillator for some PIC10/12/16 devices.
The calibration value is usually preprogrammed into your device; however this option
allows you to specify an alternate value, or the original value if has been erased from
the device. The option -moscval=55 would ensure that the value 55h is loaded to the
oscillator calibration register at startup (see Section 4.3.11 “Oscillator Calibration Con-
stants”).
3.7.1.16 RAM
The -mram=ranges option is used to adjust the data memory that is specified for the
target device. Without this option, all the on-chip RAM implemented by the device is
available, thus this option only needs be used if there are special memory require-
ments. Specifying additional memory that is not in the target device might result in a
successful compilation, but can lead to code failures at runtime.
For example, to specify an additional range of memory to that already present on-chip,
use:
-mram=default,+100-1ff
This will add the range from 100h to 1ffh to the on-chip memory. To only use an external
range and ignore any on-chip memory, use:
-mram=0-ff
This option can also be used to reserve memory ranges already defined as on-chip
memory in the chipinfo file. To do this, supply a range prefixed with a minus character,
-, for example:
-mram=default,-100-103
will use all the defined on-chip memory, but not use the addresses in the range from
100h to 103h for allocation of RAM objects.
This option will adjust the memory ranges used by linker classes (see
Section 6.2.1 “-Aclass =low-high,...”) . Any objects contained in a psect that do not use
the classes affected by this option might be linked outside the memory specified by this
option.
This option is also used to specify RAM for far objects on PIC18 devices. These
objects are stored in the PIC18 extended memory. Any additional memory specified
with this option whose address is above the on-chip program memory is assumed to
be extended memory implemented as RAM.
For example, to indicate that RAM has been implemented in the extended memory
space at addresses 0x20000 to 0x20fff, use the following option.
-mram=default,+20000-20fff

3.7.1.17 RESERVE
The -mreserve=ranges option allows you to reserve memory normally used by the
program. This option has the general form:
-mreserve=space@start:end
where space can be either of ram or rom, denoting the data and program memory
spaces, respectively; and start and end are addresses, denoting the range to be
excluded. For example, -mreserve=ram@0x100:0x101 will reserve two bytes start-
ing at address 100h from the data memory.
This option performs a similar task to the -mram and -mrom options, but it cannot be
used to add additional memory to that available for the program.
3.7.1.18 RESETBITS
The -mresetbits option allows you to have the content of the status register pre-
served by the runtime startup code for PIC10/12/16 devices (described in
Section 4.10.2.4 “STATUS Register Preservation”). The -m[no-]save-resetbits
option is equivalent in effect.
When this option is in effect, the saved registers can be accessed in your program. The
compiler can detect references to the saved STATUS register symbols an will automat-
ically enable this option.
3.7.1.19 ROM
The -mrom=ranges option is used to change the default program memory that is
specified for the target device. Without this option, all the on-chip program memory
implemented by the device is available, thus this option only needs be used if there are
special memory requirements. Specifying additional memory that is not in the target
device might result in a successful compilation, but can lead to code failures at runtime.
For example, to specify an additional range of memory to that on-chip, use:
-mrom=default,+100-2ff
This will add the range from 100h to 2ffh to the on-chip memory. To only use an external
range and ignore any on-chip memory, use:
-mrom=100-2ff
This option can also be used to reserve memory ranges already defined as on-chip
memory in the chip configuration file. To do this supply a range prefixed with a minus
character, -, for example:
-mrom=default,-100-1ff
will use all the defined on-chip memory, but not use the addresses in the range from
100h to 1ffh for allocation of ROM objects.
This option will adjust the memory ranges used by linker classes (see
Section 6.2.1 “-Aclass =low-high,...”) . Any code or objects contained in a psect that do
not use the classes affected by this option might be linked outside the memory speci-
fied by this option.
Note that some psects must be linked above a threshold address, most notably some
psects that hold const-qualified data. Using this option to remove the upper memory
ranges can make it impossible to place these psects.
3.7.1.20 SHROUD
The -mshroud option should be used in situations where either intermediate or library
files are built from confidential source code and are to be distributed.

When using this option, C comments, which are normally included into these files, as
well as line numbers and variable names will be removed, or obfuscated, so that the
original source code cannot be reconstructed from the distributed files.
3.7.1.21 STACK
The -mstack=model[:size] option allows selection of the stack model to be used
by a program’s stack-based variables.
The data stacks available are called a compiled stack and a software stack (described
in Section 4.3.4.2 “Data Stacks”). The stack models that can be used with this option
are described in Table 3-13.
TABLE 3-13: --STACK SUBOPTIONS

Model Default Allocation for Stack-based Variables
compiled or nonreentrant Use the compiled stack for all functions; functions are
non-reentrant (default).
software or reentrant Use the software stack for eligible functions and devices;
such functions are reentrant.
hybrid Use the compiled stack for functions not called reentrantly;
use the software stack for all other eligible functions and
devices; functions are only reentrant if required.
The software (or reentrant) or hybrid models have no effect on projects target-
ing baseline and mid-range devices, as they do not support a software stack. In addi-
tion, interrupt functions must use the compiled stack, but functions they call may use
the software stack.
The hybrid model (-mstack=hybrid) will let the compiler choose how to encode each
function based on how it is called. A function is compiled to use the software stack if it
is called reentrantly in the program; otherwise, it will use a compiled stack. This model
allows for reentrancy, when required, but takes advantage of the efficiency of the com-
piled stack for the majority of the program’s functions.
Any of these option settings can be overridden for individual functions by using function
specifiers (described in Section 4.8.1.3 “Reentrant and nonreentrant Specifiers”).
Note: Use the software (reentrant) setting with caution. The maximum run-
time size of the software stack is not accurately known at compile time, so
the compiler cannot predict an overflow, which could corrupt objects or reg-
isters. When all functions are forced to use the software stack, the stack
size will increase substantially.
In addition to the stack model, this option can be used to specify the maximum size of
memory reserved by the compiler for the software stack. This option configuration only
affects the software stack; there are no controls for the size of the compiled stack.
Distinct memory areas are allocated for the software stack that is used by main-line
code and each interrupt function, but this is transparent at the program level. The com-
piler automatically manages the allocation of memory to each stack. If your program
does not define any interrupt functions, all the available memory is made available to
the software stack used by main-line code.
You can manually specify the maximum space allocated for each area of the stack by
following the stack type with a colon-separated list of decimal values, each value being
the maximum size, in bytes, of the memory to be reserved. The sizes specified corre-
spond to the main-line code, the lowest priority interrupt through the highest priority
interrupt. (PIC18 devices have two separate interrupts; other devices have only one.)
Alternatively, you can explicitly state that you have no size preference by using a size
of auto. For PIC18 devices, the following example:

-mstack=reentrant:auto:30:50
will arrange the stack starting locations so that the low-priority interrupt stack can grow
to at most 30 bytes (before overflow); the high-priority interrupt stack can grow to at
most 50 bytes (before overflow); and the main-line code stack can consume the
remainder of the free memory that can be allocated to the stack (before overflow). If
you are compiling for a PIC18 device and only one interrupt is used, it is recommended
that you explicitly set the unused interrupt stack size to zero using this option.
If you do specify the stack sizes using this option, each size must be specified numer-
ically or you can use the auto token. Do not leave a size field empty. If you try to use
this option to allocate more stack memory than is available, a warning is issued and
only the available memory will be utilized.
3.7.1.22 STACKCALL
The -mstackcall option allows the compiler to use a table look-up method of calling
functions.
Once the hardware function return address stack (Section 4.3.4.1 “Function Return
Address Stack”) has been filled, no further function nesting can take place without cor-
rupting function return values. If this option is enabled, the compiler will revert to using
a look-up table method of calling functions once the stack is full (see
Section 4.8.8 “Calling Functions”).
3.7.1.23 SUMMARY
The -msummary=type option selects the type of information that is included in the
summary that is displayed after compilation. By default, or if the mem type is selected,
a memory summary is shown. This shows the total memory usage for all memory
spaces.
A psect summary can be shown by enabling the psect type. This shows individual
psects after they have been grouped by the linker and the memory ranges they cover.
Table 4-20 shows what summary types are available. The output printed when compil-
ing normally corresponds to the mem setting.
TABLE 3-14: SUMMARY TYPES

Type Controls
psect A summary of psect names and the addresses where they were linked will
be shown.
mem A concise summary of memory used will be shown. (default)
class A summary of all classes in each memory space will be shown.
hex A summary of addresses and HEX files that make up the final output file
will be shown.
file Summary information will be shown on screen and saved to a file.
xml Summary information will be shown on the screen, and usage informa-
tion for the main memory spaces will be saved in an XML file
xmlfull Summary information will be shown on the screen, and usage informa-
tion for all memory spaces will be saved in an XML file
If produced, the XML files contain information about memory spaces on the selected
device, consisting of the space’s name, addressable unit, size, amount used and
amount free.

3.7.1.24 UNDEFINTS
The -mundefints=action option allows you to control how the compiler responds
to uninitialized interrupt vectors, including undefined legacy low- and high-priority vec-
tors, and entries in the interrupt vector table.
A warning is generated if any uninitialized vectors are detected, except if the ignore
action is specified.
The actions are shown in Table 3-15 for projects that are using the Interrupt Controller
Macro (ICM) module and for all other projects (which are those projects using devices
that do not have the ICM, or those projects in which the vector tables are disabled and
the device is running in legacy mode).
For example, to have a software breakpoint executed by any vector location that is not
linked to an interrupt function, use the option -mundefints:swbp.
The default action for projects using the ICM is to program the address of a reset
instruction (which will be located immediately after the vector table) into each unas-
signed vector location; for all other devices, it is to leave the locations unprogrammed
and available for other use.
If the target device does not implement a reset instruction or software breakpoint
instruction and execution of these instructions have been requested for unused vec-
tors, an instruction that can jump to itself will be programmed instead.
TABLE 3-15: UNUSED INTERRUPT SUBOPTIONS

Action Devices using the ICM All other devices
ignore No action; vector location available for No action; vector location available for
program code. program code (default).
reset Program each unassigned vector with Program a reset instruction at each
the address of a reset instruction unassigned vector.
(default).
swbp Program each unassigned vector with Program a software breakpoint
the address of a software breakpoint instruction at each unassigned vector.
instruction.
An interrupt function can be assigned to any otherwise unassigned vector location by

using the default interrupt source when defining that function (see
Section 4.9.1 “Writing an Interrupt Service Routine”).
The -mundefints option is ignored if the target device does not support interrupts.

3.7.2 Options for Controlling the Kind of Output

The options shown in Table 3-16 control the kind of output produced by the compiler
and are discussed in the sections that follow.
TABLE 3-16: KIND-OF-OUTPUT CONTROL OPTIONS

Option Produces
-c An intermediate file
-E A preprocessed file
-o file An output file with the specified name
-S An assembly file
-v Verbose compilation
-xassembler-with-cpp Output after preprocessing all source files
--help Help information only
-mprint-devices Chip information only
--version Compiler version information
3.7.2.1 C: COMPILE TO INTERMEDIATE FILE

The -c option is used to generate an intermediate file for each source file listed on the
command line. In the case of C source files, compilation will halt after the parsing stage,
leaving behind a p-code file with a .p1 extension. For assembly source files, compila-
tion will terminate after executing the assembler, leaving a relocatable object file with a
.o extension.
This option is often used when using a make utility (see Section 3.3.3 “Multi-Step Com-
pilation”), for more information on using intermediate files.
3.7.2.2 E: PREPROCESS ONLY

The -E option is used to generate preprocessed C source files (also called modules or
translation units).
When this option is used, the compilation sequence will terminate after the preprocess-
ing stage, leaving behind files with the same basename as the corresponding source
file and with a .i extension.
You might check the preprocessed source files to ensure that preprocessor macros
have expanded to what you think they should. The option can also be used to create C
source files that do not require any separate header files. This is useful when sending
files to a colleague or to obtain technical support without sending all the header files,
which can reside in many directories.
3.7.2.3 O: SPECIFY OUTPUT FILE

The -o option specifies the name and directory of the output file.
The option -o main.elf, for example, will place the compiler output in a file called
main.elf. The name of an existing directory can be specified with the file name, for
example -o build/main.elf, so that the file will appear in that directory.

3.7.2.4 S: COMPILE TO ASSEMBLY
The -S option stops compilation after generating an assembly output file.
When this option is used, the compilation sequence will terminate early, leaving behind
files with the same basename as the corresponding source file and with a .s extension.
If the assembler optimizers are enabled, the resulting output file is optimized by the
assembler; otherwise the output is the raw code generator output. Optimized assembly
files have many of the assembler directives removed.
This option might be useful for checking assembly code output by the compiler without
the distraction of line number and opcode information that will be present in an assem-
bly list file.
3.7.2.5 V: VERBOSE COMPILATION

The -v option specifies verbose compilation.
When this option is used, the name and path of the executed compiler applications will
be displayed, followed by the command-line arguments to this application, for example:
/Applications/microchip/XC8/v2.00/bin/hexmate
@/tmp/hexmate_xcf8oco6H.cmd [
--edf=/Applications/dev/XC8/v2.00/dat/en_msgs.txt main.hex -E1
-Omain.hex -logfile=main.hxl -addressing=1 -break=300000 ]
3.7.2.6 X: SPECIFY SOURCE LANGUAGE

The -xassembler-with-cpp option allows you to specify that all assembly source
files need to be preprocessed, irrespective of the source file’s extension. For example:
xc8-cc -mcpu=18f4520 -xassembler-with-cpp proj.c init.s
will tell the compiler to run the C preprocessor over the assembly source file, even
though it does not use a .S or .sx extension.
3.7.2.7 HELP
The --help option displays information on the xc8-cc compiler options, then the
driver will terminate.
3.7.2.8 PRINT-DEVICES
The --mprint-devices option displays a list of devices the compiler supports. The
names listed are those chips that are defined in the chipinfo file and which can be used
with the -mcpu option. Compiler execution will terminate after this list has been printed.
3.7.2.9 VERSION
The --version option prints compiler version information then exits.

3.7.3 Options for Controlling the C Dialect

The options shown in Table 3-17 define the kind of C dialect used by the compiler and
are discussed in the sections that follow.
TABLE 3-17: C DIALECT CONTROL OPTIONS

Option Controls
-ansi The C language standard
-f[no-]signed-char The signedness of a plain char type
-f[no-]unsigned-char
-mext=extension Which language extensions is in effect
-std=standard The C language standard
3.7.3.1 ANSI
The -ansi option is equivalent to -std=c90, and controls the C standard used.
3.7.3.2 SIGNED-CHAR/UNSIGNED-CHAR
The -fsigned-char and -funsigned-char options enforce the signedness of a
plain char type.
By default, the plain char type is equivalent to unsigned char. These options spec-
ify the exact type that will be used by the compiler. Use the -funsigned-char or
-fno-signed-char option to force a plain char to be unsigned, and the
-fsigned-char or -fno-unsigned-char option to force a plain char to be signed.
Consider explicitly stating the signedness of char objects when they are defined,
rather than relying on the type assigned to a plain char type by the compiler.
3.7.3.3 EXT
The -mext=extension option controls the language extension used during compila-
tion and those extensions allowed are shown in Table 4-13.
TABLE 3-18: ACCEPTABLE C LANGUAGE EXTENSIONS

Extension C Language Description
xc8 The native XC8 extensions (default)
cci A common C interface acceptable by all MPLAB XC compilers
Enabling the cci extension requests the compiler to check all source code and com-
piler options for compliance with the Common C Interface (CCI). Code that complies
with this interface can be more easily ported across all MPLAB XC compilers. Code or
options that do not conform to the CCI will be flagged by compiler warnings.
3.7.3.4 STD
The -std=standard option specifies the C standard to which the compiler assumes
source code will conform. Allowable standards and devices are shown in Table 3-19.
Note that a different compiler front end will be used for these two standards, thus you
might see a change in compiler behavior when swapping between standards. Float-
ing-point sizes of 24-bits are not permitted with building for C99 compliance (see
Section 4.4.4 “Floating-Point Data Types”).
TABLE 3-19: ACCEPTABLE C LANGUAGE STANDARDS

Standard Supports
c89 or c90 ISO C90 programs using P1 front end for all devices
c99 ISO C99 programs using Clang front end for PIC18 and Enhanced mid-range

3.7.4 Options for Controlling Warnings and Errors

Warnings are diagnostic messages that report constructions that are not inherently
erroneous, but that are risky or suggest there may have been an error.
The options shown in Table 3-20 control the messages produced by the compiler and
are discussed in the sections that follow.
TABLE 3-20: WARNING AND ERROR OPTIONS IMPLIED BY ALL WARNINGS

Option Controls
-fmax-errors=n How many errors are output before terminating compilation
-mwarn=level The threshold at which warnings are output
-w The suppression of all warning messages
-Wpedantic The acceptance of non-standard language extensions
3.7.4.1 MAX-ERRORS
The -fmax-errors=n option sets the maximum number of errors each compiler
application (excluding Clang), as well as the driver, will display before execution is ter-
minated.
By default, up to 20 error messages will be displayed by each application before the
application terminates. The option -fmax-errors=10, for example, would ensure the
applications terminate after only 10 errors.
See Section 3.6 “Compiler Messages” for full details of the messaging system
employed by xc8-cc.
3.7.4.2 WARN
The -mwarn=level option is used to set the compiler warning level threshold. Allow-
able warning levels range from -9 to 9. The warning level determines how pedantic the
compiler is about dubious type conversions and constructs. Each compiler warning has
a designated warning level; the higher the warning level, the more important the warn-
ing message. If the warning message’s warning level exceeds the set threshold, the
warning is printed by the compiler. The default warning level threshold is 0 and will
allow all normal warning messages.
Use this option with care as some warning messages indicate code that is likely to fail
during execution, or compromise portability. The warnings from the Clang front end are
not controlled by this option.
Section 3.6 “Compiler Messages”has full information on the compiler’s messaging sys-
tem.
3.7.4.3 W: DISABLE ALL WARNINGS

The -w option inhibits all warning messages. Use this option with care as some warning
messages indicate code that is likely to fail during execution, or compromise portability.
3.7.4.4 PEDANTIC
The -Wpedantic option is used to enable strict ANSI C conformance of all special,
non-standard keywords when building C89/90 conforming programs.
If this option is used, non-standard keywords must include two leading underscore
characters (for example, __persistent) so as to strictly conform to the C standard.

3.7.5 Options for Debugging

The options shown in Table 3-21 control the debugging output produced by the com-
piler and are discussed in the sections that follow.
TABLE 3-21: DEBUGGING OPTIONS
Option Controls
-f[no-]instrumented-functions Inclusion of function profiling code in the file output
-gformat The type of debugging information generated
-save-temps Whether intermediate files should be kept after
compilation
3.7.5.1 INSTRUMENT-FUNCTIONS
The -finstrument-functions option embeds diagnostic code into the output to
allow for function profiling with the appropriate hardware. See Section 4.3.13 “Function
profiling” for more information.
3.7.5.2 G: PRODUCE DEBUGGING INFORMATION

The -gformat option instructs the compiler to produce additional information, which
can be used by hardware tools to debug your program.
The support formats are shown in Table 3-22.
TABLE 3-22: SUPPORTED DEBUGGING FILE FORMATS

Format Debugging file format
-gcoff COFF
-gdwarf-3 ELF/Dwarf release 3
-ginhx32 Intel HEX with extended linear address records, allowing use of
addresses beyond 64kB
-ginhx032 INHX32 with initialization of upper address to zero
The compiler supports the use of this option with the optimizers enabled, making it pos-
sible to debug optimized code; however, the shortcuts taken by optimized code may
occasionally produce surprising results, such as variables that do not exist and flow
control that changes unexpectedly.
3.7.5.3 SAVE-TEMPS
The -save-temps option instructs the compiler to keep temporary files after compila-
tion has finished.

3.7.6 Options for Controlling Optimization

The options shown in Table 3-23 control compiler optimizations and are described in
the sections that follow. The table also indicates the compiler edition (license) required
to be able to select the optimization level. See Section 4.13 “Optimizations” for a
description of the sorts of optimizations possible.
TABLE 3-23: GENERAL OPTIMIZATION OPTIONS
Option Edition Builds with
-O0 All No optimizations (default)
-O All Optimization level 1
-O1
-O2 Standard Optimization level 2
or PRO
-O3 PRO only Optimization level 3
-Og All Better debugging
-Os PRO only Size orientated optimizations
-fasmfile All Optimizations applied to assembly source files
-f[no-]local All Local optimizations
--nofallback All Only the selected optimization level and with no
license-imposed fall back to a lesser level
3.7.6.1 O0: LEVEL OPTIMIZATIONS

The -O0 option disables optimization.
Without no optimizations, the compiler’s goal is to reduce the cost of compilation and
to make debugging produce the expected results.
3.7.6.2 O1: LEVEL OPTIMIZATIONS

The -O or -O1 options request level 1 optimizations.
The optimizations performed when using -O1 aims to reduce code size and execution
time, but still allows a reasonable level of debugability. This level is available for all
compiler licenses.
O2: LEVEL OPTIMIZATIONS
The -O2 option requests level 2 optimizations.
At this level, the compiler performs nearly all supported optimizations. This level is not
available when using a Free license.
O3: LEVEL OPTIMIZATIONS
The -O3 option requests level 2 optimizations.
This option requests all supported optimizations, including procedural abstraction, that
reduces execution time but which might increase program size. This level is available
only for PRO licensed compilers.
3.7.6.3 OG: BETTER DEBUGGING

The -Og option enables optimizations that do not severely interfere with debugging,
offering a reasonable level of optimization while maintaining fast compilation and a
good debugging experience.

3.7.6.4 OS: LEVEL OPTIMIZATIONS
The -Os option requests level 2 optimizations.
This option requests all supported optimizations that decrease program size. This level
is available only for PRO licensed compilers.
3.7.6.5 ASMFILE
The -fasmfile option enables assembler optimizations on hand-written assembly
source files. By default assembly source is not optimized.
3.7.6.6 LOCAL
The -flocal option limits the extent to which some optimizations are applied to the
program.
This option will use omniscient code generation (OCG) optimizations with libraries or
individual program modules but have the scope of those optimizations restricted to
code within those libraries or modules. Normally optimizations in one module can be
affected by code in other modules or libraries, and there are situations where you want
to prevent this from occurring. The output of source compiled with this setting enabled
with typically be larger but will change little from build to build, even if other project code
that does not use this setting is modified. Such changes in the output might be unde-
sirable if you have validated code that is to be distributed and used in many different
applications.
All the source code specified with a build command that uses local optimizations con-
stitutes one group and you can create as many groups as required by building source
code with separate build commands. Any code built without local optimizations
becomes part of the default (unrestricted) group. The standard libraries that are sup-
plied with the compiler are built with local optimizations disabled and are always part of
this default group.
Enabling local optimizations restricts the scope of many optimizations, but does not
necessarily disable the optimizations themselves. Optimizations can still be performed
within each group, but those optimizations will not be made if they depend on code that
is contained in another group. For example, abstraction of common code sequences
will not be made if the sequences are contained in different groups, but would be made
if the sequences are from the same group. Since a group can be limited to just a few
modules of source code (which you can build into a library in the usual way if you pre-
fer), this still allows you to fully optimize the bulk of a project.
By default this option is disabled. It can be enabled when building for enhanced
mid-range and PIC18 devices and an error message will be emitted if the optimization
is selected with an incompatible device.
When code is built with local optimizations, all variables defined in that group are allo-
cated to banked memory unless they are qualified with near. Bank selection instruc-
tions are often output when they might normally have been emitted. Page selection
instructions before and after function calls are always output, constant propagation is
disabled, floating-point type sizes are fixed at 32 bits for both float and double
types (and this will be enforced for the entire program) and pointer sizes can be fixed
based on their definition (see Section 4.4.6.2 “Pointer-Target Qualifiers”). Some
assembly optimizations are also restricted, such as procedural abstraction, routine
inlining, psect merging, and peephole optimizations.

3.7.6.7 NOFALLBACK
The --nofallback option can be used to ensure that the compiler is not inadvertently
executed with optimizations below the that specified by the -O option.
For example, if an apparently unlicensed compiler was requested to run with level 2
optimizations, it would normally revert to a lower optimization level. With this option, the
compiler will instead issue an error and compilation will terminate. Thus, this option can
ensure that build are performed with a properly licensed compiler.

3.7.7 Options for Controlling the Preprocessor

The options shown in Table 3-24 control the preprocessor and are discussed in the
sections that follow.
TABLE 3-24: PREPROCESSOR OPTIONS
Option Controls
-Dmacro The definition of preprocessor macros
-Dmacro=text
-M Generation of dependencies
-MD Generation of dependencies
-MF Where dependency information is written
-MM Generation of dependencies
-MMD Generation of dependencies
-Umacro The undefinition of preprocessor macros
-Wp,option Options passed to the preprocessor
-Xpreprocessor Options passed to the preprocessor
option
3.7.7.1 D: DEFINE A MACRO

The -Dmacro=text option allows you to define preprocessor macros. A space may
be present between the option and macro name.
With no =text specified in the option, this option defines a preprocessor macro called
macro that will be considered to have been defined by any preprocessor directive that
checks for such a definition (e.g. the #ifdef directive) and that will expand to be the
value 1 if it is used in a context where it will be replaced. For example, when using the
option, -DMY_MACRO (or -D MY_MACRO) and supplying the following code:
#ifdef MY_MACRO
int input = MY_MACRO;
#endif
the definition of input will be compiled, and the variable assigned the value 1.
When the replacement, text, is specified with the option, the macro will subsequently
expand to be the replacement specified. So if the above example code was compiled
with the option -DMY_MACRO=0x100, then the definition would read: int input =
0x100; See Section 4.14.1.1 “Preprocessor Arithmetic” for clarification of how the
replacement text might be used.
Defining macros as C string literals requires bypassing any interpretation issues in the
operating system that is being used. To pass the C string, "hello world", (including
the quote characters) in the Windows environment, use: "-DMY_STRING=\\\"hello
world\\\"" (you must include the quote characters around the entire option, as there
is a space character in the macro definition). Under Linux or Mac OS X, use:
-DMY_STRING=\"hello\ world\".
All instances of -D on the command line are processed before any -U options.
3.7.7.2 M: GENERATE MAKE RULE

The -M option tells the preprocessor to output a file describing the dependencies of
each source file.
Both system and user headers are listed in the output. The dependencies is printed to
a file with a .d extension and compilation will terminate after preprocessing.

3.7.7.3 MD: WRITE DEPENDENCY INFORMATION TO FILE
The -MD option is similar to -M but compilation will not be terminated after preprocess-
ing.
3.7.7.4 MF: SPECIFY DEPENDENCY FILE

The -MF file option, when used with -M or -MM, specifies the file to which dependen-
cies should be written.
3.7.7.5 MM: GENERATE MAKE RULE FOR QUOTED HEADERS

The -MM option is like -M, but system headers are not included in the output.
3.7.7.6 MMD: GENERATE MAKE RULE FOR USER HEADERS

The -MMD option is like -MD, but only user header files are included in the output.
3.7.7.7 U: UNDEFINE MACROS

The -Umacro option undefines the macro macro if it was defined via -D option or by
the compiler. All -U options are evaluated after all -D options (Section 3.7.7.1 “D:
Define a Macro”).
3.7.7.8 WP: PREPROCESSOR OPTION

The -Wp,option option pass option to the preprocessor where it will be interpreted
as a preprocessor option. If option contains commas, it is split into multiple options at
the commas.
3.7.7.9 XPREPROCESSOR PREPROCESSOR OPTION

The -Xpreprocessor,option option pass option to the preprocessor where it will
be interpreted as a preprocessor option. You can use this to supply system-specific
preprocessor options that the compiler does not know how to recognize.
3.7.8 Options for Parsing

The options shown in Table 3-26 control parser operations and are discussed in the
TABLE 3-25: PARSER OPTIONS

Option Controls
-Xparser option Options to passed to the parser
3.7.8.1 XPARSER
The -Xparser option option passes its option argument directly to the parser. For exam-
ple, -Xparser -v runs the parser in verbose mode. The options -Xp1 and -Xclang are
alternate forms of this option.

3.7.9 Options for Assembling

The options shown in Table 3-26 control assembler operations and are discussed in the
TABLE 3-26: ASSEMBLY OPTIONS

Option Controls
-Wa,option Options to passed to the assembler
-Xassembler option Options to passed to the assembler
3.7.9.1 WA: PASS OPTION TO THE ASSEMBLER

The -Wa,option option passes its option argument directly to the assembler. If option
contains commas, it is split into multiple options at the commas. For example -Wa,-a will
request that the assembly produce an assembly list file.
3.7.9.2 XASSEMBLER ASSEMBLER OPTION

The -Xassembler,option option pass option to the assembler where it will be
interpreted as an assembler option. You can use this to supply system-specific assem-
bler options that the compiler does not know how to recognize.
3.7.10 Mapped Assembler Options

The following GCC-style option shown in Table 3-27 has been mapped to XC8 assem-
bler equivalents.
TABLE 3-27: MAPPED ASSEMBLER OPTIONS

Option Controls
-Wa,-a The generation of an assembly list file
3.7.11 Options for Linking

The options shown in Table 3-28 control linker operations and are discussed in the sec-
tions that follow. If any of the options -c, -S or -E are used, the linker is not run.
TABLE 3-28: LINKING OPTIONS

Option Controls
-llibrary Which library files are scanned
-mserial=options The insertion of a serial number in the output
-nodefaultlibs Whether library code is linked with the project
-nostartfiles Whether the runtime startup module is linked in
-nostdlib Whether the library and startup code is linked with the project
-Wl,option Options to passed to the linker
-Xlinker option System-specific options to passed to the linker
--fill=options Filling of unused memory
3.7.11.1 L: SPECIFY LIBRARY FILE

The -llibrary option search the library named library for unresolved symbols
when linking. The linker then uses this file as if it had been specified precisely by name.
The directories searched include several standard system directories, plus any that you
specify with -L.

The only difference between using an -l option (e.g., -lmylib) and specifying a file
name (e.g., mylib.a) is that the compiler will search for a library specified using -l in
several directories, as specified by the -L option.
3.7.11.2 SERIAL
The -mserial=options option allows a hexadecimal code to be stored at a particu-
lar address in program memory. A typical task for this option might be to position a
serial number in program memory.
The byte-width of data to store is determined by the byte-width of the hexcode param-
eter in the option. For example, to store a one-byte value, 0, at program memory
address 1000h, use -mserial=00@1000. To store the same value as a four byte
quantity use -mserial=00000000@1000.
This option is functionally identical to the corresponding HEXMATE option. For more
detailed information and advanced controls that can be used with this option (refer to
Section 7.3.1.20 “-SERIAL”).
The driver will also define a label at the location where the value was stored and can
be referenced from C code as _serial0. To enable access to this symbol, remember
to declare it, for example:
extern const int _serial0;
3.7.11.3 NODEFAULTLIBS
The -nodefaultlibs option will prevent the standard system libraries being linked
into the project. Only the libraries you specify are passed to the linker.
3.7.11.4 NOSTARTFILES
The -nostartfiles option will prevent the runtime startup modules from being
linked into the project.
3.7.11.5 NOSTDLIB
The -nostdlib option will prevent the standard system start-up files and libraries
being linked into the project. No start-up files and only the libraries you specify are
passed to the linker.
3.7.11.6 WL: LINKER OPTION

The -Wl,option option pass option to the linker where it will be interpreted as a
linker option. If option contains commas, it is split into multiple options at the commas.
3.7.11.7 XL: LINKER OPTION

The -Xl,option option pass option to the linker where it will be interpreted as a
linker option. You can use this to supply system-specific linker options that the compiler
does not know how to recognize.
3.7.11.8 FILL
The --fill=options option allows you to fill unused memory with specified values
in a variety of ways.

3.7.12 Mapped Linker Options

The following GCC-style options shown in Table 3-29 have been mapped to XC8 linker
equivalents.
TABLE 3-29: MAPPED LINKER OPTIONS

Option Controls
-Wl,-[no-]data-init Clearing and initialization of C objects at runtime startup
-Wl,-Map=mapfile The generation of a linker map file

3.7.13 Options for Directory Search

The options shown in Table 3-30 control directories searched operations and are dis-
cussed in the sections that follow.
TABLE 3-30: LINKING OPTIONS

Option Controls
-Idir The directories searched for preprocessor include files
-Ldir Directories searched for libraries
-nostdinc Directories searched for headers
3.7.13.1 I: SPECIFY INCLUDE FILE SEARCH PATH

The -Idir option adds the directory dir to the head of the list of directories to be
searched for header files. A space may be present between the option and directory
name.
The option can specify either an absolute or relative path and it can be used more than
once if multiple additional directories are to be searched, in which case they are
scanned from left to right.The standard system directories are searched after scanning
the directories specified with this option.
Under the Windows OS, the use of the directory backslash character may unintention-
ally form an escape sequence. To specify an include file path that ends with a directory
separator character and which is quoted, use -I "E:\\", for example, instead of -I
"E:\", to avoid the escape sequence \". Note that MPLAB X IDE will quote any
include file path you specify in the project properties and that search paths are relative
to the output directory, not the project directory.
3.7.13.2 L: SPECIFY LIBRARY SEARCH PATH

The -Ldir option allows you to specify an additional directory to be searched for
library files. The compiler will automatically search standard library locations, so you
only need to use this option if you are linking in your own libraries.
3.7.13.3 NOSTDINC
The -nostdinc option prevents the standard system directories for header files being
searched by the preprocessor. Only the directories you have specified with -I options
(and the current directory, if appropriate) are searched.

3.7.14 Options for Code Generation Conventions

The options shown in Table 3-31 control machine-independent conventions used when
generating code and are discussed in he sections that follow.
TABLE 3-31: CODE GENERATION CONVENTION OPTIONS

Option Controls
-f[no-]short-double The size of the double type
-f[no-]short-float The size of the float type
3.7.14.1 SHORT-DOUBLE
The -fshort-double option controls the size of the double type.
By default, the compiler will choose the truncated IEEE754 24-bit format for double
types, or this can be explicitly requested by using this option. When using the
-fno-short-double form of the option, the double type can be changed to the full
32-bit IEEE754 format. The selection of this option must be consistent across all mod-
ules of the program and a 32-bit double size should be selected when you require C99
compliance.
3.7.14.2 SHORT-FLOAT
The -fshort-float option controls the size of the float type.
By default, the compiler will choose the truncated IEEE754 24-bit format for float
types, or this can be explicitly requested by using this option. When using the
-fno-short-float form of the option, the float type can be changed to the full
32-bit IEEE754 format. The selection of this option must be consistent across all mod-
ules of the program and a 32-bit float size should be selected when you require C99
compliance.

Chapter 4. C Language Features
4.1 INTRODUCTION
MPLAB XC8 C Compiler supports a number of special features and extensions to the
C language which are designed to ease the task of producing ROM-based applications
for 8-bit PIC devices. This chapter documents the special language features that are
specific to these devices.
• C Standard Compliance
• Device-Related Features
• Supported Data Types and Variables
• Memory Allocation and Access
• Operators and Statements
• Register Usage
• Functions
• Interrupts
• Main, Runtime Startup and Reset
• Libraries
• Mixing C and Assembly Code
• Optimizations
• Preprocessing
• Linking Programs
4.2 C STANDARD COMPLIANCE

This compiler is a freestanding implementation that conforms to the ISO/IEC
9899:1990 Standard (referred to as the C90 standard) as well the ISO/IEC 9899:1999
Standard (C99) for programming languages. The program standard can be selected
using the -std option (see Section 3.7.3.4 “std”).
This implementation makes no assumptions about any underlying operating system
and does not provide support for streams, files, or threads. Aspects of the compiler that
diverge from the standards are discussed in this section.
4.2.1 Common C Interface Standard

This compiler conforms to the Microchip XC compiler Common C Interface standard
(CCI), and can verify that C source code is compliant with CCI.
CCI is a further refinement of the C standards that attempts to standardize implemen-
tation-defined behavior and non-standard extensions across the entire MPLAB XC
compiler family.
CCI can be enforced by using the -mext=cci option (see Section 3.7.3.3 “ext”).
4.2.2 Divergence from the C90 Standard

The C language implemented on MPLAB XC8 C Compiler can diverge from the C90
Standard in several areas detailed in the sections below.

4.2.2.1 REENTRANCY
One divergence is due to limited device memory and no hardware implementation of a
data stack. For this reason, recursion is not supported and functions are not reentrant
on Baseline and some Mid-range devices. Functions can be encoded reentrantly for
Enhanced Mid-range and PIC18 devices. See Section 4.3.4 “Stacks” for more
information on the stack models used by the compiler for each device family.
For those devices that do not support reentrancy, the compiler can make functions
called from main-line and interrupt code appear to be reentrant via a duplication
feature. See Section 4.9.7 “Function Duplication” for more about duplication.
4.2.2.2 SIZE OF OPERATOR WITH POINTER TYPES

Another divergence from both standards is that you cannot reliably use the C sizeof
operator with pointer types or structure or array types that contain a pointer. This oper-
ator, however, may be used with pointer (or structure or array) variable identifiers. This
is a result of the dynamic size of pointers assigned by the compiler.
So, for the following code:
char * cp;
size_t size;
size = sizeof(char *);
size = sizeof(cp);
size in the first example will be assigned the maximum size a pointer can be for the
particular target device you have chosen. In the second example, size will be
assigned the actual size of the pointer variable, cp. The sizeof operator using a
pointer variable operand cannot be used as the number-of-elements expression in an
array declaration. For example, the size of the following array is unpredictable:
unsigned buffer[sizeof(cp) * 10];
4.2.2.3 EMPTY FUNCTION PARAMETER LIST

According to the C standard, functions defined with an empty parameter list, as in the
following example:
int range()
{ ... }
are assumed to take no arguments, as if void was specified in the brackets. A similar
prototype in a declaration, as in the following example:
extern int range();
should specify that no information is supplied for the function’s parameters.
When building for C90, the compiler assumes that a function declared with an empty
parameter list has no parameters. This limitation is not present when you are compiling
using the C99 standard, where such a declaration would be correctly interpreted to
mean that no information is specified regarding the function’s parameters.
4.2.3 Divergence from the C99 Standard

4.2.3.1 LIBRARY SUPPORT
The C99-compliant C libraries have not been shipped with this product but will become
available in a subsequent release. As a result, some compiler features which are fully
or partially implemented by library code are not available. These features include wide
character support, type-generic math macros, universal character names, and hexa-
decimal floating-point support in printf().

C Language Features
4.2.3.2 INLINED FUNCTIONS
There are several areas where the inlining of functions deviates from the C standard.
The standard states that an inline function should only be inlined in the translation
unit in which it is defined. With MPLAB XC8, inlining can occur in any module.
The standard indicates that if no extern declaration is provided in the same translation
unit as an inline function, then the definition is an inlined definition, does not provide
an external definition of that function and poses as an alternative to an external defini-
tion. With this implementation, an external definition is implied by an inline function.
The standard states that if an external definition is provided in addition to an inline defi-
nition, then it is unspecified which definition the compiler should use in the translation
unit of the inlined definition. With MPLAB XC8, a function redefinition error will be emit-
ted if both inline and external definitions are encountered.
4.2.3.3 ALIASING USING EFFECTIVE TYPE

The compiler does not check for aliased types, but nor does it perform any optimiza-
tions that could fail as a result of aliased types.
4.2.3.4 RESTRICT WITH POINTERS

The restrict pointer type qualifier is allowed in programs, but will be ignored by the
compiler.
4.2.3.5 VARIABLE LENGTH ARRAYS

The size of arrays must be known at compile time. Thus the dimensions of arrays must
be constant expressions. Function prototypes cannot use the [*] syntax with an array
to indicate a variable length array type.
4.2.3.6 FLEXIBLE ARRAY MEMBERS

The compiler will not accept an incomplete type array as the last member in a structure.
All array members of a structure must specify a number of elements.
4.2.3.7 COMPLEX NUMBER SUPPORT

Complex types are not supported and use of the _Complex and _Imaginary and
related types will trigger a warning and will be ignored. The <complex.h> header is
also not supported.
4.2.3.8 EXTENDED IDENTIFIERS

C identifiers cannot currently use extended characters.
4.2.4 Implementation-Defined behavior

Certain features of the ANSI C standard have implementation-defined behavior. This
means that the exact behavior of some C code can vary from compiler to compiler. The
exact behavior of the compiler is detailed throughout this manual, and is fully
summarized in Appendix C. Implementation-Defined Behavior.

4.3 DEVICE-RELATED FEATURES

MPLAB XC8 has several features which relate directly to the 8-bit PIC architectures
and instruction sets. These are detailed in the following sections.
4.3.1 Device Support

The MPLAB XC8 C Compiler aims to support all 8-bit PIC and AVR devices. This user’s
guide should be consulted when you are programming PIC devices; when program-
ming AVR targets, see the MPLAB® XC8 C Compiler User’s Guide for AVR® MCU.
New PIC devices are frequently released. There are several ways you can check
whether the compiler you are using supports a particular device.
From the command line, run the compiler you wish to use and pass it the option
--mprint-devices (See Section 3.7.2.8 “print-devices”). A list of all devices will be
printed.
You can also see the supported devices in your favorite web browser. Open the files
pic_chipinfo.html for a list of all supported Baseline or Mid-range device, or
pic18_chipinfo.html for all PIC18 devices. Both these files are located in the
docs directory under your compiler’s installation directory.
4.3.2 Instruction Set Support

The compiler supports all instruction sets for PIC10/12/16 devices as well as the stan-
dard (legacy) PIC18 instruction set. The extended instruction mode available on some
PIC18 devices is not currently supported and setting the configuration bit (typically
XINST) to enable this instruction set will trigger an error from the compiler.
4.3.3 Device Header Files

There is one header file that is typically included into each C source file you write. The
file is <xc.h> and is a generic header file that will include other device- and
architecture-specific header files when you build your project.
Inclusion of this file will allow access to SFRs via special variables, as well as macros
which allow special memory access or inclusion of special instructions, like CLRWDT().
Do not include chip-specific header files in your code as this will reduce portability, and
these headers may not contain all the required definitions for the successful compila-
tion of your code.
The header files shipped with the compiler are specific to that compiler version. Future
compiler versions may ship with modified header files. Avoid including header files that
have been copied into you project. Such projects might no longer be compatible with
future versions of the compiler.
For information about assembly include files (.inc) (see Section 4.12.3.2 “Accessing
Registers from Assembly Code”).

C Language Features
4.3.4 Stacks
Stacks are used for two different purposes by programs running on 8-bit PIC devices:
one stack is for storing function return addresses and one or two other stacks are used
for data allocation.
4.3.4.1 FUNCTION RETURN ADDRESS STACK

The 8-bit PIC devices use a hardware stack for function return addresses. This stack
cannot be manipulated directly and has a limited depth, which is indicated in your
device data sheet and the compiler’s chipinfo file.
Nesting functions too deeply can exceed the maximum hardware stack depth and lead
to program failure. Remember that interrupts and implicitly called library functions also
use this stack.
The compiler can be made to manage stack usage for some devices using the
-mstackcall option (see Section 3.7.1.22 “stackcall”). This enables an alternate
means of calling functions to allow function nesting deeper than the stack alone would
otherwise allow.
A call graph is provided by the code generator in the assembler list file (see
Section 5.4.6 “Call Graph”). This will indicate the stack levels at each function call and
can be used as a guide to stack depth. The code generator can also produce warnings
if the maximum stack depth is exceeded.
The warnings and call graphs are guides to stack usage. Optimizations and the use of
interrupts can decrease or increase the program’s stack depth over that determined by
the compiler.
4.3.4.2 DATA STACKS

The compiler can implement two types of data stack: a compiled stack and a software
stack. Both these stacks are for storing stack-based variables which have automatic
storage duration, such as auto, parameter, and temporary variables.
Either one or both of these types of stacks may be used by a program. Compiler
options, specifiers, and how the functions are called will dictate which stacks are used.
See Section 4.5.2.2 “Automatic Storage Duration Objects” for more information on how
the compiler allocates a function’s stack-based objects.
A section, called stack, is used to reserve the memory used by the stack.
4.3.4.2.1 Compiled Stack Operation

A compiled stack is one or more areas of memory that are designated for automatic
storage duration objects. Objects allocated space in the compiled stack are assigned
a static address which can be accessed via a compiler-allocated symbol. This is the
most efficient way of accessing stack-based objects, since it does not use a stack
pointer.
Functions which allocate their stack-based objects in the compiled stack will not be
reentrant, since each instance of the functions’ objects will be accessed via the same
symbols (see Section 4.12.3 “Interaction between Assembly and C Code”). Memory in
a compiled stack can be reused, just like that in a conventional software stack. If two
functions are never active at the same time, then their stack-based objects can overlap
in memory with no corruption of data. The compiler can determine which functions
could be active at the same time and will automatically reuse memory when possible.
The compiler takes into account that interrupt functions, and functions they call, need
their own dedicated memory (see also Section 4.9.7 “Function Duplication”).
The size of the compiled stack can be determined at compile time, so available space
can be confirmed by the compiler.

4.3.4.2.2 Software Stack Operation
A software stack is a dynamic allocation of memory this is used for automatic storage
duration objects and which is indirectly accessed via a stack pointer. Although access
of objects on a software stack can be slower, functions which use a software stack are
reentrant. This form of stack is available only for Enhanced Mid-range and PIC18
devices.
As functions are called, they allocate a chunk of memory for their stack-based objects
and the stack grows in memory. When the function exits, the memory it claimed is
released and made available to other functions. Thus, a software stack has a size that
is dynamic and varies as the program is executed. The stack grows up in memory,
toward larger addresses when objects are allocated to the stack; it decreases in size
when a function returns and its stack-based objects are no longer required.
A register, known as the stack pointer, is permanently assigned to hold the address of
the "top" of the stack. MPLAB XC8 uses the FSR1 register as the stack pointer, and it
holds the address of the next free location in the software stack. The register contents
are increased when variables are allocated (pushed) to the stack and decreased when
a function returns and variables are removed (popped) from the stack. There is no reg-
ister assigned to hold a frame pointer. All access to the stack must use an offset to the
stack pointer.
Note that if there are any functions in the program that use the software stack, the FSR1
register is reserved as the stack pointer for the duration of the entire program, even
when executing functions that do not use the software stack. With this register unavail-
able for general use, the code generated may be less efficient or “Can’t generate code”
errors may result.
The maximum size of the stack is not exactly known at compile time and the compiler
typically reserves as much space as possible for the stack to grow during program exe-
cution. The stack is always allocated a single memory range, which may cross bank
boundaries, but within this range it may be segregated into one area for main-line code
and an area for each interrupt routine, if required. The maximum size of each area can
be specified using the -mstack option (see Section 3.7.1.21 “stack”). The stack
pointer is reloaded when an interrupt occurs so it will access the separate stack area
used by interrupt code. It is restored by the interrupt context switch code when the inter-
rupt routine is complete.
The compiler cannot detect for overflow of the memory reserved for the stack as a
whole, nor are any runtime checks made for stack overflow. If the software stack over-
flows, data corruption and code failure can result.
4.3.5 Configuration Bit Access

Configuration bits or fuses are used to set up fundamental device operation, such as
the oscillator mode, watchdog timer, programming mode and code protection. These
bits must be correctly set to ensure your program executes correctly.
Use the configuration pragma, which has the following forms, to set up your device.
#pragma config setting = state|value
#pragma config register = value
Here, setting is a configuration setting descriptor, e.g., WDT, and state is a textual
description of the desired state, e.g., OFF.
The settings and states associated with each device can be determined from an HTML
guide. Open the pic_chipinfo.html file (or the pic18_chipinfo.html file) that
is located in the pic/docs directory of your compiler installation. Click the link to your
target device and the page will show you the settings and values that are appropriate
with this pragma. Review your device data sheet for more information.

C Language Features
The value field is a numerical value that can be used in preference to a descriptor.
Numerical values can only be specified in decimal or in hexadecimal, the latter radix
indicated by the usual 0x prefix. Values must never be specified in binary (i.e., using
the 0b prefix).
Consider the following examples.
#pragma config WDT = ON // turn on watchdog timer
#pragma config WDTPS = 0x1A // specify the timer postscale value
One pragma can be used to program several settings by separating each setting-value
pair with a comma. For example, the above could be specified with one pragma, as in
the following.
#pragma config WDT=ON, WDTPS = 0x1A
It is recommended that the setting-value pairs be quoted to ensure that the preproces-
sor does not perform substitution of these tokens, for example:
#pragma config "BOREN=OFF"
You should never assume that the OFF and ON tokens used in configuration macros
equate to 0 and 1, respectively, as that is often not the case.
Rather than specify individual settings, each half of the configuration register can be
programmed with one numerical value, for example:
#pragma config CONFIG1L = 0x8F
Neither the config pragma nor the __CONFIG macro produce executable code, and
ideally they should both be placed outside function definitions.
All the bits in the Configuration Words should be programmed to prevent erratic pro-
gram behavior. Do not leave them in their default/unprogrammed state. Not all Config-
uration bits have a default state of logic high; some have a logic low default state.
Consult your device data sheet for more information.
If you are using MPLAB X IDE, take advantage of its built-in tools to generate the
required pragmas, so that you can copy and paste them into your source code.
4.3.6 ID Locations
The 8-bit PIC devices have locations outside the addressable memory area that can be
used for storing program information, such as an ID number. The config pragma is
also used to place data into these locations by using a special register name. The
pragma is used as follows:
#pragma config IDLOCx = value
where x is the number (position) of the ID location, and value is the nibble or byte that
is to be positioned into that ID location. The value can only be specified in decimal or
in hexadecimal, the latter radix indicated by the usual 0x prefix. Values must never be
specified in binary (i.e., using the 0b prefix). If value is larger than the maximum value
allowable for each location on the target device, the value will be truncated and a warn-
ing message is issued. The size of each ID location varies from device to device. See
your device data sheet for more information. For example:
#pragma config IDLOC0 = 1
#pragma config IDLOC1 = 4
will attempt fill the first two ID locations with 1 and 4. One pragma can be used to pro-
gram several locations by separating each register-value pair with a comma. For
example, the above could also be specified as shown below.
#pragma config IDLOC0 = 1, IDLOC1 = 4
The config pragma does not produce executable code and so should ideally be placed
outside function definitions.

4.3.7 Using SFRs From C Code

The Special Function Registers (SFRs) are typically memory mapped registers and are
accessed by absolute C structure variables that are placed at the register’s address.
These structures can be accessed in the usual way so that no special syntax is required
to access SFRs.
The SFRs control aspects of the MCU and peripheral module operation. Some regis-
ters are read-only; some are write-only. Always check your device data sheet for com-
plete information regarding the registers.
The SFR structures are predefined in header files and are accessible once you have
included <xc.h> (see Section 4.3.3 “Device Header Files”) into your source files.
Structures are mapped over the entire register and bit-fields within those structures
allow access to specific SFR bits. The names of the structures will typically be the same
as the corresponding register, as specified in the device data sheet, followed by bits
(see Section 2.4.2.5 “How Do I Find The Names Used to Represent SFRs and Bits?”).
For example, the following shows code that includes the generic header file, clears
PORTA as a whole and sets bit 2 of PORTA using the bit-field definition.
#include <xc.h>
void main(void)
{
PORTA = 0x00;
PORTAbits.RA2 = 1;
}
Care should be taken when accessing some SFRs from C code or from in-line assem-
bly. Some registers are used by the compiler to hold intermediate values of calcula-
tions, and writing to these registers directly can result in code failure. A list of registers
used by the compiler and can be found in Section 4.7 “Register Usage”.
4.3.7.1 SPECIAL PIC18 REGISTER ISSUES

Some of the SFRs used by PIC18 devices can be grouped to form multi-byte values,
e.g., the TMRxH and TMRxL register combine to form a 16-bit timer count value.
Depending on the device and mode of operation, there can be hardware requirements
to read these registers in certain ways, e.g., often the TMRxL register must be read
before trying to read the TMRxH register to obtain a valid 16-bit result.
It is not recommended that you read a multi-byte variable mapped over these registers
as there is no guarantee of the order in which the bytes will be read. It is recommended
that each byte of the SFR should be accessed directly, and in the required order, as
dictated by the device data sheet. This results in a much higher degree of portability.
The following code copies the two timer registers into a C unsigned variable count
for subsequent use.
count = TMR0L;
count += TMR0H << 8;
Macros are also provided to perform reading and writing of the more common timer reg-
isters. See the macros READTIMERx and WRITETIMERx in Appendix A. Library Func-
tions. These guarantee the correct byte order is used.
4.3.8 Bit Instructions

Wherever possible, the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler will attempt to use bit instructions,
even on non-bit integer values. For example, when using a bitwise operator and a mask
to alter a bit within an integral type, the compiler will check the mask value to determine
if a bit instruction can achieve the same functionality.
unsigned int foo;
foo |= 0x40;

C Language Features
will produce the instruction:
bsf _foo,6
To set or clear individual bits within integral type, the following macros could be used:
#define bitset(var, bitno) ((var) |= 1UL << (bitno))
#define bitclr(var, bitno) ((var) &= ~(1UL << (bitno)))
To perform the same operation on foo as above, the bitset macro could be
employed as follows:
bitset(foo, 6);
4.3.9 Multiplication
The PIC18 instruction set includes several 8-bit by 8-bit hardware multiple instructions,
and these are used by the compiler in many situations. Non-PIC18 targets always use
a library routine for multiplication operations.
There are three ways that 8x8-bit integer multiplication can be implemented by the
compiler:
Hardware Multiply These assembly instructions are the most efficient method of
Instructions multiplication, but they are only available on PIC18 devices.
(HMI)
A bitwise iteration Where dedicated multiplication instructions are not available,
(8loop) this implementation produces the smallest amount of code – a
loop cycles through the bit pattern in the operands and
constructs the result bit-by-bit.
The speed of this implementation varies and is dependent on
the operand values; however, this is typically the slowest
method of performing multiplication.
An unrolled This implementation performs a sequence of instructions that is
bitwise sequence identical to the bitwise iteration (above), but the loop is
(8seq) unrolled.
The generated code is larger, but execution is faster than the
loop version.
Multiplication of operands larger than 8 bits can be performed one of the following two
ways:
A bitwise iteration This is the same algorithm used by 8-bit multiplication (above)
(xloop) but the loop runs over all (x) bits of the operands.
Like its 8-bit counterpart, this implementation produces the
smallest amount of code but is typically the slowest method of
performing multiplication.
A bytewise This is a decomposition of the multiplication into a summation
decomposition of many 8-bit multiplications. The 8-bit multiplications can then
(bytdec) be performed using any of the methods described above.
This decomposition is advantageous for PIC18 devices, which
can then use hardware multiply instructions.
For other devices, this method is still fast, but the code size can
become impractical.
Multiplication of floating-point operands operates in a similar way – the integer mantis-

sas can be multiplied using either a bitwise loop (xfploop) or by a bytewise
decomposition.

The following tables indicate which of the multiplication methods are chosen by the
compiler when performing multiplication of both integer and floating point operands.
The method is dependent on the size of the operands, the type of optimizations
enabled, and the target device.
Table 4-1 shows the methods chosen when speed optimizations are enabled (see
Section 3.7.6 “Options for Controlling Optimization”).
TABLE 4-1: MULTIPLICATION WITH SPEED OPTIMIZATIONS

Device 8-bit 16-bit 24-bit 32-bit 24-bit FP 32-bit FP
PIC18 HMI bytdec+HMI bytdec+HMI bytdec+HMI bytdec+HMI bytdec+HMI

Enhanced 8seq bytdec+8seq bytdec+8seq bytdec+8seq bytdec+8seq bytdec+8seq
Mid-range
Mid-range/ 8seq 16loop 24loop 32loop 24fploop 32fploop
Baseline
Table 4-2 shows the method chosen when space optimizations are enabled or when no
C-level optimizations are enabled.
TABLE 4-2: MULTIPLICATION WITH NO OR SPACE OPTIMIZATIONS

Device 8-bit 16-bit 24-bit 32-bit 24-bit FP 32-bit FP
PIC18 HMI bytdec+HMI 24loop 32loop 24fploop 32fploop

Enhanced Mid-range 8loop bytdec+8loop 24loop 32loop 24fploop 32fploop
Mid-range/Baseline 8loop 16loop 24loop 32loop 24fploop 32fploop
The source code for the multiplication routines (documented with the algorithms
employed) is available in the pic/c99/sources directory, located in the compiler’s
installation directory. Look for files whose name has the form Umulx.c. where x is the
size of the operation in bits.
If your device and optimization settings dictate the use of a bitwise multiplication loop
you can sometimes arrange the multiplication operands in your C code to improve the
operation’s speed. Where possible, ensure that the left operand to the multiplication is
the smallest of the operands.
For example, in the code:
x = 10;
y = 200;
result = x * y; // first multiply
result = y * x; // second multiply
the variable result will be assigned the same value in both statements, but the first
multiplication expression will be performed faster than the second.
4.3.10 Baseline PIC MCU Special Instructions

Baseline devices can use the OPTION and TRIS SFRs, which are not memory
mapped.
The definition of these registers use a special qualifier, __control, to indicate that the
registers are write-only, outside the normal address space, and must be accessed
using special instructions.
When these SFRs are written in C code, the compiler will use the appropriate instruc-
tion to store the value. So, for example, to set the TRIS register, the following code:
TRIS = 0xFF;
would be encoded by the compiler as:

C Language Features
movlw 0ffh
TRIS
Those Baseline PIC devices which have more than one output port can have
__control definitions for objects: TRISA, TRISB and TRISC, and which are used in
the same manner as described above.
Any register that uses the __control qualifier must be accessed as a full byte. If you
need to access bits within the register, copy the register to a temporary variable first,
then access that temporary variable as required.
4.3.11 Oscillator Calibration Constants

Some Baseline and Mid-range devices have an oscillator calibration constant pre-pro-
grammed into their program memory. This constant can be read and written to the
OSCCAL register to calibrate the internal RC oscillator.
On some Baseline PIC devices, the calibration constant is stored as a movlw instruc-
tion at the top of program memory, e.g., the PIC10F509 device. On Reset, the program
counter is made to point to this instruction and it is executed first before the program
counter wraps around to 0x0000, which is the effective Reset vector for the device. The
default runtime startup routine (see Section 4.10.2 “Runtime Startup Code”) will auto-
matically include code to load the OSCCAL register with the value contained in the W
register after Reset on such devices. No other code is required.
For other chips, such as PIC12F629 device, the oscillator constant is also stored at the
top of program memory, but as a retlw instruction. The compiler’s startup code will
automatically generate code to retrieve this value and perform the configuration. This
value can also be read at runtime by calling __osccal_val(), whose prototype is
provided in <xc.h>. For example:
unsigned char calVal;
calVal = __osccal_val();
Loading of the calibration value at startup can be turned off via the -mosccal option
(see Section 3.7.1.14 “osccal”).
Note: The location that stores the calibration constant is never code protected
and will be lost if you reprogram the device. Thus, the calibration constant
must be saved before the device is erased. The constant must then be
reprogrammed at the same location along with the new program and data.
If you are using an in-circuit emulator (ICE), the location used by the cali-
bration retlw instruction cannot be programmed and subsequent calls to
__osccal_val() will not work. If you wish to test code that calls this func-
tion on an ICE, you must program a retlw instruction at the appropriate
location. Remember to remove this instruction when programming the
actual part so you do not destroy the calibration value.
Legacy projects can use the macro _READ_OSCCAL_DATA(), which maps to the
__osccal_val() function.
4.3.12 MPLAB REAL ICE In-Circuit Emulator Support

The compiler supports log and trace functions (instrumented trace) when using a
Microchip MPLAB REAL ICE In-Circuit Emulator. See the emulator’s documentation for
more information on the instrumented trace features.
Not all devices support instrumented trace and only native trace is currently supported
by the compiler.

The log and trace macro calls need to be either added by hand to your source code or
inserted by right-clicking on the appropriate location in MPLAB X IDE editor, as
described by the emulator documentation. The <xc.h> header must be included in
any modules that use these macros. The macros have the following form.
__TRACE(id);
__LOG(id, expression);
MPLAB X IDE will automatically substitute an appropriate value for id when you com-
pile; however, you can specify these by hand if required. The trace id should be a con-
stant in the range of 0x40 to 0x7F and the log id is a constant in the range of 0x0 to
0x7F. Each macro should be given a unique number so that it can be properly identified.
The same number can be used for both trace and log macros.
Trace macros should be inserted in the C source code at the locations you wish to
track. They will trigger information to be sent to the debugger and IDE when they are
executed, recording that execution reached that location in the program.
The log expression can be any integer or 32-bit floating-point expression whose
value will be recorded along with the program location. Typically, this expression is sim-
ply a variable name so the variable’s contents are logged.
Adding trace and log macros will increase the size of your code as they contribute to
the program image that is downloaded to the device.
Here is an example of these macros that you might add.
#include <xc.h>
inpStatus = readUser();
if(inpStatus == 0) {
__TRACE(id);
recovery();
}
__LOG(id, inpStatus);
4.3.13 Function profiling

The compiler can generate function registration code for the MPLAB REAL ICE
In-Circuit Emulator to provide function profiling. To obtain profiling results, you must
also use a Power Monitor Board and MPLAB X IDE and power monitor plugin that sup-
port code profiling for the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler.
The -finstrument-functions option (see Section 3.7.5.1 “instrument-functions”)
enables this feature and inserts assembly code into the prologue and epilogue of each
function. This code communicates runtime information to the debugger to signal when
a function is being entered and when it exits. This information, along with further mea-
surements made by a Microchip Power Monitor Board, can determine how much
energy each function is using. This feature is transparent, but note the following points
when profiling is enabled:
• The program will increase in size and run slower due to the profiling code
• One extra level of hardware stack is used
• Some additional RAM memory is consumed
• Inlining of functions will not take place for any profiled function
If a function cannot be profiled (due to hardware stack constraints) but is qualified
inline, the compiler might inline the function. See Section 4.8.1.2 “Inline Specifier”
for more information on inlining functions.

C Language Features
4.4 SUPPORTED DATA TYPES AND VARIABLES

4.4.1 Identifiers
Identifiers are used to represent C objects and functions and must conform to strict
rules.
A C identifier is a sequence of letters and digits where the underscore character “_”
counts as a letter. Identifiers cannot start with a digit. Although they can start with an
underscore, such identifiers are reserved for the compiler’s use and should not be
defined by your programs. Such is not the case for assembly-domain identifiers, which
often begin with an underscore (see Section 4.12.3.1 “Equivalent Assembly Symbols”).
Identifiers are case sensitive, so main is different to Main.
Up to 255 characters are significant in an identifier. If two identifiers differ only after the
maximum number of significant characters, then the compiler will consider them to be
the same symbol.
4.4.2 Integer Data Types

The MPLAB XC8 compiler supports integer data types with 1, 2, 3 and 4 byte sizes as
well as a single bit type. Table 4-3 shows the data types and their corresponding size
and arithmetic type. The default type for each type is underlined.
TABLE 4-3: INTEGER DATA TYPES

Type Size (bits) Arithmetic Type
__bit 1 Unsigned integer
signed char 8 Signed integer
unsigned char 8 Unsigned integer
signed short 16 Signed integer
unsigned short 16 Unsigned integer
signed int 16 Signed integer
unsigned int 16 Unsigned integer
__int24 24 Signed integer
__uint24 24 Unsigned integer
signed long 32 Signed integer
unsigned long 32 Unsigned integer
signed long long 32/64 Signed integer
unsigned long long 32/64 Unsigned integer
The __bit and __int24 types are non-standard types available in this implementa-
tion. The long long types are 64-bit C99 standard types when building for PIC18
devices, but this implementation limits their size to only 32 bits for projects conforming
to the C90 Standard or any project targeting any other device.
All integer values are represented in little endian format with the Least Significant Byte
(LSB) at the lower address.
If no signedness is specified in the type, then the type will be signed except for the
char and __bit types which are always unsigned. The concept of a signed bit is
meaningless.
Signed values are stored as a two’s complement integer value.
The range of values capable of being held by these types is summarized in Table A-7.

The symbols in this table are preprocessor macros which are available after including
<limits.h> in your source code. As the size of data types are not fully specified by
the C Standard, these macros allow for more portable code which can check the limits
of the range of values held by the type on this implementation. The macros associated
with the __int24 type are non-standard macros available in this implementation. The
values associated with the long long macros are dependent on the C standard being
used
Macros are also available in <stdint.h> which define values associated with
fixed-width types, such as int8_t, uint32_t etc.
4.4.2.1 BIT DATA TYPES AND VARIABLES

The MPLAB XC8 C Compiler supports a single-bit integer type via the __bit type
specifier.
Bit variables behave in most respects like normal unsigned char variables, but they
can only contain the values 0 and 1. They provide a convenient and efficient method of
storing flags, since eight bit objects are packed into each byte of memory storage.
Operations on bit variables are performed using the single bit instructions (bsf and
bcf) wherever possible.
__bit init_flag;
These variables cannot be auto or parameters to a function, but can be qualified
static, allowing them to be defined locally within a function. For example:
int func(void) {
static __bit flame_on;
// ...
}
A function can return a bit by using the __bit keyword in the function’s prototype in
the usual way. The returned value will be stored in the STATUS register carry flag.
It is not possible to declare a pointer to bit types or assign the address of a bit object to
any pointer. Nor is it possible to statically initialize bit variables so they must be
assigned any non-zero starting value (i.e., 1) in the code itself. Bit objects will be
cleared on startup, unless the bit is qualified __persistent.
When assigning a larger integral type to a bit variable, only the least significant bit is
used. For example, in the following code:
int data = 0x54;
__bit bitvar;
bitvar = data;
bitvar will be cleared by the assignment since the LSb of data is zero. This sets the
__bit type apart from _Bool, which is a boolean type (See Section 4.4.3 “Boolean
Types”).
All addresses assigned to bit objects and the sections that hold them will be bit
addresses. For absolute bit variables (see Section 4.5.4 “Absolute Variables”), the
address specified in code must be a bit address. Take care when comparing these
addresses to byte addresses used by all other variables.
4.4.3 Boolean Types

The compiler supports _Bool, a type used for holding true and false values. The values
held by variables of this type are not integers and behave differently in expressions
compared to similar expressions involving integers of type bit (See
Section 4.4.2.1 “Bit Data Types and Variables”). Values converted to a _Bool type
result in 0 (false) if the value is 0; otherwise, they result in 1 (true).

C Language Features
The <stdbool.h> header defines true and false macros that can be used with
_Bool types, and the bool macro, which expands to the _Bool type. For example:
#include <stdbool.h>
_Bool motorOn;
motorOn = false;
If you are compiling with the C90 standard, _Bool is not available, but there is a bool
type available if you include <stdbool.h>, but which is merely a typedef for
unsigned char.
4.4.4 Floating-Point Data Types

The MPLAB XC8 compiler supports 32- and 24-bit floating-point types, being an IEEE
754 32-bit format, or a truncated, 24-bit form of this, respectively. Floating-point sizes
of 32-bits will be automatically set when you select C99 compliance. If 24-bit float-
ing-point types are explicitly selected, the compiler will use the C90 libraries. Table 4-4
shows the data types and their corresponding size and arithmetic type.
TABLE 4-4: FLOATING-POINT DATA TYPES

Type Size (bits) Arithmetic Type
float 24 / 32 Real
double 24 / 32 Real
long double same size as double Real
For both float and double values, the 24-bit format is the default. The options
-fshort-float and -fshort-double can also be used to specify this explicitly.
The 32-bit format is used for double values if -fno-short-double option is used
and for float values if -fno-short-float is used.
Variables can be declared using the float and double keywords, respectively, to
hold values of these types. Floating-point types are always signed and the unsigned
keyword is illegal when specifying a floating-point type. Types declared as long
double will use the same format as types declared as double. All floating-point
values are represented in little endian format with the LSB at the lower address.
The 32-bit floating-point type supports "relaxed" semantics when compared to the full
IEEE implementation, which means the following rules are observed.
Tiny (sub-normal) arguments to floating-point routines are interpreted as zeros. There
are no representable floating-point values possible between -1.17549435E-38 and
1.17549435E-38, except for 0.0. This range is called the denormal range. Sub-normal
results of routines are flushed to zero. There are no negative 0 results produced.
Not-a-number (NaN) arguments to routines are interpreted as infinities. NaN results are
never created in addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division routines where a NaN
would be normally expected—an infinity of the proper sign is created instead. The
square root of a negative number will return the “distinguished” NaN (default NaN used
for error return).
Infinities are legal arguments for all operations and behave as the largest representable
number with that sign. For example, +inf + -inf yields the value 0.
The format for both floating-point types is described in Table 4-5, where:
• Sign is the sign bit, which indicates if the number is positive or negative
• The Biased Exponent is 8 bits wide and is stored as excess 127 (i.e., an exponent
of 0 is stored as 127).
• Mantissa is the mantissa, which is to the right of the radix point. There is an
implied bit to the left of the radix point which is always 1 except for a zero value,
where the implied bit is zero. A zero value is indicated by a zero exponent.

The value of this number is (-1)sign x 2(exponent-127) x 1. mantissa.
TABLE 4-5: FLOATING-POINT FORMATS

Format Sign Biased Exponent Mantissa
IEEE 754 32-bit x xxxx xxxx xxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
modified IEEE 754 x xxxx xxxx xxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
24-bit
Here are some examples of the IEEE 754 32-bit formats shown in Table 4-6. Note that
the most significant bit (MSb) of the mantissa column (i.e., the bit to the left of the radix
point) is the implied bit, which is assumed to be 1 unless the exponent is zero.
TABLE 4-6: FLOATING-POINT FORMAT EXAMPLE IEEE 754

Format Value Biased Exponent 1.mantissa Decimal
32-bit 7DA6B69Bh 1.0100110101101101

11111011b 0011011b 2.77000e+37
(251) (1.302447676659) —
24-bit 42123Ah 10000100b 1.001001000111010b 36.557
(132) (1.142395019531) —
Use the following process to manually calculate the 32-bit example in Table 4-6.
The sign bit is zero; the biased exponent is 251, so the exponent is 251-127=124. Take
the binary number to the right of the decimal point in the mantissa. Convert this to dec-
imal and divide it by 223 where 23 is the size of the mantissa, to give 0.302447676659.
Add 1 to this fraction. The floating-point number is then given by:
-10´2124´1.302447676659
which is approximately equal to:
2.77000e+37
Binary floating-point values are sometimes misunderstood. It is important to remember
that not every floating-point value can be represented by a finite sized floating-point
number. The size of the exponent in the number dictates the range of values that the
number can hold and the size of the mantissa relates to the spacing of each value that
can be represented exactly. Thus the 24-bit format allows for values with approximately
the same range of values representable by the 32-bit format, but the values that can be
exactly represented by this format are more widely spaced.
So, for example, if you are using a 24-bit wide floating-point type, it can exactly store
the value 95000.0. However, the next highest number it can represent is 95002.0 and
it is impossible to represent any value in between these two in such a type as it will be
rounded. This implies that C code which compares floating-point values might not
behave as expected.
For example:
volatile float myFloat;
myFloat = 95002.0;
if(myFloat == 95001.0) // value will be rounded
PORTA++; // this line will be executed!
in which the result of the if expression will be true, even though it appears the two val-
ues being compared are different.
Compare this to a 32-bit floating-point type, which has a higher precision. It also can
exactly store 95000.0 as a value. The next highest value which can be represented is
(approximately) 95000.00781.

C Language Features
The characteristics of the floating-point formats are summarized in Table A-4, where
XXX can be either FLT or DBL, representing float and double types, respectively.
The symbols in this table are preprocessor macros that are available after including
<float.h> in your source code. As the size and format of floating-point data types are
not fully specified by the C Standard, these macros allow for more portable code which
can check the limits of the range of values held by the type on this implementation.
4.4.5 Structures and Unions

MPLAB XC8 C Compiler supports struct and union types. Structures and unions
only differ in the memory offset applied to each member.
These types will be at least 1 byte wide. The members of structures and unions cannot
be objects of type __bit, but bit-fields and _Bool objects are fully supported.
Structures and unions can be passed freely as function arguments and function return
values. Pointers to structures and unions are fully supported.
4.4.5.1 STRUCTURE AND UNION QUALIFIERS

The compiler supports the use of type qualifiers on structures. When a qualifier is
applied to a structure, all of its members will inherit this qualification. In the following
example the structure is qualified const.
const struct {
int number;
int *ptr;
} record = { 0x55, &i };
In this case, the entire structure will be placed into the program space and each mem-
ber will be read-only. Remember that all members are usually initialized if a structure
is const as they cannot be initialized at runtime.
If the members of the structure were individually qualified const, but the structure was
not, then the structure would be positioned into RAM, but each member would be
read-only. Compare the following structure with the above.
struct {
const int number;
int * const ptr;
} record = { 0x55, &i };
4.4.5.2 BIT-FIELDS IN STRUCTURES

MPLAB XC8 C Compiler fully supports bit-fields in structures.
Bit-fields are always allocated within 8-bit words, even though it is usual to use the type
unsigned int in the definition. The first bit defined will be the LSb of the word in
which it will be stored. When a bit-field is declared, it is allocated within the current 8-bit
unit if it will fit; otherwise, a new byte is allocated within the structure. Bit-fields can
never cross the boundary between 8-bit allocation units. Bit-fields of type _Bool are
also supported; however, they can only be one bit in size.
For example, the declaration:
struct {
unsigned lo : 1;
unsigned dummy : 6;
unsigned hi : 1;
} foo;

will produce a structure occupying 1 byte. If foo was ultimately linked at address 0x10,
the field lo will be bit 0 of address 0x10 and field hi will be bit 7 of address 0x10. The
LSb of dummy will be bit 1 of address 0x10.
Note: Accessing bit-fields larger than a single bit can be very inefficient. If code
size and execution speed are critical, consider using a char type or a char
structure member, instead. Be aware that some SFRs are defined as
bit-fields. Most are single bits, but some can be multi-bit objects.
Unnamed bit-fields can be declared to pad out unused space between active bits in
control registers. For example, if dummy is never referenced, the structure above could
have been declared as:
struct {
unsigned lo : 1;
unsigned : 6;
unsigned hi : 1;
} foo;
A structure with bit-fields can be initialized by supplying a comma-separated list of initial
values for each field. For example:
struct {
unsigned lo : 1;
unsigned mid : 6;
unsigned hi : 1;
} foo = {1, 8, 0};
Structures with unnamed bit-fields can be initialized. No initial value should be supplied
for the unnamed members, for example:
struct {
unsigned lo : 1;
unsigned : 6;
unsigned hi : 1;
} foo = {1, 0};
will initialize the members lo and hi correctly.
A bit-field that has a size of 0 is a special case. The Standard indicates that no further
bit-field is to be packed into the allocation unit in which the previous bit-field, if any, was
placed.
4.4.5.3 ANONYMOUS STRUCTURES AND UNIONS

The MPLAB XC8 compiler supports anonymous structures and unions. These are C11
constructs with no identifier and whose members can be accessed without referencing
the identifier of the construct. Anonymous structures and unions must be placed inside
other structures or unions. For example:
struct {
union {
int x;
double y;
};
} aaa;
aaa.x = 99;
Here, the union is not named and its members are accessed as if they are part of the
structure.
Objects defined with anonymous structures or unions can only be initialized if you are
using the C99 Standard.

C Language Features
4.4.6 Pointer Types

There are two basic pointer types supported by the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler: data
pointers and function pointers. Data pointers hold the addresses of objects which can
be read, and possibly written, by the program. Function pointers hold the address of an
executable function which can be called via the pointer. Data pointers (even generic
void * pointers) should never be used to hold the address of functions, and function
pointers should never be used to hold the address of objects.
The MPLAB XC8 compiler records all assignments of addresses to each pointer the
program contains, and as a result, non-standard qualifiers are not required when defin-
ing pointer variables. The standard qualifiers const and volatile can still be used
and have their usual meaning.
The size and format of the address held by each pointer is based on the set of all pos-
sible targets the pointer can address. This information is specific to each pointer
defined in the program, thus two pointers with the same C type can hold addresses of
different sizes and formats due to the way the pointers were used in the program.
The compiler tracks the memory location of all targets, as well as the size of all targets
to determine the size and scope of a pointer. The size of a target is important as well,
particularly with arrays or structures. It must be possible to increment a pointer so it can
access all the elements of an array, for example.
4.4.6.1 COMBINING TYPE QUALIFIERS AND POINTERS

It is helpful to first review the C conventions for definitions of pointer types.
Pointers can be qualified like any other C object, but care must be taken when doing
so as there are two quantities associated with pointers. The first is the actual pointer
itself, which is treated like any ordinary C variable and has memory reserved for it. The
second is the target, or targets, that the pointer references, or to which the pointer
points. The general form of a pointer definition looks like the following:
target_type_&_qualifiers * pointer’s_qualifiers pointer’s_name;
Any qualifiers to the right of the * (i.e., next to the pointer’s name) relate to the pointer
variable itself. The type and any qualifiers to the left of the * relate to the pointer’s tar-
gets. This makes sense since it is also the * operator that dereferences a pointer, which
allows you to get from the pointer variable to its current target.
Here are three examples of pointer definitions using the volatile qualifier. The fields
in the definitions have been highlighted with spacing:
volatile int * vip ;
int * volatile ivp ;
volatile int * volatile vivp ;
The first example is a pointer called vip. The pointer itself – the variable that holds the
address – is not volatile; however, the objects that are accessed when the pointer
is dereferenced are treated as being volatile. In other words, the target objects
accessible via the pointer can be externally modified.
In the second example, the pointer called ivp is volatile, that is, the address the
pointer contains can be externally modified; however, the objects that can be accessed
when dereferencing the pointer are not volatile.
The last example is of a pointer called vivp which is itself qualified volatile, and
which also holds the address of volatile objects.

Bear in mind that one pointer can be assigned the addresses of many objects; for
example, a pointer that is a parameter to a function is assigned a new object address
every time the function is called. The definition of the pointer must be valid for every
target address assigned.
Note: Care must be taken when describing pointers. Is a “const pointer” a pointer
that points to const objects, or a pointer that is const itself? You can talk
about “pointers to const” and “const pointers” to help clarify the definition,
but such terms might not be universally understood.
4.4.6.2 POINTER-TARGET QUALIFIERS

The __rom and __ram pointer-target qualifiers can be used if you would like the com-
piler to confirm that targets assigned to a pointer are in a particular memory space.
These qualifiers can be used only when declaring or defining pointers. They cannot be
used with ordinary variables and they have no effect on the placement of the pointers
themselves. These qualifiers are always enforced by the compiler and they are not
affected by the -maddrqual option (see Section 3.7.1.1 “addrqual”) or #pragma
addrqual.
The assignment of an incompatible target to a pointer that uses one of these qualifiers
will trigger an error, so in the following example:
const int __rom * in_ptr;
an error would be generated if your program assigned to in_ptr the address of an
object that was in data memory. Use of __rom implies the const qualifier, but it is rec-
ommended that const is explicitly used to ensure the meaning of your code is clear.
The use of these qualifiers must be consistent across all declarations of a pointer and
it is illegal to use both qualifiers with the same pointer variable.
4.4.6.3 DATA POINTERS

There are several pointer classifications used with the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler, such
as those indicated below. Those classification marked with (local) are the only classifi-
cations considered when local OCG optimizations have been selected (see
Section 4.4.6.3.2 “Pointer Classifications with Local Optimization”).
For Baseline and Mid-range devices:
• 8-bit pointer capable of accessing common memory and two consecutive
(even-odd) banks, e.g., banks 0 and 1, or banks 6 and 7, etc.
• 16-bit pointer capable of accessing the entire data memory space (local)
• 8-bit pointer capable of accessing up to 256 bytes of program space data
• 16-bit pointer capable of accessing up to 64 Kbytes of program space data (local)
• 16-bit mixed target space pointer capable of accessing the entire data space
memory and up to 64 Kbytes of program space data (local)
For PIC18 devices:
• 8-bit pointer capable of accessing the access bank
• 16-bit pointer capable of accessing the entire data memory space (local)
• 8-bit pointer capable of accessing up to 256 bytes of program space data
• 16-bit pointer capable of accessing up to 64 Kbytes of program space data (local)
• 24-bit pointer capable of accessing the entire program space (local)
memory and up to 64 Kbytes of program space data
memory and the entire program space (local)

C Language Features
Each data pointer will be allocated one of the available classifications after preliminary
scans of the source code. There is no mechanism by which the programmer can spec-
ify the style of pointer required (other than by the assignments to the pointer). The C
code must convey the required information to the compiler.
Information about the pointers and their targets are shown in the pointer reference
graph, (described in Section 5.4.5 “Pointer Reference Graph”). This graph is printed in
the assembly list file.
4.4.6.3.1 Pointers to Both Memory Spaces
When a data pointer is assigned the address of one or more objects that have been
allocated memory in the data space and also assigned the address of one or more
objects that have been allocated memory in the program memory space, the pointer is
said to have targets with mixed memory spaces. Such pointers fall into one of the mixed
target space pointer classifications (listed in Section 4.4.6.3 “Data Pointers”) and the
address will be encoded so that the target memory space can be determined at run-
time. The encoding of these pointer types are as follows.
For the Baseline/Mid-range 16-bit mixed target space pointer, the MSb of the address
(i.e., bit number 15) indicates the memory space that the address references. If this bit
is set, it indicates that the address is of something in program memory; clear indicates
an object in the data memory. The remainder of this address represents the full address
in the indicated memory space.
For the PIC18 16-bit mixed target space pointer, any address above the highest data
space address is that of an object in the program space memory; otherwise, the
address is of a data space memory object.
For the PIC18 24-bit mixed target space pointer, bit number 21 indicates the memory
space that the address references. If this bit is set, it indicates that the address is of an
object residing in data memory; if it is clear, it indicates an object in the program mem-
ory. The remainder of this address represents the full address in the indicated memory
space. Note that for efficiency reasons, the meaning of the memory space bit is the
opposite to that for Baseline and Mid-range devices.
If assembly code references a C pointer, the compiler will force that pointer to become
a 16-bit mixed target space pointer, in the case of Baseline or Mid-range programs, or
a 24-bit mixed target space pointer, for PIC18 programs. These pointer types have
unrestricted access to all memory areas and will operate correctly, even if assignments
(of a correctly formatted address) are made to the pointer in the assembly code.
4.4.6.3.2 Pointer Classifications with Local Optimization

Where local optimizations have been enabled, pointers can have a size and classifica-
tion based purely on their definition, not on the targets assigned to them by the pro-
gram.
The pointer-target specifiers, __ram and __rom, (see Section 4.4.6.2 “Pointer-Target
Qualifiers”) can be used to ensure that addresses assigned to a pointer during the pro-
gram’s execution are within an intended memory space. Together with a restricted
range of pointer classifications, this ensures that pointers will have a size that is pre-
dictable.

Pointers defined in code built with local optimizations and which have the indicated tar-
gets will have the following sizes, where type is a valid, unqualified C type, and [brack-
eted tokens] are optional.
const type * pointers can be assigned the address of any object in data or pro-
gram memory. These pointers will be 3 bytes wide if the program is being
built for a PIC18 device that has more than 64kB of program memory; they
will be 2 bytes wide, otherwise.
[const] __rom type * pointers can be assigned the address of any object in pro-
gram memory, and attempts to assign the address of a data memory object
will result in an error. These pointers will be 3 bytes wide if the program is
being built for a PIC18 device that has more than 64kB of program memory;
they will be 2 bytes wide, otherwise.
type * pointers can be assigned the address of any object in data memory. As per
normal operation, the compiler will issue a warning if the address of a const
object is assigned to such pointers. These pointers are always 2 bytes in
size.
[const] __ram type * pointers can be assigned the address of any object in data
memory and attempts to assign the address of a program memory object will
result in an error. These pointers will always be 2 bytes in size. The presence
of the const specifier indicates only that the target objects must be treated
as read-only.
The size and operation of pointers to __far, pointers to eeprom, and function pointers
are not affected by the local optimization setting.
4.4.6.4 FUNCTION POINTERS

The MPLAB XC8 compiler fully supports pointers to functions. These are often used to
call one of several function addresses stored in a user-defined C array, which acts like
a lookup table.
For Baseline and Mid-range devices, function pointers are always one byte in size and
hold an offset into a jump table that is output by the compiler. This jump table contains
jumps to the destination functions.
For Enhanced Mid-range devices, function pointers are always 16-bits wide and can
hold the full address of any function.
For PIC18 devices, function pointers are either 16 or 24 bits wide. The pointer size is
purely based on the amount of program memory available on the target device.
As with data pointers, the target assigned to function pointers is tracked. This is an eas-
ier process to undertake compared to that associated with data pointers as all function
instructions must reside in program memory. The pointer reference graph (described in
Section 5.4.5 “Pointer Reference Graph”) will show function pointers, in addition to
data pointers, as well as all their targets. The targets will be names of functions that
could possibly be called via the pointer.
One notable runtime feature for Baseline and Mid-range devices is that a function
pointer which contains null (the value 0) and is used to call a function indirectly will
cause the code to become stuck in a loop which branches to itself. This endless loop
can be used to detect this erroneous situation. Typically calling a function via a null
function would result in the code crashing or some other unexpected behavior. The
label to which the endless loop will jump is called fpbase.

C Language Features
4.4.6.5 SPECIAL POINTER TARGETS
Pointers and integers are not interchangeable. Assigning an integer to a pointer will
generate a warning to this effect. For example:
const char * cp = 0x123; // the compiler will flag this as bad code
There is no information in the integer constant, 0x123, relating to the type, size or mem-
ory location of the destination. There is a very good chance of code failure when deref-
erencing pointers that have been assigned integer addresses, particularly for PIC
devices that have more than one memory space.
Always take the address of a C object when assigning an address to a pointer. If there
is no C object defined at the destination address, then define or declare an object at
this address which can be used for this purpose. Make sure the size of the object
matches the range of the memory locations that are to be accessed by the pointer.
For example, a checksum for 1000 memory locations starting at address 0x900 in pro-
gram memory is to be generated. A pointer is used to read this data. You can be
tempted to write code such as:
const char * cp;
cp = 0x900; // what resides at 0x900???
and increment the pointer over the data.
However, a much better solution is this:
const char * cp;
extern const char inputData[1000] __at(0x900);
cp = &inputData;
// cp is incremented over inputData and used to read values there
In this case, the compiler can determine the size of the target and the memory space.
The array size and type indicates the size of the pointer target, the const qualifier on
the object (not the pointer) indicates the target is located in program memory space.
Note that the const array does not need initial values to be specified in this instance,
see Section 4.4.8.1 “Const Type Qualifier” and can reside over the top of other objects
at these addresses.
If the pointer has to access objects in data memory, you need to define a different object
to act as a dummy target. For example, if the checksum was to be calculated over 10
bytes starting at address 0x90 in data memory, the following code could be used.
const char * cp;
extern char inputData[10] __at(0x90);
cp = &inputData;
// cp is incremented over inputData and used to read values there
No memory is consumed by the extern declaration, and this can be mapped over the
top of existing objects.
User-defined absolute objects will not be cleared by the runtime startup code and can
be placed over the top of other absolute variables.
Take care when comparing (subtracting) pointers. For example:
if(cp1 == cp2)
; // take appropriate action
The C standard only allows pointer comparisons when the two pointers’ addresses are
of the same object. One exception is that the address can extend to one element past
the end of an array.
Never compare pointers with integer constants as that is even more risky, for example:
if(cp1 == 0x246)
; // take appropriate action

A null pointer is the one instance where a constant value can be assigned to a pointer
and this is handled correctly by the compiler. A null pointer is numerically equal to 0
(zero), but this is a special case imposed by the C standard. Comparisons with the
macro NULL are also allowed.
4.4.7 Constant Types and Formats

Constant in C are an immediate value that can be specified in several formats and that
are assigned a type.
4.4.7.1 INTEGRAL CONSTANTS

The format of integral constants specifies their radix. MPLAB XC8 supports the stan-
dard radix specifiers, as well as ones which enables binary constants to be specified in
C code.
The formats used to specify the radices are given in Table 4-7. The letters used to spec-
ify binary or hexadecimal radices are case insensitive, as are the letters used to specify
the hexadecimal digits.
TABLE 4-7: RADIX FORMATS

Radix Format Example
binary 0bnumber or 0Bnumber 0b10011010

octal 0number 0763
decimal number 129
hexadecimal 0xnumber or 0Xnumber 0x2F
Any integral constant will have a type of int, long int or long long int, so that
the type can hold the value without overflow. Constants specified in octal or hexadeci-
mal can also be assigned a type of unsigned int, unsigned long int or
unsigned long long int if their signed counterparts are too small to hold the
value.
The default types of constants can be changed by the addition of a suffix after the digits;
e.g., 23U, where U is the suffix. Table 4-8 shows the possible combination of suffixes
and the types that are considered when assigning a type. So, for example, if the suffix
l is specified and the value is a decimal constant, the compiler will assign the type
long int, if that type will hold the constant; otherwise, it will assigned long long
int. If the constant was specified as an octal or hexadecimal constant, then unsigned
types are also considered.
TABLE 4-8: SUFFIXES AND ASSIGNED TYPES

Suffix Decimal Octal or Hexadecimal
u or U unsigned int unsigned int

unsigned long int unsigned long int
unsigned long long int unsigned long long int
l or L long int long int
long long int unsigned long int
long long int
unsigned long long int
u or U, and l or L unsigned long int unsigned long int
unsigned long long int unsigned long long int
ll or LL long long int long long int
unsigned long long int
u or U, and ll or LL unsigned long long int unsigned long long int

C Language Features
Here is an example of code that can fail because the default type assigned to a
constant is not appropriate:
unsigned long int result;
unsigned char shifter;
shifter = 20;
result = 1 << shifter; // oops!
The constant 1 (one) will be assigned an int type, hence the value 1 shifted left 20 bits
will yield the result 0, not 0x100000.
The following uses a suffix to change the type of the constant, hence ensure the shift
result has an unsigned long type.
result = 1UL << shifter;
4.4.7.2 FLOATING-POINT CONSTANT

Floating-point constants have double type unless suffixed by f or F, in which case it
is a float constant. The suffixes l or L specify a long double type which is
considered an identical type to double by MPLAB XC8.
Floating point constants can be specified as decimal digits with a decimal point and/or
an exponent. If you are using C99, they can be expressed as hexadecimal digits and a
binary exponent, initiated with either p or P. So for example:
myFloat = -123.98E12;
myFloat = 0xFFEp-22; // C99 float representation
4.4.7.3 CHARACTER AND STRING CONSTANTS

Character constants are enclosed by single quote characters, ’, for example ’a’. A
character constant has int type, although this can be later optimized to a char type
by the compiler.
To comply with the C standard, the compiler does not support the extended character
set in characters or character arrays. Instead, they need to be escaped using the back-
slash character, as in the following example.
const char name[] = "Bj\370rk";
printf("%s's Resum\351", name); \\ prints "Bjørk's Resumé"
Multi-byte character constants are not supported by this implementation.
String constants, or string literals, are enclosed by double quote characters “, for exam-
ple “hello world”. The type of string constants is const char * and the characters
that make up the string are stored in program memory, as are all objects qualified
const.
A common warning relates to assigning a string literal, which cannot be modified, to a
pointer that does not specify a const target, for example:
char * cp = "hello world\n";
See Section 4.4.6.1 “Combining Type Qualifiers and Pointers” and qualify the pointer
as follows.
const char * cp = "hello world\n";
Defining and initializing an array (i.e., not a pointer) with a string is an exception. For
example:
char ca[]= "hello world\n";
will actually copy the string characters into the RAM array, rather than assign the
address of the characters to a pointer, as in the previous examples. The string literal
remains read-only, but the array is both readable and writable.

The MPLAB XC8 compiler will use the same storage location and label for strings that
have identical character sequences, except where the strings are used to initialize an
array residing in the data space. For example, in the code snippet
if(strncmp(scp, "hello", 6) == 0)
fred = 0;
if(strcmp(scp, "world") == 0)
fred--;
if(strcmp(scp, "hello world") == 0)
fred++;
the characters in the string “world” and the last 6 characters of the string “hello
world” (the last character is the null terminator character) would be represented by
the same characters in memory. The string “hello” would not overlap with the same
characters in the string “hello world” as they differ in terms of the placement of the
null character.
4.4.8 Standard Type Qualifiers

The compiler supports the standard qualifiers const and volatile, and additional
qualifiers that allow programs take advantage of the 8-bit PIC MCU architecture.
4.4.8.1 CONST TYPE QUALIFIER

The const type qualifier is used to tell the compiler that an object is read only and will
not be modified. If any attempt is made to modify an object declared const, the
compiler will issue a warning or error.
User-defined objects (excluding autos and parameters) declared const are placed in
a special psect linked into the program space. Objects qualified const can be abso-
lute. The __at(address) construct is used to place the object at the specified
address in program memory, as in the following example which places the object
tableDef at address 0x100.
const int tableDef[] __at(0x100) = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4};
Usually a const object must be initialized when it is declared, as it cannot be assigned
a value at any point at runtime. For example:
const int version = 3;
will define version as being a read-only int variable, holding the value 3. However,
uninitialized absolute extern const objects can be defined and are useful if you need
to place an object in program memory over the top of other objects at a particular loca-
tion, as in the following example.
extern const char checksumRange[0x100] __at(0x800);
will define checksumRange as an array of 0x100 characters located at address 0x800
in program memory. This definition will not place any data in the HEX file.

C Language Features
4.4.8.2 VOLATILE TYPE QUALIFIER
The volatile type qualifier indicates to the compiler that an object cannot be guar-
anteed to retain its value between successive accesses. This information prevents the
optimizer from eliminating apparently redundant references to objects declared
volatile because these references might alter the behavior of the program.
Any SFR which can be modified by hardware or which drives hardware is qualified as
volatile, and any variables which can be modified by interrupt routines should use
this qualifier as well. For example:
volatile static unsigned int TACTL __at(0x160);
The volatile qualifier does not guarantee that any access will be atomic, which is
often not the case since the 8-bit PIC MCU architecture can only access a maximum
of 1 byte of data per instruction.
The code produced by the compiler, used to access volatile objects can be different
to that of ordinary variables and typically the code will be longer and slower for
volatile objects, so only use this qualifier if it is necessary. However, failure to use
this qualifier when it is required can lead to code failure.
A common use of the volatile keyword is to prevent unused global variables being
removed. If a non-volatile variable is never used, or used in a way that has no
effect, then it can be removed before code is generated by the compiler.
A C statement that consists only of a volatile variable identifier will produce code
that reads the variable’s memory location and discards the result. For example, the
entire statement, PORTB; will produce assembly code the reads PORTB. This is useful
for some peripheral registers that require reading to reset the state of interrupt flags.
Some variables are treated as being volatile even though they are not qualified.
See Section 4.12.3.5 “Undefined Symbols” if you have assembly code in your project.
4.4.9 Special Type Qualifiers

The MPLAB XC8 C Compiler supports special type qualifiers to allow the user to control
placement of objects with static storage duration into particular address spaces.
4.4.9.1 __BANK() TYPE QUALIFIER

The __bank(n) type qualifier and the -maddrqual compiler option are used to place
objects in a particular memory bank.
The data memory on PIC devices is arranged into memory banks. The compiler auto-
matically allocates objects to one of the available banks, but there are times when you
might require the object to be located in a particular bank, as might be the case if
assembly code selects that bank prior accessing the object. They can be used to place
objects in banks 0 through 3 (higher bank selection is not currently available).
This qualifier can be used with any variable with static storage duration, for example to
following places playMode into bank 1:
__bank(1) unsigned char playMode;
These qualifiers are controlled by the compiler option -maddrqual, which determines
their effect (see Section 3.7.1.1 “addrqual”). Based on this option’s settings, these
qualifiers can be binding or ignored (which is the default operation). Qualifiers which
are ignored will not produce an error or warning, but will have no effect.

4.4.9.2 __EEPROM TYPE QUALIFIER
The __eeprom type qualifier is used to place objects in EEPROM memory for Baseline
and Mid-range devices that implement this memory. A warning is produced if the qual-
ifier is not supported for the selected device. Check your device data sheet to see the
memory available with your device.
This qualifier can be used with any object with static storage duration, for example to
place the inputData array into EEPROM, use:
eeprom unsigned char inputData[3];
See Section 4.5.5 “Variables in EEPROM” for other ways of accessing the EEPROM.
4.4.9.3 __FAR TYPE QUALIFIER

The __far type qualifier and the -maddrqual compiler option are used to place vari-
ables into external memory.
Some PIC18 devices can support external memory. If you hardware supports this, you
must first specify this memory with the -mram option (see Section 3.7.1.16 “ram”). For
example, to map additional data memory from 20000h to 2FFFFh use
--RAM=default,+20000-2FFFF.
Memory added to the RAM ranges is exclusively used by variables that are qualified
__far. Access of external memory is less efficient than that of ordinary data memory
and will be slower to execute and use more code. Here is an example of an unsigned
int object placed into the device’s external program memory space:
__far unsigned int farvar;
This qualifier is controlled by the compiler option -maddrqual, which determines its
effect on PIC18 devices (see Section 3.7.1.1 “addrqual”). Based on this option’s set-
tings, this qualifier can be binding or ignored (which is the default operation). Qualifiers
which are ignored will not produce an error or warning, but will have no effect.
Note that this qualifier will be ignored when compiling for PIC10/12/16 targets and that
not all PIC18 devices support external memory.
4.4.9.4 __NEAR TYPE QUALIFIER

The __near type qualifier and the -maddrqual compiler option are used to place vari-
ables in common memory.
Some of the 8-bit PIC architectures implement data memory which can be always
accessed regardless of the currently selected bank. This common memory can be
used to reduce code size and execution times as the bank selection instructions that
are normally required to access data in banked memory are not required when access-
ing the common memory. PIC18 devices refer to this memory as the access bank mem-
ory. Mid-range and Baseline devices have very small amounts of this memory, if it is
present at all. PIC18 devices have substantially more common memory, but the amount
differs between devices. See your device data sheet for more information.
This qualifier can be used with any variable with static storage duration, for example:
__near unsigned char fred;
This qualifier is controlled by the compiler option -maddrqual, which determines its
effect (see Section 3.7.1.1 “addrqual”). Based on this option’s settings, this qualifier
can be binding or ignored (which is the default operation). Qualifiers which are ignored
will not produce an error or warning, but will have no effect.
The compiler must use common memory for some temporary objects. Any remaining
space is available for general use. The compiler automatically places frequently
accessed user-defined objects in common memory, so this qualifier is only needed for
special memory placement of objects.

C Language Features
4.4.9.5 __PERSISTENT TYPE QUALIFIER
The __persistent type qualifier is used to indicate that variables should not be
cleared by the runtime startup code by having them stored in a different area of memory
to other variables.
By default, C variables with static storage duration that are not explicitly initialized are
cleared on startup. This is consistent with the definition of the C language. However,
there are occasions where it is desired for some data to be preserved across a Reset.
For example, the following ensures that the static local object, intvar, is not cleared
at startup:
void test(void)
{
static __persistent int intvar; /* must be static */
// ...
}
4.4.9.6 __RAM AND __ROM POINTER-TARGET QUALIFIERS

The __ram and rom qualifiers ensure that pointers access targets only in a desired
memory space. They do not affect the placement of pointers with which they are used.
See Section 4.4.6.3 “Data Pointers” for more information.
4.4.9.7 __SECTION QUALIFIER

The __section() qualifier allocates the object to a user-nominated section rather
than allowing the compiler to place it in a default section. See Section 4.15.3 “Changing
and Linking the Allocated Section” for full information on the use of this qualifier.

4.5 MEMORY ALLOCATION AND ACCESS

Objects you define are automatically allocated to an area of memory. In some
instances, it is possible to alter this allocation. Memory areas and allocation are dis-
cussed in the following sections.
4.5.1 Address Spaces

All 8-bit PIC devices have a Harvard architecture, which has a separate data memory
(RAM) and program memory space. Some devices also implement EEPROM.
The data memory (referred to in the data sheets as the general purpose register file) is
banked to reduce the assembly instruction width. A bank is “selected” by one or more
instructions that sets one or more bits in an SFR. Consult your device data sheet for
the exact operation of the device you are using.
Both the general purpose RAM and SFRs both share the same data space and can
appear in all available memory banks. PIC18 devices have all SFRs in the one data
bank, but Mid-range and Baseline devices have SFRs at the lower addresses of each
bank. Due to the location of SFRs in these devices, the general purpose memory
becomes fragmented and this limits the size of most C objects.
The Enhanced Mid-range devices overcome this fragmentation by allowing a linear
addressing mode, which allows the general purpose memory to be accessed as one
contiguous chunk. Thus, when compiling for these devices, the maximum allowable
size of objects typically increases. Objects defined when using PIC18 devices can also
typically use the entire data memory.
Many devices have several bytes which can be accessed regardless of which bank is
currently selected. This memory is called common memory. The PIC18 data sheets
refer to the bank in which this memory is stored as the access bank, and hence it is
often referred to as the access bank memory. Since no code is required to select a bank
before accessing these locations, access to objects in this memory is typically faster
and produces smaller code. The compiler always tries to use this memory if possible.
The program memory space is primarily for executable code, but data can also be
located here. There are several ways the different device families locate and read data
from this memory, but all objects located here will be read-only.
4.5.2 Objects in Data Memory

Most variables are ultimately positioned into the data memory. Due to the fundamen-
tally different way in which automatic and static storage duration objects are allocated
memory, they are discussed separately.
4.5.2.1 STATIC STORAGE DURATION OBJECTS

Objects which are allocated a memory location that remains fixed for the duration of the
program (i.e. not allocated space on a stack) are said to have static storage duration
and are located by the compiler into any of the available data banks.
Allocation is performed in two steps. The code generator places each object into a spe-
cific section, then the linker places these sections into their predetermined memory
areas. See Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects” for an introductory guide to
sections. Thus, during compilation, the code generator can determine the bank in
which each object will reside, so that it can efficiently handle bank selection, but it will
not know the object’s exact address.

C Language Features
The compiler considers three broad categories of object, which relate to the value the
object should contain at the time the program begins. Each object category has a cor-
responding family of sections (see Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects”),
which are tabulated below.
nv These sections are used to store objects qualified __persistent, whose
values are not cleared by the runtime startup code.
bss These sections contain any uninitialized objects, which will be cleared by the
runtime startup code.
data These sections contain the RAM image of initialized objects, whose non-ze-
ro value is copied to them by the runtime startup code.
Section 4.10 “Main, Runtime Startup and Reset” has information on how the runtime
startup code operates.
4.5.2.1.1 Static Objects

All static objects have static storage duration, even local static objects, defined
inside a function and which have a scope limited to that function. Thus, even local static
objects can be referenced by a pointer, and are guaranteed to retain their value
between calls to the function in which they are defined, unless explicitly modified via a
pointer.
Objects which are static only have their initial value assigned once during the pro-
gram’s execution. Thus, they can be preferable over initialized auto objects which are
assigned a value every time the block in they are defined begins execution.
All static variables which are also specified as const will be stored in program
memory.
4.5.2.1.2 Object Size Limits
An object with static storage duration cannot be made larger than the available device
memory size, but there can be other restrictions as to how large each object can be.
When compiling for Enhanced Mid-range PIC devices, the size of an object is typically
limited only by the total available data memory. Objects that will not fit into any one of
the available data banks will be allocated across several banks and accessed using the
device’s linear data memory feature. Linear memory access is typically slower than
accessing the object directly.
When compiling for PIC18 devices, the size of an object is also typically limited only by
the data memory available. The instruction set allows any object to span several data
banks; however, the code to access such objects will typically be larger and slower.
On Baseline and other Mid-range devices, the object must entirely fit in one bank and
so objects are limited in size to the largest of the available spaces in the data banks.
4.5.2.1.3 Changing the Default Allocation
You can change the default memory allocation of objects with static storage duration
by either:
• Reserving memory locations
• Using specifiers
• Making the objects absolute; or
• Placing objects in their own section and linking that section
If you wish to prevent objects from using one or more data memory locations so that
these locations can be used for some other purpose, you are best reserving the mem-
ory using the memory adjust options. See Section 3.7.1.17 “reserve” for information on
how to do this.

Objects can be placed in specific memory banks using the __bank() specifier (see
Section 4.4.9.1 “__bank() Type Qualifier”).
If only a few objects are to be located at specific addresses in data space memory, then
those objects can be made absolute (described in Section 4.5.4 “Absolute Variables”).
Since absolute objects have a known address, they do not follow the normal memory
allocation procedure.
Objects can also be placed in their own section by using the __section() specifier,
allowing this section to be linked at the required location (see Section 4.15.3 “Changing
and Linking the Allocated Section”).
4.5.2.2 AUTOMATIC STORAGE DURATION OBJECTS

Objects with automatic storage duration, such as auto, parameter objects, and
temporary variables, are allocated space on a stack implemented by the compiler.
MPLAB XC8 has two stack implementations: a compiled stack and a software stack1
(described in Section 4.3.4 “Stacks”). Each C function is compiled to use exactly one
of these stacks for its automatic storage duration objects and Table 4-9 summarizes
how the choice of stack affects a function’s reentrancy.
TABLE 4-9: FUNCTION MODELS IMPLEMENTATION

Data Stack Used Function Model Supported Device Families
Compiled stack Non-reentrant All devices
Software stack Reentrant Enhanced Mid-range and PIC18 devices
When compiling for those devices that do not support the reentrant function model, all
functions are encoded to use the compiled stack, which are non-reentrant functions.
For the Enhanced Mid-range and PIC18 devices, by default the compiler will use the
non-reentrant model for all functions. The -mstack option (see
Section 3.7.1.21 “stack”) can be used to change the compiler’s default behavior when
assigning function models. Select the software argument with this option so that the
compiler will always choose the reentrant model (software stack) for each function. Set
this option to hybrid to allow the compiler to decide how each function should be
encoded. If the function is not reentrantly called, then it will be encoded to use the
non-reentrant model and the compiled stack. If the function appears in more than one
call graph (i.e., it is called from main-line and interrupt code), or it appears in a loop in
a call graph (i.e., it is called recursively), then the compiler will use the reentrant model.
The hybrid mode allows the program to use recursion but still take advantage of the
more efficient compiled stack.
Alternatively you can change the function model for individual functions by using func-
tion specifiers when you define the function. Use either the __compiled or
__nonreentrant specifier (identical meanings) to indicate that the specified function
must use the compiled stack, without affecting any other function. Alternatively, use
either the __software or __reentrant specifier to indicate a function must be
encoded to use the software stack.
The function specifiers have precedence over the -mstack option setting. If, for exam-
ple, the option -mstack=compiled has been used, but one function uses the
__software (or __reentrant) specifier, then the specified function will use the soft-
ware stack and all the remaining functions will use the compiled stack. These functions
specifiers also override any choice made by the compiler in hybrid mode.
1. What is referred to as a software stack in this user’s guide is the typical dynamic stack arrange-
ment employed by most computers. It is ordinary data memory accessed by some sort of push and
pop instructions, and a stack pointer register.

C Language Features
If the -mstack=compiled option has been issued or a function has been specified as
__compiled (or __nonreentrant) and that function appears in more than one call
graph in the program, then a function duplication feature automatically comes into
effect (see Section 4.9.7 “Function Duplication”). Duplicating a non-reentrant function
allows it to be called from multiple call graphs, but cannot allow the function to be called
recursively.
The auto objects defined in a function will not necessarily be allocated memory in the
order declared, in contrast to parameters which are always allocated memory based on
their lexical order. In fact, auto objects for one function can be allocated in many RAM
banks.
The standard const qualifier can be used with auto objects and these do not affect
how they are positioned in memory. This implies that a local const-qualified object is
still an auto object and, as such, will be allocated memory in the stack in the data
space memory, not in the program memory as with other const objects. If you want to
define a local-scope object that is placed in program memory, specify it as static
const.
4.5.2.2.1 Object Size Limits

The compiled stack can be built up in more than one block, each located in a different
data bank, thus the total size of the stack is roughly limited only by the available mem-
ory on the device; however, individual objects in the stack are limited in size to the larg-
est of the available spaces in the data banks.
The software stack is always allocated one block of memory; however, this memory
may cross bank boundaries. The maximum size of the software stack is typically limited
by the amount of free data space remaining. There are no compile-time or runtime
checks made for stack overflow.
There are instruction-set-imposed limitations on the amount of stack data that each
function can define and the compiler can detect if these data allocations will be
exceeded. The limits are 127 bytes for PIC18 devices and typically 31 bytes for
Enhanced Mid-range devices.
When reentrant functions call other reentrant functions, the stack pointer is incre-
mented as any parameters to the called function are loaded. This increases the offset
from the new top-of-stack position to the stack-based objects defined by the calling
function. If this offset becomes too large, a warning (1488) or error might result when
trying to access stack-based objects in the calling function. A similar situation exists if
the called reentrant function returns a value, as this might also be located on the stack.
For these reasons, the entire stack depth might not be usable for every function.
4.5.2.2.2 Changing the Default Allocation

All objects with automatic storage duration are located on a stack, thus there is no
means to individually move them. They cannot be made absolute, nor can they be
assigned a unique section using the __section() specifier.
4.5.3 Objects in Program Space

Only const objects that have static storage duration are placed in program memory.
Enhanced Mid-range devices can directly read their program memory, although the
compiler will still usually store data as retlw instructions. This way the compiler can
either produce code that can call these instructions to obtain the program memory data
as with the ordinary Mid-range devices, or directly read the operand to the instruction
(the LSB of the retlw instruction). The most efficient access method can be selected
by the compiler when the data needs to be read.
Data can be stored as individual bytes in the program memory of PIC18 devices. This
can be read using table read instructions.

For other 8-bit PIC devices, the program space is not directly readable by the device.
For these devices, the compiler stores data in the program memory by means of retlw
instructions which can be called and will return a byte of data in the W register. The com-
piler will generate the code necessary to make it appear that program memory is being
read directly.
Accessing data located in program memory is much slower than accessing objects in
the data memory. The code associated with the access is also larger.
4.5.3.1 OBJECT SIZE LIMITATIONS

A const-qualified object cannot be made larger than the available device memory
size, but there can be other restrictions as to how large each object can be.
For Baseline PIC devices, the maximum size of a single const object is 255 bytes.
However, you can define as many const objects as required provided the total size
does not exceed the available program memory size of the device.
For all other 8-bit devices, the maximum size of a const-qualified object is limited
mainly by the available program memory, however for PIC18 devices, program mem-
ory from address 0 up to an address equal to the highest data memory address is typ-
ically not used to hold this data.
Note that in addition to the data itself, there is also a small amount of code required to
access data in program memory. This additional code is included only once, regardless
of the amount or number of const-qualified objects.
4.5.3.2 CHANGING THE DEFAULT ALLOCATION

You can change the default memory allocation of const-specified objects by either:
• Making the objects absolute; or
• Placing objects in their own section and linking that section
If you wish to prevent variables from using one or more program memory locations so
the locations can be used for some other purpose, it is recommended to reserve the
memory using the memory adjust options. See Section 3.7.1.17 “reserve” for informa-
tion on how to do this.
If only a few const objects are to be located at specific addresses in program space
memory, then the objects can be made absolute. Absolute variables are described in
Section 4.5.4 “Absolute Variables”.
Objects in program memory can also be placed in their own section by using the
__section() specifier, allowing this section to be linked at the required location (see
Section 4.15.3 “Changing and Linking the Allocated Section”).
4.5.4 Absolute Variables

Objects can be located at a specific address by following their declaration with the con-
struct __at(address), where address is an integer constant that represents the
location in memory where the variable is to be positioned. Such a variable is known as
an absolute variable.
Making a variable absolute is the easiest method to place an object at a user-defined
location, but it only allows placement at an address which must be known prior to com-
pilation and must be specified for each object to be relocated.

C Language Features
4.5.4.1 ABSOLUTE OBJECTS IN DATA MEMORY
Any object which has static storage duration and which has file scope can be placed at
an absolute address in data memory, thus all but static objects defined inside a func-
tion and stack-based objects can be made absolute.
For example:
volatile unsigned char Portvar __at(0x06);
will declare a variable called Portvar located at 06h in the data memory.
Note: Defining absolute objects can fragment memory and can make it impossi-
ble for the linker to position other objects. If absolute objects must be
defined, try to place them at either end of a memory bank so that the
remaining free memory is not fragmented into smaller chunks.
The compiler will mark storage for absolute objects as being used (if the address is
within general-purpose RAM), but does not make any checks for overlap of absolute
variables with other absolute variables. There is no harm in defining more than one
absolute variable to live at the same address if this is what you require. No warning will
be issued if the address of an absolute object lies outside the memory of the device or
outside the memory defined by the linker classes.
Absolute variables in RAM cannot be initialized when they are defined, and they are
not cleared by the runtime startup code. After defining absolute variables, assign them
an initial value at a suitable point in your main-line code, if required.
Objects should not be made absolute to force them into common (unbanked) memory.
Always use the __near qualifier for this purpose (see Section 4.4.9.4 “__Near Type
Qualifier”).
When defining absolute bit variables (see Section 4.4.2.1 “Bit Data Types and Vari-
ables”), the address specified must be a bit address. A bit address is obtained by mul-
tiplying the byte address by 8, then adding the bit offset within that bit. For example, to
place a bit variable called mode at bit position #2 at address 0x50, use the following:
bit mode __at(0x282);
When compiling for an Enhanced Mid-range PIC device, the address specified for
absolute objects can be either a conventional banked memory address or a linear
address. As the linear addresses start above the largest banked address, it is clear
which type of address has been specified. In the following example:
int input[100] __at(0x2000);
it is clear that input should placed at address 0x2000 in the linear address space,
which is address 0x20 in bank 0 RAM in the conventional banked address space.
4.5.4.2 ABSOLUTE OBJECTS IN PROGRAM MEMORY

Any const-qualified object which has static storage duration and which has file scope
can be placed at an absolute address in program memory.
For example:
const int settings[] __at(0x200) = { 1, 5, 10, 50, 100 };
will place the array settings at address 0x200 in the program memory.
An uninitialized extern const object can be made absolute and is useful when you
want to define a placeholder object that does not make a contribution to the output file.

4.5.5 Variables in EEPROM

For devices with on-chip EEPROM, the compiler offers several methods of accessing
this memory as described in the following sections.
4.5.5.1 EEPROM VARIABLES

When compiling for Baseline and Mid-range parts, the __eeprom qualifier allows you
to create named C objects that reside in the EEPROM space (see
Section 4.4.9.2 “__eeprom Type Qualifier”).
Objects qualified __eeprom are cleared or initialized, as required, just like ordinary
RAM-based objects; however, the initialization process is not carried out by the runtime
startup code. Initial values are placed into the HEX file and are burnt into the EEPROM
when you program the device. Thus, if you modify the EEPROM during program exe-
cution and then reset the device, these objects will not contain the initial values speci-
fied in your code at startup up.
The following example defines two arrays in EEPROM.
__eeprom char regNumber[10] = "A93213";
__eeprom int lastValues[3];
For both these objects, their initial values will appear in the HEX file. Zeros will be used
as the initial values for lastValues.
The generated code to access __eeprom-qualified objects will be much longer and
slower than code to access RAM-based objects. Consider copying values from
EEPROM to regular RAM-based objects and using these in complicated expressions
to avoid can’t generator code error messages.
4.5.5.2 EEPROM INITIALIZATION

For those devices that support external programming of their EEPROM data area, the
__EEPROM_DATA() macro can be used to place values into the HEX file ready for pro-
gramming into the EEPROM. This macro cannot used to write to EEPROM locations
during runtime.
The macro is used as follows.
#include <xc.h>
__EEPROM_DATA(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7);
The macro has eight parameters, representing eight data values. Each value should be
a byte in size. Unused values should be specified with zero.
The __EEPROM_DATA() macro arguments expand into assembly code. Ensure that
any operators or tokens in argument expressions are written in assembly code (see
Section 5.2 “MPLAB XC8 Assembly Language”).
The macro can be called multiple times to define the required amount of EEPROM
data. It is recommended that the macro be placed outside any function definition.
The values defined by this macro share the EEPROM space with __eeprom-qualified
objects, but cannot be used to initialize such objects. The section used by this macro
to hold the data values is different to those used by __eeprom-qualified objects. The
link order of these sections can be adjusted, if required (see Section 3.7.12 “Mapped
Linker Options”).
For convenience, the macro _EEPROMSIZE represents the number of bytes of
EEPROM available on the target device.

C Language Features
4.5.5.3 EEPROM ACCESS FUNCTIONS
The library functions eeprom_read() and eeprom_write(), can be called to read
from, and write to, the EEPROM during program execution.
These functions are available for all Mid-range devices that implement EEPROM
(described in Section “eeprom_read” and Section “eeprom_write”).
For convenience, the macro _EEPROMSIZE represents the number of bytes of
EEPROM available on the target device.
4.5.5.4 EEPROM ACCESS MACROS

Macro versions of the EEPROM access functions are also provided (described in
Section “EEPROM_READ (macro)” and Section “EEPROM_WRITE (macro)”).
4.5.6 Variables in Registers

With MPLAB XC8, there is no direct control of placement of variables in registers. The
register keyword (which can only be used with auto variables) is silently ignored
and has no effect on the allocation of variables.
Some arguments are passed to functions in the W register rather than in a memory
location; however, these values will typically be stored back to memory by code inside
the function so that W can be used by code associated with that function. See
Section 4.8.6 “Function Parameters” for more information as to which parameter vari-
ables can use registers.
4.5.7 Dynamic Memory Allocation

Dynamic memory allocation, (heap-based allocation using malloc, etc.) is not sup-
ported on any 8-bit device. This is due to the limited amount of data memory available,
the memory banks which divide the memory, and the wasteful nature of dynamic mem-
ory allocation.
4.5.8 Memory Models

MPLAB XC8 C Compiler does not use fixed memory models to alter allocation of vari-
ables to memory. Memory allocation is fully automatic and there are no memory model
controls.

4.6 OPERATORS AND STATEMENTS

The MPLAB XC8 C Compiler supports all the ANSI operators, some of which behave
in an implementation defined way, see Appendix C. Implementation-Defined Behavior.
The following sections illustrate code operations that are often misunderstood as well
as additional operations that the compiler is capable of performing.
4.6.1 Integral Promotion

Integral promotion is always applied in accordance with the C standard, but it can con-
fuse those who are not expecting such behavior.
When there is more than one operand to an operator, they typically must be of exactly
the same type. The compiler will automatically convert the operands, if necessary, so
they do have the same type. The conversion is to a “larger” type so there is no loss of
information; however, the change in type can cause different code behavior to what is
sometimes expected. These form the standard type conversions.
Prior to these type conversions, some operands are unconditionally converted to a
larger type, even if both operands to an operator have the same type. This conversion
is called integral promotion. The compiler performs these integral promotions where
required, and there are no options that can control or disable this operation.
Integral promotion is the implicit conversion of enumerated types, signed or
unsigned varieties of char, short int or bit-field types to either signed int or
unsigned int. If the result of the conversion can be represented by an signed int,
then that is the destination type, otherwise the conversion is to unsigned int.
Consider the following example.
unsigned char count, a=0, b=50;
if(a - b < 10)
count++;
The unsigned char result of a - b is 206 (which is not less than 10), but both a and
b are converted to signed int via integral promotion before the subtraction takes
place. The result of the subtraction with these data types is -50 (which is less than 10)
and hence the body of the if() statement is executed.
If the result of the subtraction is to be an unsigned quantity, then apply a cast, as in
the following example, which forces the comparison to be done as unsigned int
types:
if((unsigned int)(a - b) < 10)
count++;
Another problem that frequently occurs is with the bitwise complement operator, ~. This
operator toggles each bit within a value. Consider the following code.
unsigned char count, c;
c = 0x55;
if( ~c == 0xAA)
count++;
If c contains the value 0x55, it often assumed that ~c will produce 0xAA; however, the
result is 0xFFAA and so the comparison in the above example would fail. The compiler
can be able to issue a mismatched comparison error to this effect in some
circumstances. Again, a cast could be used to change this behavior.

C Language Features
The consequence of integral promotion as illustrated above is that operations are not
performed with char-type operands, but with int-type operands. However, there are
circumstances when the result of an operation is identical regardless of whether the
operands are of type char or int. In these cases, the compiler will not perform the
integral promotion so as to increase the code efficiency. Consider this example.
unsigned char a, b, c;
a = b + c;
Strictly speaking, this statement requires that the values of b and c are promoted to
unsigned int, the addition is performed, the result of the addition is cast to the type
of a, and then that result is assigned. In this case, the value assigned to a will be the
same whether the addition is performed as an int or char, and so the compiler will
encode the former.
If in the above example, the type of a was unsigned int, then integral promotion
would have to be performed to comply with the C Standard.
4.6.2 Rotation
The C language does not specify a rotate operator; however, it does allow shifts. The
compiler will detect expressions that implement rotate operations using shift and logical
operators and compile them efficiently.
For the following code:
c = (c << 1) | (c >> 7);
if c is unsigned and non-volatile, the compiler will detect that the intended
operation is a rotate left of 1 bit and will encode the output using the PIC MCU rotate
instructions. A rotate left of 2 bits would be implemented with code like:
c = (c << 2) | (c >> 6);
This code optimization will also work for integral types larger than a char. If the opti-
mization cannot be applied, or this code is ported to another compiler, the rotate will be
implemented, but typically with shifts and a bitwise OR operation.
4.6.3 Switch Statements

The compiler can encode switch statements using one of several strategies. By
default, the compiler chooses a strategy based on the case values that are used inside
the switch statement. Each switch statement is assigned its strategy independently.
The type of strategy can be indicated by using the #pragma switch directive (see
Section 4.14.3.10 “The #pragma switch Directive”), which also lists the available strat-
egy types. There can be more than one strategy associated with each type.
There is information printed in the assembly list file for each switch statement detail-
ing the value being switched and the case values listed (see Section 5.4.4 “Switch
Statement Information”).

4.7 REGISTER USAGE

The assembly generated from C source code by the compiler will use certain registers
in the PIC MCU register set. Most importantly, the compiler assumes that nothing other
than code it generates can alter the contents of these registers.
The registers that are special and which are used by the compiler are listed in
Table 4-10.
TABLE 4-10: REGISTERS USED BY THE COMPILER

Register name Applicable devices
W All 8-bit devices
STATUS All 8-bit devices
PCLATH All Mid-range devices
PCLATH, PCLATU All PIC18 devices
BSR Enhanced Mid-range and PIC18 devices
FSR Non-Enhanced Mid-range devices
FSR0L, FSR0H, FSR1L, FSR1H Enhanced Mid-range and PIC18 devices
FSR2L, FSR2H All PIC18 devices
TBLPTRL, TBLPTRH, TBLPTRU, TABLAT All PIC18 devices
PRODL, PRODH All PIC18 devices
btemp, wtemp, ttemp, ltemp, lltemp Enhanced Mid-range and PIC18 devices
The xtemp registers are variables that the compiler treats as registers. These are
saved like any other register if they are used in interrupt code. The lltemp register is
only available on PIC18 devices.
The compiler will not be aware of changes to a register’s value when the register itself
is a C lvalue (assignment destination). For example, if the statement WREG = 0; was
encoded using the clrf instruction, the compiler would not consider this as modifying
the W register. Nor should these registers be changed directly by in-line assembly code,
as shown in the following example which modifies the ZERO bit in the STATUS register.
#include <xc.h>
void getInput(void)
{
#asm
bcf ZERO ; do not write using inline assembly code
#endasm
process(c);
}
If any of the applicable registers listed in the table are used by interrupt code, they will
be saved and restored when an interrupt occurs, either in hardware or software (see
Section 4.9.4 “Context Switching”).

C Language Features
4.8 FUNCTIONS
Functions are written in the usual way, in accordance with the C language. Implemen-
tation-specific features associated with functions are discussed in following sections.
4.8.1 Function Specifiers

Aside from the standard C specifier, static, which affects the linkage of the function,
there are several non-standard function specifiers, which are described in the following
sections.
4.8.1.1 __INTERRUPT() SPECIFIER

The __interrupt() specifier indicates that the function is an interrupt service routine
and that it is to be encoded specially to suit this task. Interrupt functions are described
in detail in 4.9.1 Writing an Interrupt Service Routine.
4.8.1.2 INLINE SPECIFIER

The inline function specifier is a recommendation that the compiler replace calls to
the specified function with the function’s body, if possible.
The following is an example of a function which has been made a candidate for inlining.
inline int combine(int x, int y) {
return 2*x-y;
}
All function calls to a function that was inlined by the compiler will be encoded as if the
call was replaced with the body of the called function. This is performed at the assembly
code level. Inlining will only take place if the assembly optimizers are enabled and the
compiler is not operating in Free mode. The function itself might still be encoded nor-
mally by the compiler even if it is inlined.
If inlining takes place, this will increase the program’s execution speed, since the call
and return sequences associated with the call will be eliminated. It will also reduce the
hardware stack usage as no call instruction is executed; however, this stack-size reduc-
tion is not reflected in the call graphs, as these graphs are generated before inlining
takes place.
Code size can be reduced if the assembly code associated with the body of the inlined
function is very small, but code size can increase if the body of the inlined function is
larger than the call/return sequence it replaces. You should only consider this specifier
for functions which generate small amounts of assembly code. Note that the amount of
C code in the body of a function is not a good indicator of the size of the assembly code
that it generates (see Section 2.6.13 “How Can I Tell How Big a Function Is?”).
A function containing in-line assembly will not be inlined. Some generated assembly
code sequences will also prevent inlining of a function. A warning will be generated if
the inline function references static objects (to comply with the C Standard) or is
not inlined successfully. Your code should not make any assumptions about whether
inlining took place.
This specifier performs the same task as the #pragma inline directive (see
Section 4.14.3.4 “The #pragma Intrinsic Directive”). Note that the optimizers can also
implicitly inline small called-only-once routines (see Section 5.3 “Assembly-Level Opti-
mizations”).
If the xc8-cc flag -Wpedantic is used, the inline keyword becomes unavailable,
but you can use the __inline keyword.

4.8.1.3 REENTRANT AND NONREENTRANT SPECIFIERS
The __reentrant and __nonreentrant function specifiers indicate the function
model (stack) that should be used for that function’s stack-based variables (auto and
parameters), as shown in Table 4-11. The aliases __software and __compiled,
respectively, can be used if you prefer. You would only use these specifiers if the default
allocation is unacceptable.
TABLE 4-11: STACK RELATED FUNCTION SPECIFIERS

Specifier Allocation for Stack-based variables
__compiled, Always use the compiled stack; functions are nonreentrant
__nonreentrant
__software, Use the software stack, if available; functions are reentrant
__reentrant
The following shows an example of a function that will always be encoded as reentrant.
__reentrant int setWriteMode(int mode)
{
accessMode = (mode!=0);
reutrn mode;
}
These specifiers override any setting indicated using the -mstack option (see
Section 3.7.1.21 “stack”). If neither function specifier is used with a function and the
-mstack option is not specified (or specified as hybrid), then the compiler will
choose the stack to be used by that function for its stack-based variables.
The __reentrant specifier only has an effect if the target device supports a software
stack. In addition, not all functions allow reentrancy. Interrupt functions must always
use the compiled stack, but functions they call may use the software stack. Functions
encoded for Baseline and Mid-range devices always use the nonreentrant model and
the compiled stack.
Repeated use of the __software (__reentrant) specifier will increase substantially
the size of the software stack leading to possible overflow. The size of the software
stack is not accurately known at compile time, so the compiler cannot issue a warning
if it is likely to overwrite memory used for some other purpose.
See Section 4.3.4.2 “Data Stacks” for device specific information relating to the data
stacks available on each device.
4.8.2 External Functions

Functions that are defined outside the project’s C source files (e.g., a function defined
in a separate bootloader project or in an assembly module) will require declarations so
that the compiler knows how to encode calls to those functions. You might also need to
define a symbol to represent the memory locations used to store parameter or the
return value.
A function declaration will look similar to the following example. Note that the extern
specifier is optional, but makes it clear this is a declaration.
extern int clockMode(int);
If the external function uses the compiled stack and it takes arguments or returns a
value you might need to define a symbol that represents the base address of the func-
tions parameter block (which is also used as the base address of the return value). This
would not be necessary if parameters and the return value are passed in registers. See
Section 4.8.6 “Function Parameters” and Section 4.8.7 “Function Return Values” to

C Language Features
determine if a register or memory locations by your function. If this symbol is not
defined, the compiler will issue an undefined symbol error. This error can be used to
verify the name being used by the compiler to encode the call, if required.
The required value can be determined from the map file of the external build. Look for
the symbol ?_funcName, where funcName is the name of the function defined exter-
nally. Define this symbol in your code that makes the call via a simple EQU directive in
assembler. For example, the following snippet of code could be placed in your C source
to allow you to call the function extReadFn() defined in another project:
#asm
GLOBAL ?_extReadFn
?_extReadFn EQU 0x20
#endasm
This defines the base address of the parameter area for extReadFn() to be 0x20.
If an external function uses the reentrant model, it will never use the W register for
parameter passing, and all arguments will be stored on the stack.
4.8.3 Allocation of Executable Code

Code associated with functions is always placed in program memory.
On Baseline and Mid-range devices, the program memory is paged. Program memory
addresses are still sequential across a page boundary, but the paging means that calls
or jumps from code in one page to a label in another must use a longer sequence of
instructions. Your device data sheet has more information on the program memory and
instruction set for your device.
PIC18 devices do not implement any program memory paging. The call and goto
instruction are two-word instructions and their destinations are not limited.
The generated code associated with each function is initially placed in sections by the
compiler (see Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects”). When the program mem-
ory is paged, the optimizer tries to allocate several functions to the same section so
they can use the shorter form of call and jump. These sections are linked anywhere in
the program memory (see 4.10 Main, Runtime Startup and Reset), although Baseline
devices restrict the entry point of functions to within the first 256 location in each page.
The base name of each section is tabulated below. See Section 4.15.1.1 “Program
Space Psects” for a full list of all program-memory section names.
maintextThe generated code associated with the special function, main, is placed
in this section. Some optimizations and features are not applied to this psect.
textn These sections (where n is a decimal number) contain all other executable
code that does not require a special link location.

4.8.4 Changing the Default Function Allocation

You can change the default memory allocation of functions by either:
• Making functions absolute
• Placing functions in their own section and linking that section
If you wish to prevent functions from using one or more program memory locations so
that these locations can be used for some other purpose, it is recommended to reserve
the memory using the memory adjust options (see Section 3.7.1.17 “reserve”).
The easiest method to explicitly place individual functions at a known address is to
make them absolute by using the __at(address) construct in a similar fashion to that
used with absolute variables.
The compiler will issue a warning if code associated with an absolute function overlaps
with code from other absolute functions. No warning will be issued if the address of an
absolute object lies outside the memory of the device or outside the memory defined
by the linker classes. The compiler will not locate code associated with ordinary func-
tions over the top of absolute functions.
The following example of an absolute function will place the function at address 400h:
int mach_status(int mode) __at(0x400)
{
/* function body */
}
If this construct is used with interrupt functions, it will only affect the position of the code
associated with the interrupt function body. The interrupt context switch code associ-
ated with the interrupt vector will not be relocated. See Section 3.7.1.3 “codeoffset” for
information on how to move Reset and interrupt vector locations (which can be useful
for designing applications such as bootloaders).
The code generated for absolute functions is placed in a section dedicated only to that
function. The section name has the form shown below (see
Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects” for a full list of all section names.
xxx_textDefines the section for a function that has been made absolute. xxx will
be the assembly symbol associated with the function, e.g., the absolute func-
tion rv() would appear in the psect called _rv_text.
Functions can be allocated to a user-defined psect using the __section() specifier
(see Section 4.15.3 “Changing and Linking the Allocated Section”) so that this new
section can then be linked at the required location. This method is the most flexible and
allows functions to be placed at a fixed address, after other section, or anywhere in an
address range. As with absolute functions, when used with interrupt functions, it will
only affect the position of the interrupt function body. Never place functions into a sec-
tion that is also used to hold non-executable objects, such as const objects, as this
might affect the ability to debug the functions.
Regardless of how a function is located, take care choosing its address. If possible,
place functions at either end of a program memory page (if relevant) to avoid fragment-
ing memory and increasing the possibility of linker errors. Place functions in the first
page, which contains the reset and interrupt code, rather than in pages higher in mem-
ory, as this will assist the optimizations that merge psects.

C Language Features
4.8.5 Function Size Limits

For all devices, the code generated for a regular function is limited only by the available
program memory; however the longer jump sequences within a function if it is located
across more than one page will decrease efficiency. See 4.8.3 Allocation of Executable
Code for more details.
Interrupt functions (see Section 4.9.1 “Writing an Interrupt Service Routine”) however,
are limited to one page in size and cannot be split over multiple pages.
4.8.6 Function Parameters

MPLAB XC8 uses a fixed convention to pass arguments to a function. The method
used to pass the arguments depends on the size and number of arguments involved,
and on which stack model is used with the function.
Note: The names “argument” and “parameter” are often used interchangeably,
but typically an argument is the value that is passed to the function and a
parameter is the variable defined by the function to store the argument.
4.8.6.1 COMPILED STACK PARAMETERS

For non-reentrant functions using the compiled stack, the compiler will pass arguments
in the W register, or in the called function’s parameter memory.
If the first parameter is one byte in size, it is passed in the W register. All other param-
eters are passed in the parameter memory. The parameter memory will be located in
the compiled stack (see Section 4.3.4.2.1 “Compiled Stack Operation”).
Parameters are referenced as an offset from the symbol ?_function, where func-
tion is the name of the function in which the parameter is defined (i.e., the function
that is to be called).
Unlike auto variables, parameter variables are allocated memory strictly in the order
in which they appear in the function’s prototype. This means that a function’s parame-
ters will always be placed in the same memory bank; whereas auto variables for a
function can be allocated across multiple banks and in any order.
The arguments for unnamed parameters in functions that take a variable argument list
(defined using an ellipsis in the prototype), are placed in the parameter memory, along
with named parameters.
Take, for example, the following prototyped function.
void test(char a, int b);
The function test() will receive the parameter b in parameter memory (using the two
bytes ?_test and ?_test+1) and a in the W register.
The compiler needs to take special action if more than one function using the compiled
stack can be indirectly called via the same function pointer. Such would be the case in
the following example, where any of sp_ad, sp_sub or sp_null could be called via
the pointer, fp.
int (*funcs[])(int, int) = {sp_add, sp_sub, sp_null};
int (*fp)(int, int);
fp = funcs[getOperation()];
result = fp(37, input);
In such a case, the compiler treats all three functions in the array as being “buddies”.

The parameter(s) to all buddy functions will be aligned in memory, i.e., they will all
reside at the same address(es). This way the compiler does not need to know exactly
which function is being called. The implication of this is that a function cannot call
(either directly or indirectly) any of its buddies. To do so would corrupt the caller func-
tion’s parameters. An error will be issued if such a call is attempted.
4.8.6.2 SOFTWARE STACK PARAMETERS

When a function uses the software stack, most arguments to that function will be
passed on the stack (see Section 4.3.4.2.2 “Software Stack Operation”).
Arguments are pushed onto the stack by the calling function, in a reverse order to that
in which the corresponding parameters appear in the function’s prototype. Subse-
quently, and if required, the called function will increase the value stored in the stack
pointer to allocate storage for any auto or temporary variables it needs to allocate.
The W register is sometimes used for the first function argument if it is byte-sized. This
will only take place for Enhanced Mid-range devices and provided the function does not
take a variable number of arguments. If a reentrant function is external (see
Section 4.8.2 “External Functions”), the W register will never be used to hold any func-
tion arguments. The W register is never used by reentrant function arguments when
compiling for PIC18 devices.
The arguments for unnamed parameters in functions that take a variable argument list
(defined using an ellipsis in the prototype), are placed on the software stack, before
those for the named parameters. After all the function’s arguments have been pushed,
the total size of the unnamed parameters is pushed on to the stack. A maximum of 256
bytes of non-prototyped parameters are permitted per function.
As there is no frame pointer, accessing function parameters (or other stack-based
objects) is not recommended in hand-written assembly code.
4.8.7 Function Return Values

Values returned from functions are loaded into a register or placed on the stack used
by that function. The mechanism will depend on the function model used by the func-
tion.
4.8.7.1 COMPILED STACK RETURN VALUES

For functions that use the compiled stack, return values are passed to the calling func-
tion using the W register, or the function’s parameter memory. The memory assigned to
the function’s parameters (which is no longer needed when the function is ready to
return) is reused to reduce the function’s code and data requirements.
Single-byte values are returned from a function in the W register. Values larger than a
byte are returned in the function’s parameter memory area.
For example, the function:
int returnWord(void)
{
return 0x1234;
}
will return with the value 0x34 in ?_returnWord, and 0x12 in ?_returnWord+1.
For PIC18 targets returning values greater than 4 bytes but less than 8 bytes in size,
the address of the parameter area is also placed in the FSR0 register.
Functions that return a value of type __bit do so using the carry bit in the STATUS
register.

C Language Features
4.8.7.2 SOFTWARE STACK RETURN VALUES
Functions that use the software stack will pass values back to the calling function via
btemp variables, provided the value is 4 bytes or less in size. The W register will be
used to return byte-sized values for Enhanced Mid-range device functions that do not
have a variable number of arguments. For objects larger than 4 bytes in size, they are
returned on the stack. Reentrant PIC18 functions that return a value of type __bit do
so using bit #0 in btemp0; other devices use the carry bit in the STATUS register.
As there is no frame pointer, accessing the return value location, or other stack-based
objects, is not recommended in hand-written assembly code.
4.8.8 Calling Functions

All 8-bit devices use a hardware stack for function return addresses. The maximum
depth of this stack varies from device to device.
Typically, call assembly instructions are used to transfer control to a C function when it
is called. A call uses one level of hardware stack that is freed after the called routine
executes a return or retlw instruction. Nested function calls will increase the stack
usage of a program. If the hardware stack overflows, function return addresses will be
overwritten and the code will eventually fail.
For PIC18 devices, a call instruction is the only way in which function calls are made,
but for other 8-bit devices, the -mstackcall option, (see
Section 3.7.1.22 “stackcall”), can controls how the compiler behaves when the
compiler detects that the hardware stack might overflow due to too many nested calls.
When this option is enabled, the compiler will, instead of issuing a warning,
automatically swap to using a managed stack that involves the use of a lookup table
and which does not require use of the hardware stack.
When the lookup method is being employed, a function is reached by a jump (not a call)
directly to its address. Before this is done the address of a special “return” instruction
(implemented as a jump instruction) is stored in a temporary location inside the called
function. This return instruction will be able to return control back to the calling function.
This means of calling functions allows functions to be nested deeply without overflow-
ing the limited stack available on Baseline and Mid-range devices; however, it does
come at the expense of memory and program speed.

4.8.8.1 INDIRECT CALLS
When functions are called indirectly using a pointer, the compiler employs a variety of
techniques to call the intended function.
The PIC18 and Enhanced Mid-range devices all use the value in the function pointer
to load the program counter with the appropriate address. For PIC18 devices, the code
loads the TOS registers and executes a return to perform the call. For Enhanced
Mid-range devices, the callw instruction is used. The number of functions that can be
called indirectly is limited only by the available memory of the device.
The Baseline and Mid-range devices all use a lookup table which is loaded with jump
instructions. The lookup table code is called and an offset is used to execute the appro-
priate jump in the table. The table increases in size as more functions are called indi-
rectly, but cannot grow beyond 0xFF bytes in size. This places a limit on the number of
functions that can be called indirectly, and typically this limit is approximately 120 func-
tions. Note that this limit does not affect the number of function pointers a program can
define, which are subject to the normal limitations of available memory on the device.
Indirect calls are not affected by the -mstackcall option and the depth of indirect
calls on Baseline and Mid-range devices are limited by the hardware stack depth.

C Language Features
4.9 INTERRUPTS
The MPLAB XC8 compiler incorporates features allowing interrupts to be fully handled
from C code. Interrupt functions are often called Interrupt Service Routines, or ISRs.
The operation of interrupts is handled differently by the different device families. Most
Baseline devices do not implement interrupts at all; Mid-range devices have one vector
location which is linked to all interrupt sources; some PIC18 devices have two indepen-
dent interrupt vectors, one assigned to low-priority interrupt sources, the other to
high-priority sources; and, finally, some PIC18 devices implement a vectored interrupt
controller (VIC) module with support for one or more interrupt vector tables (IVTs),
which can be populated with the addresses of high- or low-priority interrupt functions.
The operation of the IVT on devices with a VIC module can be disabled by clearing the
MVECEN configuration bit. The device is then said to be operating in legacy mode, oper-
ating with dual priorities and dual vector locations. This bit is also used by the compiler
to determine how interrupt functions should be programmed. Although the vector table
is disabled in this mode, the vector locations are still relocatable. By default the vector
location will be 0x8 and 0x18, the same for regular PIC18 devices without the VIC mod-
ule.
The priority scheme implemented by PIC18 devices can also be disabled by clearing
the IPEN SFR bit. Such devices are then said to be operating in Mid-range compatibility
mode and utilize only one interrupt vector, located at address 0x8.
The following are the general steps you need to follow to use interrupts. More detail
about these steps is provided in the sections that follow.
For Enhanced Baseline devices with interrupts, Mid-range devices, or PIC18 devices
operating in Mid-range compatibility mode:
• Write one interrupt function to process all interrupt sources.
• At the appropriate point in your main-line code, unmask the interrupt sources
required by setting their interrupt enable bit in the corresponding SFR.
• At the appropriate point in your code, enable the global interrupt enable to allow
interrupts to be generated.
For PIC18 devices without the VIC module, or PIC18 devices operating in legacy
mode:
• Plan the priorities to be assigned to each interrupt source. If the device is operat-
ing in legacy mode, determine the number of sets of dual interrupt vectors you
require.
• Program the MVECEN configuration bit if appropriate.
• Write one interrupt function to process each priority being used. You can define at
most two interrupt functions, or two interrupt functions per vector set for devices
operating in legacy mode. Consider implementing both interrupt functions to han-
dle accidental triggering of unused interrupts, or use the -mundefints option to
provide a default action (see Section 3.7.1.24 “undefints”).
• Write code to assign the required priority to each interrupt source by writing the
appropriate bits in the SFRs.
• If the device is operating in legacy mode and if required, at the appropriate points
in your code, select the required set of dual vectors by writing to the IVTBASE
registers. Never write the IVTBASE registers if interrupts are enabled. The initial
vectors can also be selected by using the -mivt option (see
Section 3.7.1.11 “ivt”).
• At the appropriate point in your code, enable the interrupt sources required.
• At the appropriate point in your code, enable the global interrupt enable.

For devices using the VIC module:
• Plan the priorities associated with each interrupt source and determine the num-
ber of interrupt vector tables you require.
• Write as many interrupt functions as required. For fast interrupt response times,
write a dedicated function for each interrupt source, although multiple sources can
be processed by one function, if desired. Consider one or more additional func-
tions to handle accidental triggering of unused interrupt sources, or use the
-mundefints option to provide a default action (see
Section 3.7.1.24 “undefints”).
• Write code to assign the required priority to each interrupt source by writing the
appropriate bits in the SFRs.
• If you are using more than one interrupt vector table, at the appropriate points in
your code, select the required IVT by writing to the IVTBASE registers. Never
write the IVTBASE registers if interrupts are enabled. The initial IVT can also be
selected by using the -mivt option (see Section 3.7.1.11 “ivt”).
• At the appropriate point in your code, enable the interrupt sources required.
• At the appropriate point in your code, enable the global interrupt enable.
Interrupt functions must not be called directly from C code (due to the different return
instruction that is used), but interrupt functions can call other functions, both
user-defined and library functions.
Interrupt code is the name given to any code that executes as a result of an interrupt
occurring, including functions called from the ISR and library code. Interrupt code com-
pletes at the point where the corresponding return from interrupt instruction is exe-
cuted. This contrasts with main-line code, which, for a freestanding application, is
usually the main part of the program that executes after Reset.
4.9.1 Writing an Interrupt Service Routine

The prototype and content of an ISR will vary based on the target device and the project
being compiled. Observe the following guidelines when writing an ISR.
For devices that do not have the VIC module:
• Write each ISR prototype using the __interrupt()specifier.
• Use void as the return type and for the parameter specification.
• If your device supports interrupt priorities, with each function use the
low_priority or high_priority arguments to __interrupt().
• Inside the ISR body, determine the source of the interrupt by checking the inter-
rupt flag and the interrupt enable for each source that is to be processed, and
make the relevant interrupt code conditional on those being set.

C Language Features
For devices operating in legacy mode:
• Write each ISR prototype using either the __interrupt() specifier.
• Use void as the return type, and specify a parameter list of either void or one
char argument if you need to identify the interrupt source.1
• As arguments to the __interrupt() specifier in the ISR prototype, specify the
interrupt priority assigned to the function’s source, using low_priority or
high_priority; and optionally, specify the base address of the IVT in which to
place the function’s address, using base().2
• If the ISR processes more than one source, determine the source of the interrupt
from the function’s parameter, if specified, or by checking the interrupt flag and the
interrupt enable for each source that is to be processed.
For devices which are using the VIC module:
• Write each ISR prototype using only the __interrupt() specifier.
• Use void as the return type, and specify a parameter list of either void or one
char argument if you need to identify the interrupt source.
• As arguments to the __interrupt() specifier in the ISR prototype, specify
which sources each interrupt function should handle, using irq(); specify the
interrupt priority assigned to the function’s source, using low_priority or
high_priority; and optionally, specify the base address of the IVT in which to
place the function’s address, using base().
• If the ISR processes more than one source, determine the source of the interrupt
from the function’s parameter, if specified, or by checking the interrupt flag and the
interrupt enable for each source that is to be processed.
For all devices:
• Inside the ISR body, clear the relevant interrupt flag once the source has been
processed.
• Do not re-enable interrupts inside the ISR body. This is performed automatically
when the ISR returns.
• Keep the ISR as short and as simple as possible. Complex code will typically use
more registers that will increase the size of the context switch code.
If interrupt priorities are being used but an ISR does not specify a priority, it will default
to being high priority. It is recommended that you always specify the ISR priority to
ensure your code is readable.
If you supply an irq() or base() argument to the __interrupt() specifier with a
device that does not have the VIC module, an error will be issued by the compiler. If
you use this specifier with a device that is configured for legacy mode, supplying an
irq() argument will result in an error from the compiler; however, you may continue
to use the base() argument if required.
Devices that have the VIC module identify each interrupt with a number. This number
can be specified with the irq() argument to __interrupt() if the vector table is
enabled, or you can use a compiler-defined symbol that equates to that number. You
can see a list of all interrupt numbers, symbols and descriptions by opening the files
pic_chipinfo.html or pic18_chipinfo.html in your favorite web browser, and
selecting your target device. Both these files are located in the docs directory under
your compiler’s installation directory.
1. It is recommended that the parameter list be set to void if you want to ensure portability with
devices that do not have the VIC module.
2. It is recommended that the base address be left as the default if you want to ensure portability with
devices that do not have the VIC module.

Interrupt functions always use the non-reentrant function model. These functions
ignore any option or function specifier that might otherwise specify reentrancy.
The compiler processes interrupt functions differently to other functions, generating
code to save and restore any registers used by the function and a special return instruc-
tion.
An example of an interrupt function written for code not using the IVT is shown below.
Notice that the interrupt function checks for the source of the interrupt by looking at the
interrupt enable bit (e.g., TMR0IE) and the interrupt flag bit (e.g., TMR0IF). Checking
the interrupt enable flag is required since interrupt flags associated with a peripheral
can be asserted even if the peripheral is not configured to generate an interrupt.
int tick_count;
void __interrupt(high_priority) tcInt(void)

{
if (TMR0IE && TMR0IF) { // any timer 0 interrupts?
TMR0IF=0;
++tick_count;
}
if (TMR1IE && TMR1IF) { // any timer 1 interrupts?
TMR1IF=0;
tick_count += 100;
}
// process other interrupt sources here, if required
return;
}
Here is the same function code, split and modified for a device using vector tables. Note
that since only one source is associated each ISR, the interrupt code does not need to
determine the source of the interrupt and is therefor faster.
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0),high_priority) tc0Int(void)
{
TMR0IF=0;
++tick_count;
return;
}
void __interrupt(irq(TMR1),high_priority) tc1Int(void)
{
TMR1IF=0;
tick_count += 100;
return;
}

C Language Features
If you prefer to process multiple interrupt sources in one function, that can be done by
specifying more than one interrupt source in the irq() argument and using a function
parameter to hold the source number, such as in the following example.
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0,TMR1),high_priority) tInt(unsigned char src)
{
switch(src) {
case IRQ_TMR0:
TMR0IF=0;
++tick_count;
break;
case IRQ_TMR1:
TMR1IF=0;
tick_count += 100;
break;
}
return;
}
The VIC module will load the parameter, in this example, src, with the interrupt source
number when the interrupt occurs.
The special interrupt source symbol, default, can be used to indicate that the ISR will
be linked to any interrupt vector not already explicitly specified using irq(). You can
also populate unused vector locations by using the -mundefints option (see
Section 3.7.1.24 “undefints”).
By default, the interrupt vector table will be located at an address equal to the reset
value of the IVTBASE register, which is the legacy address of 0x8. The base() argu-
ment to __interrupt() can be used to specify a different table base address for that
function. This argument can take one or more comma-separated addresses. The base
address cannot be set to an address lower than the reset value of the IVTBASE regis-
ter.
By default and if required, the compiler will initialize the IVTBASE register in the runtime
startup code. You can disable this functionality by turning off the -mivt option (see
Section 3.7.1.11 “ivt”). This option also allows you to specify an initial address for this
register, for the initial vector table that will be used. If vectored interrupts are enabled
but you do not specify an address using this option, the vector table location will be set
to the lowest table address used in the program, as specified by the base() arguments
to __interrupt().
If you use the base() argument to implement more than one table of interrupt vectors,
you must ensure that you allocate sufficient memory for each table. The compiler will
emit an error message if it detects an overlap of any interrupt vectors.
The following examples show the interrupt function prototypes for two ISRs which han-
dle the timer 0 and 1 interrupt sources. These are configured to reside in independent
vector tables whose base addresses are 0x100 and 0x200. All other interrupt sources
are handled by a low-priority ISR, defIsr(), which appears in both vector tables. For
these ISRs to become active, the IVTBASE register must first be loaded either 0x100
or 0x200. Changing the address in this register allows you to select which vector table
is active.
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0,TMR1),base(0x100)) timerIsr(void)
{...}
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0,TMR1),base(0x200)) altTimerIsr(void)
{...}
void __interrupt(irq(default),base(0x100,0x200),low_priority)
defIsr(void)
{...}

4.9.2 Changing the Default Interrupt Function Allocation

Moving the code associated with interrupt functions is more difficult than that for
ordinary functions, as interrupt routines have entry points strictly defined by the device.
You can use the __section() specifier (see Section 4.15.3 “Changing and Linking
the Allocated Section”) if you want to move the interrupt function, but leave the interrupt
entry point at the default vector location.
To move the vector location, see the following section.
4.9.3 Specifying the Interrupt Vector

For devices that do not have the VIC module, the process of populating the interrupt
vector locations is fully automatic. The compiler links the interrupt code entry point to
the fixed vector locations. Typically the entry point code will be all or part of the code
that performs the interrupt context switch, and the body of the interrupt function will be
located elsewhere.
The location of these interrupt vectors cannot be changed at runtime, nor can you
change the code linked to the vector. That is, you cannot have alternate interrupt func-
tions and select which will be active during program execution. An error will result if
there are more interrupt functions than interrupt vectors in a program.
For devices that have the VIC module, you have more freedom in how interrupt func-
tions can be executed at runtime. When the IVT is enabled, these devices employ a
table of interrupt vectors. Each table entry can hold an address, which is read when the
corresponding interrupt is triggered, and the device will jump to that address. The vec-
tor table entry corresponding to an interrupt function is automatically completed by the
compiler, based on the information in the irq() and base() arguments to
__interrupt(), see Section 4.9.1 “Writing an Interrupt Service Routine”.
Although the addresses in the vector table cannot be changed at runtime, it is possible
to construct more than one table and have the device swap from one table to another.
Changing the active vector table is performed by changing the vector table base
address, which is stored in the IVTBASE registers. Since these registers cannot be
modified atomically, you must disable all interrupts before changing their content. The
following example shows how this might be performed in C code.
di(); // disable all interrupts
IVTBASEU = 0x0;
IVTBASEH = 0x2;
IVTBASEL = 0x0;
ei(); // re-enable interrupts
For devices with the VIC module operating in legacy mode, the vector table is disabled
and the dual-priority vectors employed by regular PIC18 devices are used. These vec-
tor locations will then hold an instruction, not an address, but unlike regular PIC18
devices, the program can use the IVTBASE register to map the vector locations to any
address and you can define two interrupt functions for each base address.
Do not confuse the function of the IVTBASE register with the -mcodeoffset option
(see Section 3.7.1.3 “codeoffset”). The option moves the entry point of the code asso-
ciated with each interrupt but does not move the vector location. When using this
option, your program will not execute correctly until you provide code which maps the
vector locations to the shifted interrupt entry points. By comparison, adjusting the IVT-
BASE registers does not move the location of the interrupt functions, but changes the
vector locations. Your unmodified project will operate normally after adjusting this reg-
ister.

C Language Features
Interrupt vectors that have not been specified explicitly in the project can be assigned
a default function address by defining an interrupt function that uses default as its
irq() interrupt source, or assigned a default instruction by using the -mundefints
option (see Section 3.7.1.24 “undefints”).

4.9.4 Context Switching

The compiler will automatically link code into your project which saves the current sta-
tus when an interrupt occurs and then restores this status when the interrupt returns.
4.9.4.1 CONTEXT SAVING ON INTERRUPTS

Some registers are automatically saved by the hardware when an interrupt occurs. Any
registers or compiler temporary objects used by the interrupt function, other than those
saved by the hardware, will be saved in code generated by the compiler. This is the
context save or context switch code.
See Section 4.7 “Register Usage” for the registers that must be saved and restored
either by hardware or software when an interrupt occurs.
Enhanced Mid-range PIC devices save the WREG, STATUS, BSR and FSRx registers
in hardware (using special shadow registers) and hence these registers do not need to
be saved by software. The registers that might need to be saved by software are the
BTEMP registers1, compiler temporary locations that act like registers.
Other Mid-range PIC processors only save the entire PC (excluding the PCLATH reg-
ister) when an interrupt occurs. The WREG, STATUS, FSR and PCLATH registers and
any BTEMP registers must be saved by code produced by the compiler, if required.
By default, the PIC18 high-priority interrupt function will utilize its internal shadow reg-
ister to save the W, STATUS and BSR registers. For the low priority PIC18 interrupts,
or when the shadow registers cannot be used, all registers that has been used by the
interrupt code will be saved by software.
If the PIC18 device has the Vectored Interrupt Controller module, it additionally saves
the FSRx, PCLATHx, and PRODx registers to shadow registers. All other used regis-
ters are saved by software. Separate shadow registers are available for low- and
high-priority interrupts.
Note that for some older devices, the compiler will not use the shadow registers if com-
piling for the MPLAB ICD debugger, as the debugger itself utilizes these shadow reg-
isters. Some errata workarounds also prevent the use of the shadow registers (see
Section 3.7.1.10 “errata”).
The compiler determines exactly which registers and objects are used by an interrupt
function, or any of the functions that it calls and saves these appropriately.
Assembly code placed in-line within the interrupt function is not scanned for register
usage. Thus, if you include in-line assembly code into an interrupt function (or functions
called by the interrupt function), you may have to add extra assembly code to save and
restore any registers used.
If the software stack is in use, the context switch code will also initialize the stack
pointer register so it is accessing the area of the stack reserved for the interrupt. See
Section 4.5.2.2.1 “Object Size Limits” for more information on the software stack.
4.9.4.2 CONTEXT RESTORATION

Any objects saved by software are automatically restored by software before the inter-
rupt function returns. The order of restoration is the reverse of that used when context
is saved.
If the software stack is in use, the context restoration code will also restore the stack
pointer register so that it is accessing the area of the stack used before the interrupt
occurred. See Section 4.5.2.2.1 “Object Size Limits” for more information on the soft-
ware stack.
1. These registers are memory locations allocated by the compiler, but are treated like registers for
code generation purposes. They are typically used when generating reentrant code.

C Language Features
4.9.5 Enabling Interrupts

Two macros are available, once you have included <xc.h>, that control the masking
of all available interrupts. These macros are ei(), which enable or unmask all
interrupts, and di(), which disable or mask all interrupts.
On all devices, they affect the GIE bit in the INTCON or INTCON0 register. These mac-
ros should be used once the appropriate interrupt enable bits for the interrupts that are
required in a program have been enabled.
For example:
ADIE = 1; // A/D interrupts will be used
PEIE = 1; // all peripheral interrupts are enabled
ei(); // enable all interrupts
// ...
di(); // disable all interrupts
Note: Never re-enable interrupts inside the interrupt function itself. Interrupts are
automatically re-enabled by hardware on execution of the retfie
instruction. Re-enabling interrupts inside an interrupt function can result in
code failure.
4.9.6 Accessing Objects From Interrupt Routines

Reading or writing objects from interrupt routines can be unsafe if other functions
access these same objects.
The compiler will automatically treat as volatile any variables that are referenced in
an interrupt routine; however, it is recommended that you explicitly mark these vari-
ables using the volatile specifier to ensure your code is portable (see
Section 4.4.8.2 “Volatile Type Qualifier”). The compiler will restrict the optimizations
performed on volatile objects (see Section 4.13 “Optimizations”).
Even when objects are marked as volatile, the compiler cannot guarantee that they
will be accessed atomically. This is particularly true of operations on multi-byte objects,
but, indeed, many operations on single-byte or bit objects cannot be performed in one
instruction.
Interrupts should be disabled around any main-line code that modifies an object that is
used by interrupt functions, unless you can guarantee that the access is atomic. Check
the assembler list file to see the code generated for a statement, but remember that the
instructions can change as the program is developed, particularly if the optimizers are
enabled.

4.9.7 Function Duplication

It is assumed by the compiler that an interrupt can occur at any time. Functions
encoded to use the compiled stack are not reentrant (see Section 4.5.2.2.1 “Object
Size Limits”), so if such a function is called by an interrupt function and by main-line
code, this could lead to code failure.
MPLAB XC8 compiler has a feature which will duplicate the generated code associated
with any function that uses the non-reentrant function model and which is called from
more than one call graph. There is one call graph associated with main-line code, and
one for each interrupt function, if defined. It is assumed by the compiler that an interrupt
may occur at any time. This allows reentrancy, but recursion is still not possible, even
if the function is duplicated.
Any function compiled using the non-reentrant function model may fail if it is called from
an interrupt function and by main-line code. Although the compiler can compile func-
tions using a reentrant model, this feature is not available with all devices; it can also
be disabled using the -mstack option or the __nonreentrant specifier. The com-
piler will duplicate the output for any function using the nonreentrant model if it has
been called from both call trees. See Section 4.5.2.2 “Automatic Storage Duration
Objects” for information on which function model is chosen for a function.
If a function is duplicated, main-line code will call the code generated for the original
function, and the interrupt will call that for the duplicated function. The duplication takes
place only in the generated code; there is no duplication of the C source code itself.
The duplicated code and objects defined by the function use unique identifiers. A dupli-
cate identifier is identical to that used by the original code, but is prefixed with i1. Dupli-
cated PIC18 functions use the prefixes i1 and i2 for the low- and high-priority
interrupts, respectively.
To illustrate, in a program the function main calls a function called input which is also
called by an interrupt function. The generated assembly code for the C function
input() will use the assembly label _input. The corresponding label used by the
duplicated function output will be i1_input. If this function makes reference to a tem-
porary variable, the generated code will use the symbol ??_input, compared to
??i1_input for the duplicate. Even local labels within the function’s generated code
will be duplicated in the same way. The call graph, in the assembly list file, will show
the calls made to both of these functions as if they were independently written. These
symbols will also be seen in the map file symbol table.
Code associated with library functions are duplicated in the same way. This also
applies to implicitly-called library routines, such as those that perform division or
floating-point operations associated with C operators.

C Language Features
4.9.7.1 DISABLING DUPLICATION
The automatic duplication of non-reentrant functions called from more than one call
graph can be inhibited by the use of a special pragma.
Duplication should only be disabled if the source code guarantees that an interrupt can-
not occur while the function is being called from any main-line code. Typically this would
be achieved by disabling interrupts before calling the function. It is not sufficient to dis-
able the interrupts inside the function after it has been called; if an interrupt occurs
when executing the function, the code can fail. See Section 4.9.5 “Enabling Interrupts”
for more information on how interrupts can be disabled.
The pragma is:
#pragma interrupt_level 1
The pragma should be placed before the definition of the function that is not to be dupli-
cated. The pragma will only affect the first function whose definition follows.
For example, if the function read is only ever called from main-line code when the
interrupts are disabled, then duplication of the function can be prevented if it is also
called from an interrupt function as follows.
int read(char device)
{
// ...
}
In main-line code, this function would typically be called as follows:
di(); // turn off interrupts
read(IN_CH1);
ei(); // re-enable interrupts
The value specified with the pragma indicates for which interrupt the function will not
be duplicated. For Mid-range devices, the level should always be 1; for PIC18 devices
it can be 1 or 2 for the low- or high-priority interrupt functions, respectively. To disable
duplication for both interrupt priorities, use the pragma twice to specify both levels 1
and 2. The following function will not be duplicated if it is also called from the low- and
high-priority interrupt functions.
int timestwo(int a) {
return a * 2;
}

4.10 MAIN, RUNTIME STARTUP AND RESET

Coming out of Reset, your program will first execute runtime startup code added by the
compiler, then control is transfered to the function main(). This sequence is described
in the following sections.
4.10.1 The main Function

The identifier main is special. You must always have one, and only one, function called
main() in your programs. This is the first C function to execute in your program.
Since your program is not called by a host, the compiler inserts special code at the end
of main(), which is executed if this function ends, i.e., a return statement inside
main() is executed, or code execution reaches the main()’s terminating right brace.
This special code causes execution to jump to address 0, the Reset vector for all 8-bit
PIC devices. This essentially performs a software Reset. Note that the state of registers
after a software Reset can be different to that after a hardware Reset.
It is recommended that the main() function does not end. Add a loop construct (such
as a while(1)) that will never terminate either around your code in main() or at the
end of your code, so that execution of the function will never terminate. For example,
void main(void)
{
// your code goes here
// finished that, now just wait for interrupts
while(1)
continue;
}
4.10.2 Runtime Startup Code

A C program requires certain objects to be initialized and the device to be in a particular
state before it can begin execution of its function main(). It is the job of the runtime
startup code to perform these tasks, specifically (and in no particular order):
• Initialization of global variables assigned a value when defined
• Clearing of non-initialized global variables
• General set up of registers or device state
Rather than the traditional method of linking in a generic, precompiled routine, MPLAB
XC8 determines what runtime startup code is required from the user’s program. Details
of the files used and how the process can be controlled are described in
Section 3.4.2 “Startup and Initialization”. The following sections detail the tasks per-
formed by the runtime startup code.
The runtime startup code assumes that the device has just come out of Reset and that
registers will be holding their power-on-reset value. If your program is an application
invoked by a bootloader that will have already executed, you might need to ensure that
data bank 0 is selected so that the runtime startup code executes correctly. This can
be achieved by placing the appropriate code sequence towards the end of the boot-
loader as in-line assembly.

C Language Features
The following table lists the significant assembly labels used by the startup and
powerup code.
TABLE 4-12: SIGNIFICANT ASSEMBLY LABELS

Label Location
reset_vec at the Reset vector location (0x0)
powerup the beginning of the powerup routine, if used
start the beginning of the runtime startup code, in startup.s
start_initialization the beginning of the C initialization startup code, in the C
output code
4.10.2.1 INITIALIZATION OF OBJECTS

One task of the runtime startup code is to ensure that any static storage duration
objects contain their initial value before the program begins execution. A case in point
would be input in the following example.
int input = 88;
In the above, the initial value, 0x88, will be stored as data in program memory, and will
be copied to the memory reserved for input by the runtime startup code. For effi-
ciency, initial values are stored as blocks of data and copied by loops. Absolute vari-
ables, see Section 4.5.4 “Absolute Variables” are never initialized and must be
explicitly assigned a value if that is required for correct program execution.
This feature can be disabled using -Wl,-no-data-init; however, code that relies
on objects containing their initial value will fail.
Since auto objects are dynamically created, they require code to be positioned in the
function in which they are defined to perform their initialization and are not considered
by the runtime startup code.
Note: Initialized auto variables can impact on code performance, particularly if

the objects are large in size. Consider using static local objects instead.
Objects whose content should be preserved over a Reset should be marked with the
__persistent qualifier (see Section 4.4.9.5 “__persistent Type Qualifier”). Such
objects are linked in a different area of memory and are not altered by the runtime
startup code.
The runtime startup code that initializes objects will clobber the content of the STATUS
register. If you need to determine the cause of reset from this register, the register
content can be preserved (see Section 4.10.2.4 “STATUS Register Preservation”).

4.10.2.2 CLEARING OBJECTS
Those objects with static storage duration which are not assigned a value must be
cleared before the main() function begins by the runtime startup code, for example.
int output;
The runtime startup code will clear all the memory locations occupied by uninitialized
objects so they will contain zero before main() is executed. Absolute variables, see
Section 4.5.4 “Absolute Variables” are never cleared and must be explicitly assigned a
value of zero if that is required for correct program execution.
This feature can be disabled using -Wl,-no-data-init; however, code that relies
on objects containing their initial value will fail.
Objects whose contents should be preserved over a Reset should be qualified with
__persistent (see Section 4.4.9.1 “__bank() Type Qualifier”). Such objects are
linked at a different area of memory and are not altered by the runtime startup code.
The runtime startup code that clears objects will clobber the content of the STATUS
register. If you need to determine the cause of reset from this register, the register
content can be preserved (see Section 4.10.2.4 “STATUS Register Preservation”).
4.10.2.3 SETUP OF DEVICE STATE

Some PIC devices come with an oscillator calibration constant which is pre-pro-
grammed into the device’s program memory. Code is automatically placed in the run-
time startup code to load this calibration value (see Section 4.3.11 “Oscillator
Calibration Constants”).
If the software stack is being used by the program, the stack pointer (FSR1) is also
initialized by the runtime startup code (see Section 4.5.2.2.1 “Object Size Limits”).

C Language Features
4.10.2.4 STATUS REGISTER PRESERVATION
The -mresetbits option (see 3.7.1.18 resetbits) preserves some of the bits in the
STATUS register before they are clobbered by the remainder of the runtime startup
code. The state of these bits can be examined after recovering from a Reset condition
to determine the cause of the Reset. This option is not available when compiling for
PIC18 devices.
The entire STATUS register is saved to an assembly variable ___resetbits. The
compiler also defines the assembly symbols ___powerdown and ___timeout to rep-
resent the bit address of the Power-down and Time-out bits within the STATUS register
and can be used if required.
These locations can be accessed from C code once <xc.h> has been included, noting
that the equivalent C identifiers will use just two leading underscore characters, e.g.
__resetbits. See Section 4.12.3.1 “Equivalent Assembly Symbols” for more details
of symbol mapping.
The compiler will detect the usage of the above symbols in your code and automatically
enable the -mresetbits option, if they are present. You may choose to enable this
feature manually, if desired.
4.10.3 The Powerup Routine

Some hardware configurations require special initialization, often within the first few
instruction cycles after Reset. To achieve this there is a hook to the Reset vector pro-
vided via the powerup routine.
This routine can be supplied in a user-defined assembler module. A template powerup
routine is provided in the file powerup.S which is located in the pic/sources direc-
tory of your compiler distribution. Refer to comments in this file for more details.
The file should be copied to your working directory, modified, and included into your
project as a source file. No special linker options or other code is required. The compiler
will detect if you have defined a powerup routine and will automatically execute this
code after reset, provided the code is contained in a psect (section) called powerup.
For correct operation, the code must end with a goto instruction that jumps to the label
called start. As with all user-defined assembly code, any code inside this file must
take into consideration program memory paging and/or data memory banking, as well
as any applicable errata issues for the device you are using.

4.11 LIBRARIES
4.11.1 Standard Libraries
The C standard libraries contain a standardized collection of functions, such as string,
and math routines. These functions are listed in Appendix A. Library Functions.
The libraries also contain C routines that are implicitly called by programs to perform
tasks such as floating-point operations and integer division. These routines do not
directly correspond to a function call in the source code.
And finally, there are several library functions, such as functions relating to func-
tion-level profiling, mid-range EEPROM access, REALICE trace and log etc., that are
built with the program as required. These will not be found in any library file.
4.11.1.1 THE PRINTF ROUTINE

The code associated with the printf() function is not precompiled into the library
files. The printf() function is generated from a special C template file that is custom-
ized after analysis of the user’s C code.
Template files are shipped with the compiler and contain a full implementation of the
printf()function, but these features are conditionally included based on how you
use printf() in your project.
The compiler analyzes the C source code, searching for calls to the printf() function
and collates the format string placeholders that were used in those calls.
For example, if a program contains one call to printf(), which looks like:
printf(”input is: %d”);
The compiler will note that only the %d placeholder is used and the printf() function
that is linked into the program might not include code to handle printing of types other
than an int.
If the format string in a call to printf() is a pointer to a string, not a string literal as
above, then the compiler will not be able to detect how printf() is used. A more com-
plete version of printf() will be generated; however, the compiler can still make cer-
tain assumptions. In particular, the compiler can look at the number and type of the
arguments to printf() following the format string expression to determine which
placeholders could be valid. This enables the size and complexity of the generated
printf() routine to be kept to a minimum even in this case.
For example, if printf() was called as follows:
printf(myFormatString, 4, 6);
the compiler could determine that, for example, no floating-point placeholders are
required.
No aspect of this operation is user-controllable (other than by adjusting the calls to
printf() ); however, the final printf() code can be observed by opening the
pre-processed output of the printf modules.

C Language Features
4.11.2 User-Defined Libraries

User-defined libraries can be created and linked in with your program. Library files are
easier to manage than many source files, and can result in faster compilation times.
Libraries must, however, be compatible with the target device and options for a partic-
ular project. Several versions of a library might need to be created and maintained to
allow it to be used for different projects.
Libraries can be created using the librarian, xc8-ar, (see Section 7.2 “Librarian”).
Once built, user-defined libraries can be used on the command line along with the
source files or added to the Libraries folder in your MPLAB X IDE project.
Library files specified on the command line are scanned first for unresolved symbols;
so, their content can redefine anything that is defined in the C standard libraries (see
Section 4.15.4 “Replacing Library Modules”).
4.11.3 Using Library Routines

Library functions and objects that have been referenced will be automatically linked into
your program, provided the library file is part of your project. The use of a function from
one library file will not include any other functions from that library.
Your program will require declarations for any library functions or symbols it uses. Stan-
dard libraries come with standard C headers (.h files), which can be included into your
source files. See your favorite C text book or Appendix A. Library Functions for the
header that corresponds to each library function. Typically you would write library head-
ers if you create your own library files.
Header files are not library files. Library files contain precompiled code, typically func-
tions and variable definitions; header files provide declarations (as opposed to defini-
tions) for those functions, variables and types in the library. Headers can also define
preprocessor macros.

4.12 MIXING C AND ASSEMBLY CODE

Assembly language can be mixed with C code using two different techniques: writing
assembly code and placing it into a separate assembler module, or including it as
in-line assembly in a C module.
Note: The more assembly code a project contains, the more difficult and time con-
suming will be its maintenance. Assembly code might need revision if the
compiler is updated due to differences in the way the updated compiler may
work. These factors do not affect code written in C.
If assembly must be added, it is preferable to write this as a self-contained
routine in a separate assembly module, rather than in-lining it in C code.
4.12.1 Integrating Assembly Language Modules

Entire functions can be coded in assembly language as separate source files included
into your project. They will be assembled and combined into the output image by the
linker. Use a .s extension for source files containing plain assembly code, or .S or .sx
for files that contain preprocessor directives that must be processed by the preproces-
sor.
By default, such modules are not optimized by the assembler optimizer. Optimization
can be enabled by using the -fasmfile option (see Section 3.7.6.5 “asmfile”).
The following are guidelines that must be adhered to when writing a C-callable
assembly routine.
• Include the <xc.inc> assembly header file if you need to use SFRs in your code.
(If this is included using #include, ensure the source file uses .sx or .S as its
extension.)
• Select, or define, a suitable psect for the executable assembly code (see
Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects” for an introductory guide.)
• Select a name (label) for the routine using a leading underscore character
• Ensure that the routine’s label is globally accessible from other modules
• Select an appropriate C-equivalent prototype for the routine on which argument
passing can be modeled
• If values need to be passed to or returned from the routine, write a reentrant rou-
tine if possible (see Section 4.12.3.3 “Writing Reentrant Assembly Routines With
Parameters”); otherwise use ordinary variables for value passing.
• Optionally, use a signature value to enable type checking when the function is
called
• Use bank selection instructions and mask addresses of any variable symbols

C Language Features
The following example shows a Mid-range device assembly routine that can add an
8-bit argument with the contents of PORTB and return this as an 8-bit quantity. The
code is similar for other devices.
#include <xc.inc>
GLOBAL _add ; make _add globally accessible

SIGNAT _add,4217 ; tell the linker how it should be called
; everything following will be placed into the mytext psect

PSECT mytext,local,class=CODE,delta=2
; our routine to add to ints and return the result
_add:
; W is loaded by the calling function;
BANKSEL (PORTB) ; select the bank of this object
addwf BANKMASK(PORTB),w ; add parameter to port
; the result is already in the required location (W)so we can
; just return immediately
return
The code has been placed in a user-defined psect, myText, but this section is part of
the CODE linker class, so it will be automatically placed in the area of memory set aside
for code without you having to adjust the default linker options.
The delta flag used with this section indicates that the memory space in which the
psect will be placed is word addressable (value of 2), which is true for PIC10/12/16
devices. For PIC18 devices, program memory is byte addressable, but instructions
must be word-aligned, so you would instead use code such as the following, which
uses a delta value is 1 (which is the default setting), but the reloc (alignment) flag
is set to 2, to ensure that the section starts on a word-aligned address.
PSECT text0,class=CODE,reloc=2
See Section 5.2.9.3 “PSECT” for detailed information on the flags used with the PSECT
assembler directive.
The mapping between C identifiers and those used by assembly are described in
Section 4.12.3 “Interaction between Assembly and C Code”. In assembly domain we
must choose the routine name _add as this then maps to the C identifier add. Since
this routine will be called from other modules, the label is made globally accessible, by
using the GLOBAL assembler directive (Section 5.2.9.1 “GLOBAL”).
A SIGNAT directive (Section 5.2.9.22 “SIGNAT”) was used so that the linker can check
that the routine is correctly called.
The W register will be used for passing in the argument. See Section 4.8.6 “Function
Parameters” for the convention used to pass parameters.
The BANKSEL directive and BANKMASK macro have been used to ensure that the cor-
rect bank was selected and that all addresses are masked to the appropriate size.
To call an assembly routine from C code, a declaration for the routine must be provided.
Here is a C code snippet that declares the operation of the assembler routine, then calls
the routine.
// declare the assembly routine so it can be correctly called
extern unsigned char add(unsigned char a);
void main(void) {
volatile unsigned char result;
result = add(5); // call the assembly routine

}

4.12.2 Inline Assembly

Assembly instructions can be directly embedded in-line into C code using the state-
ment asm();.
The instructions are placed in a string inside what look like function call brackets,
although no actual call takes place. Typically one instruction is placed in the string, but
you can specify more than one assembly instruction by separating the instructions with
a \n character, e.g., asm(“movlw 55\nmovwf _x”);, Code will be more readable
if you place one instruction in each statement and use multiple statements.
You can use the asm() form of in-line assembly at any point in the C source code as
it will correctly interact with all C flow-of-control structures, as shown below.
unsigned int var;
void main(void)
{
var = 1;
asm(“bcf 0,3”);
asm(“BANKSEL _var”);
asm(“rlf (_var)&07fh”);
asm(“rlf (_var+1)&07fh”);
}
In-line assembly code is never optimized by the assembler optimizer.
When using in-line assembler code, it is extremely important that you do not interact
with compiler-generated code. The code generator cannot scan the assembler code for
register usage; so, it will remain unaware if registers are clobbered or used by the
assembly code. However, the compiler will reset all bank tracking once it encounters
in-line assembly, so any SFRs or bits within SFRs that specify the current bank do not
need to be preserved by in-line assembly.
The registers used by the compiler are explained in Section 4.7 “Register Usage”. If
you are in doubt as to which registers are being used in surrounding code, compile your
program with the -Wa,-a option (see Section 3.7.10 “Mapped Assembler Options”)
and examine the assembler code generated by the compiler. Remember that as the
rest of the program changes, the registers and code strategy used by the compiler will
change as well.
If a C function is called from main-line and interrupt code, it can be duplicated (see
Section 4.9.7 “Function Duplication”). Although a special prefix is used to ensure that
labels generated by the compiler are not duplicated, this does not apply to labels
defined in hand-written, in-line assembly code in C functions. Thus, you should not
define assembly labels for in-lined assembly if the containing function might be
duplicated.
4.12.3 Interaction between Assembly and C Code

MPLAB XC8 C Compiler incorporates several features designed to allow C code to
obey requirements of user-defined assembly code. There are also precautions that
must be followed to ensure that assembly code does not interfere with the assembly
generated from C code.
4.12.3.1 EQUIVALENT ASSEMBLY SYMBOLS

Most C symbols map to an corresponding assembly equivalent.
This mapping is such that an “ordinary” symbol defined in the assembly domain cannot
interfere with an “ordinary” symbol in the C domain. So for example, if the symbol main
is defined in the assembly domain, it is quite distinct to the main symbol used in C code
and they refer to different locations.

C Language Features
The name of a C function maps to an assembly label that will have the same name, but
with an underscore prepended. So the function main() will define an assembly label
_main.
Baseline PIC devices can use alternate assembly domain symbols for functions. The
destinations of call instructions on these devices are limited to the first half of a program
memory page. The compiler, thus, encodes functions in two parts, as illustrated in the
following example of a C function, add(), compiled for a Baseline device.
entry__add:
ljmp _add
The label entry__add is the function’s entry point and will always be located in the
first half of a program memory page. The code associated with this label is simply a
long jump (see Section 5.2.1.8 “Long Jumps and Calls”) to the actual function body
located elsewhere and identified by the label _add.
If you plan to call routines from assembly code, you must be aware of this limitation in
the device and the way the compiler works around it for C functions. Hand-written
assembly code should always call the entry__funcName label rather than the usual
assembly-equivalent function label.
If a C function is qualified static and there is more than one static function in the
program with exactly the same name, the name of the first function will map to the usual
assembly symbol and the subsequent functions will map to a special symbol with the
form: fileName@functionName, where fileName is the name of the file that
contains the function, and functionName is the name of the function.
For example, a program contains the definition for two static functions, both called
add. One lives in the file main.c and the other in lcd.c. The first function will
generate an assembly label _add. The second will generate the label lcd@add.
The name of a C variable with static storage duration also maps to an assembler label
that will have the same name, but with an underscore prepended. So the variable
result will define an assembly label: _result.
If the C variable is qualified static, there is a chance that there could be more than
one variable in the program with exactly the same C name. The same rules apply to
these static variables as to static functions. The name of the first variable will map
to a symbol prepended with an underscore; the subsequent symbols will have the form:
fileName@variableName, where fileName is the name of the file that contains the
variable, and variableName is the name of the variable.
If there is more than one local static variable (i.e., it is defined inside a function defi-
nition) then all the variables will have an assembly name of the form:
functionName@variableName.
If there is a static variable called output in the function read and another static
variable with the same name defined in the function update, then the symbols in the
assembly can be accessed using the symbols read@output and update@output,
respectively.
If there is more than one static function with the same name and they contain defi-
nitions for static variables of the same name, then the assembly symbol used for
these variables will be of the form:
fileName@functionName@variableName.
Having two static variables or functions with the same name is legal, but not
recommended as is easy to write code that accesses the wrong variable or calls the
wrong function.

Functions that use the reentrant model do not define any symbols that allow you to
access auto and parameter variables. You should not attempt to access these in
assembly code. Special symbols for these variables are defined, however, by functions
that use the nonreentrant model. These symbols are described in the following para-
graphs.
To allow easy access to parameter and auto variables on the compiled stack, special
equates are defined which map a unique symbol to each variable. The symbol has the
form: functionName@variableName. Thus, if the function main defines an auto
variable called foobar, the symbol main@foobar can be used in assembly code to
access this C variable.
Function parameters use the same symbol mapping as auto variables. If a function
called read has a parameter called channel, then the assembly symbol for that
parameter is read@channel.
Function return values have no C identifier associated with them. The return value for
a function shares the same memory as that function’s parameter variables, if they are
present. The assembly symbol used for return values has the form ?_funcName,
where funcName is the name of the function returning the value. Thus, if a function,
getPort returns a value, it will be located the address held by the assembly symbol
?_getPort. If this return value is more than one byte in size, then an offset is added
to the symbol to access each byte, e.g., ?_getPort+1.
If the compiler creates temporary variables to hold intermediate results, these will
behave like auto variables. As there is no corresponding C variable, the assembly
symbol is based on the symbol that represents the auto block for the function plus an
offset. That symbol is ??_funcName, where funcName is the function in which the
symbol is being used. So for example, if the function main uses temporary variables,
they will be accessed as an offset from the symbol ??_main.
4.12.3.2 ACCESSING REGISTERS FROM ASSEMBLY CODE

In separate assembly modules, SFR definitions are not automatically accessible. The
assembly header file <xc.inc> can be used to gain access to these register
definitions. Do not use this file for assembly in-line with C code as it will clash with
definitions in <xc.h>.
Include the file using the assembler’s INCLUDE directive, (see
Section 5.2.10.5 “INCLUDE”) or use the C preprocessor’s #include directive. If you
are using the latter method, make sure you use a .S or .sx extension for the assembly
source file.
The symbols for registers in this header file look similar to the identifiers used in the C
domain when including <xc.h>, e.g., PORTA, EECON1, etc. They are different symbols
in different domains, but will map to the same memory location.
Names of bits within registers are defined as registerName,bitNumber. So, for
example, RA0 is defined as PORTA,0.
Here is an example of a Mid-range assembly module that uses SFRs.
#include <xc.inc>
GLOBAL _setports
PSECT text,class=CODE,local,delta=2
_setports:
movlw 0xAA
BANKSEL (PORTA)
movwf BANKMASK(PORTA)
BANKSEL (PORTB)
bsf RB1

C Language Features
If you wish to access register definitions from assembly that is in-line with C code,
ensure that the <xc.h> header is included into the C module. Information included by
this header will define in-line assembly symbols as well as the usual symbols
accessible from C code.
The symbols used for register names will be the same as those defined by <xc.inc>.
So for example, the example given previously could be rewritten as in-line assembly as
follows.
asm("movlw0xAA);
asm("BANKSEL(PORTA));
asm("movwfBANKMASK(PORTA));
asm("BANKSEL(PORTB));
asm("bsf RB1);
The code generator does not detect when SFRs have been written to in in-line assem-
bly, so these must be preserved. The list of registers used by the compiler and further
information can be found in Section 4.7 “Register Usage”.
4.12.3.3 WRITING REENTRANT ASSEMBLY ROUTINES WITH PARAMETERS

Hand-written assembly routines for Enhanced Mid-range and PIC18 devices can be
written to use the software stack and be reentrantly called from C code. Such routines
can take parameters, return values, and define their own local objects, if required.
The following are the steps that need to be followed to create such routines.
• Declare the C prototype for the routine in C source code, choosing appropriate
parameter and return value types.
• Include the <xc.inc> assembly header file. (If this is included using #include,
ensure the source file uses .sx or .S as its extension.)
• If required, define each auto-like variable using the stack_auto name,size
macro, where name can be any valid assembler identifier and size is the
variable’s size in bytes.
• If required, define each parameter using the macro stack_param name,size,
where name can be any valid assembly identifier and size is the variable’s size in
bytes. Parameters must be defined after autos and their order must match the
order in which they appear in the C prototype.
• Initialize the stack once using the macro alloc_stack before any instructions in
the routine.
• Immediately before each return instruction, restore the stack using the macro
restore_stack.
Write the routine in assembly in the usual way, taking note of the points in
Section 4.12.1 “Integrating Assembly Language Modules”.
Each auto and parameter variable will be located at a unique offset to the stack pointer
(FSR1). If you follow the above guidelines, you can use the symbol name_offset,
which will be assigned the stack-pointer offset for the variable with name. These mac-
ros will exist for both auto and parameter variables.
If the routine returns a value, this must be placed into the location expected by the code
that calls the routine (for full details of C-callable routines, see
Section 4.8.7.2 “Software Stack Return Values”). To summarize, for objects 1 to 4 bytes
in size, these must be loaded to temporary variables referenced as btemp, plus an off-
set. This symbol is automatically linked into your routine if you use the macros
described above.

It is recommended that you do not arbitrarily adjust the stack pointer during the routine.
The symbols that define the offset for each auto and parameter variable assume that
the stack pointer has not been modified. However, if your assembly routine calls other
reentrant routines (regardless of whether they are defined in C or assembly code), you
must write the assembly code that pushes the arguments onto the stack, calls the
function, and then removes any return value from the stack.
The following is an example of a reentrant assembly routine, _inc, written for a
PIC16F1xxx device. Its arguments and return value are described by the C prototype:
extern reentrant int inc(int foo);
This routine returns an int value that is one higher than the int argument that is
passed to it. It uses an auto variable, x, strictly for illustrative purposes.
#include <xc.inc>
PSECT text2,local,class=CODE,delta=2
GLOBAL _inc
_inc:
stack_auto x,2 ;an auto called 'x'; 2 bytes wide
stack_param foo,2 ;a parameter called 'foo'; 2 bytes wide
alloc_stack
;x = foo + 1;
moviw [foo_offset+0]FSR1
addlw low(01h)
movwf btemp+0
moviw [foo_offset+1]FSR1
movwf btemp+1
movlw high(01h)
addwfc btemp+1,f
movf btemp+0,w
movwi [x_offset+0]FSR1
movf btemp+1,w
movwi [x_offset+1]FSR1
;return x;
moviw [x_offset+0]FSR1
movwf btemp+0
moviw [x_offset+1]FSR1
movwf btemp+1
restore_stack
return

C Language Features
The following is an example of a reentrant assembly routine, _add, written for a PIC18
device. Its arguments and return value are described by the C prototype:
extern reentrant int add(int base, int index);
This routine returns an int value that is one higher than the int sum of the base and
index arguments that are passed to it. It uses the auto variables, tmp and result,
strictly for illustrative purposes.
#include <xc.inc>
psect text1,class=CODE,space=0,reloc=2
GLOBAL _add
_add:
stack_auto tmp,2 ;an auto called 'tmp'; 2 bytes wide
stack_auto result,2 ;an auto called 'result'; 2 bytes wide
stack_param base,2 ;a parameter called 'base'; 2 bytes wide
stack_param index,2 ;a parameter called 'index'; 2 bytes wide
alloc_stack
;tmp = base + index;

movlw base_offset
movff PLUSW1,btemp+0
movlw base_offset+1
movlw index_offset
movf PLUSW1,w,c
addwf btemp+0,f,c
movlw index_offset+1
movf PLUSW1,w,c
addwfc btemp+1,f,c
movlw tmp_offset
movff btemp+0,PLUSW1
movlw tmp_offset+1
;result = tmp + 1;
movlw tmp_offset
movf PLUSW1,w,c
addlw 1
movwf btemp+0,c
movlw tmp_offset+1
movlw 0
addwfc btemp+1,f,c
movlw result_offset
movlw result_offset+1
;return result;
movlw result_offset
movlw result_offset+1
restore_stack
return

4.12.3.4 ABSOLUTE PSECTS
MPLAB XC8 is able to determine the address bounds of absolute psects (defined using
the abs and ovrld, PSECT flags) and reserves that data memory prior to the compila-
tion stage so it is not used by C source. Any data memory required by assembly code
must use an absolute psect, but these do not need to be used for psects to be located
in program memory.
The following example code contained in an assembly code file defines a table that
must be located at address 0x110 in the data space.
PSECT lkuptbl,class=RAM,space=1,abs,ovrld
ORG 110h
lookup:
DS 20h
When the project is compiled, the memory range from address 0x110 to 0x12F in mem-
ory space 1 (data memory) is recorded as being used and is reserved before compiling
the C source. An absolute psect always starts at address 0. For such psects, you can
specify a non-zero starting address by using the ORG directive. See
Section 5.2.9.4 “ORG” for important information on this directive.
4.12.3.5 UNDEFINED SYMBOLS

If an object is defined in C source code, but is only accessed in assembly code, the
compiler might ordinarily remove the object believing it is unused, resulting in an unde-
fined symbol error.
To work around this issue, MPLAB XC8 searches for symbols in assembly code that
have no assembly definition (which would typically be a label). If these symbols are
encountered in C source they are automatically treated as being volatile (see
Section 4.4.8.2 “Volatile Type Qualifier”), which will prevent them from being removed.
For example, if a C program defines a variable as follows:
int input;
but this variable is never used in C code. The assembly module(s) can simply declare
this symbol, with the leading underscore character (see Section 4.12.3 “Interaction
between Assembly and C Code”), using the GLOBAL assembler directive and then use
it as follows.
GLOBAL _input, _raster
PSECT text,local,class=CODE,reloc=2
_raster:
movf _input,w

C Language Features
4.13 OPTIMIZATIONS
The optimizations in the MPLAB XC8 compiler can be broadly grouped into C-level
optimizations performed on the source code before conversion into assembly and
assembly-level optimizations performed on the assembly code generated by the
compiler.
The C-level optimizations are performed early during the code generation phase and
so have flow-on benefits: performing one optimization might mean that another can
then be applied. As these optimizations are applied before the debug information has
been produced, there is less impact on source-level debugging of programs.
Some of these optimizations are integral to the code generation process and so cannot
be disabled via an option. Suggestions as to how specific optimizations can be
defeated are given in the sections below.
If your compiler is unlicensed, some of the optimization levels are disabled (see
Section 3.7.6 “Options for Controlling Optimization”). Even if they are enabled, optimi-
zations can only be applied if very specific conditions are met. As a result, you might
see that some lines of code are optimized, but other similar lines are not.
The optimization level determines the available optimizations, which are listed in
Table 4-13.
TABLE 4-13: OPERATING MODE OPTIMIZATION SETS

Level Optimization sets available
O1 (Free mode) • Basic code generator and assembler optimizations
O2 (Std mode) • Basic code generator and assembler optimizations
• Whole program assembly optimizations
O3 (PRO mode) • Basic code generator and assembler optimizations
• Whole program assembly optimizations
• Procedural abstraction (assembly optimization)
• OCG C-level optimizations
Assembly-level optimizations are described in Section 5.3 “Assembly-Level

Optimizations”.
The basic code generator optimizations consist of the following.
• Whole-program analysis for object allocation into data banks without having to
use non-standard keywords or compiler directives.
• Simplification and folding of constant expressions to simplify expressions.
• Expression tree optimizations to ensure efficient assembly generation.
The following is a list of main OCG C-level optimizations, which simplify C expressions
or code produced from C expressions. These are applied across the entire program,
not just on a module-by-module basis.
• Tracking of the current data bank is performed by the compiler as it generates
assembly code. This allows the compiler to reduce the number of bank-selection
instructions generated.
• Strength reductions and expression transformations are applied to all expres-
sion trees before code is generated. This involves replacing expressions with
equivalent, but less costly operations.

• Unused variables in a program are removed. This applies to all variables. Vari-
ables removed will not have memory reserved for them, will not appear in any list
or map file, and will not be present in debug information (will not be observable in
the debugger). A warning is produced if an unused variable is encountered.
Global objects qualified volatile will never be removed (see
Section 4.4.8.2 “Volatile Type Qualifier”). Taking the address of a variable or refer-
encing its assembly-domain symbol in hand-written assembly code also consti-
tutes use of the variable.
• Redundant assignments to variables not subsequently used are removed,
unless the variable is volatile. The assignment statement is completely
removed, as if it was never present in the original source code. No code will be
produced for it and you will not be able to set a breakpoint on that line in the
debugger.
• Unused functions in a program are removed. A function is considered unused
if it is not called, directly or indirectly, nor has had its address taken. The entire
function is removed, as if it was never present in the original source code. No
code will be produced for it and you will not be able to set a breakpoint on any line
in the function in the debugger. Referencing a function’s assembly-domain symbol
in a separate hand-written assembly module will prevent it being removed. The
assembly code need only use the symbol in the GLOBAL directive.
• Unused return expressions in a function are removed. The return value is
considered unused if the result of all calls to that function discard the return value.
The code associated with calculation of the return value will be removed and the
function will be encoded as if its return type was void.
• Propagation of constants is performed where the numerical contents of a vari-
able can be determined. Variables which are not volatile and whose value can
be exactly determined are replaced with the numerical value. Uninitialized global
variables are assumed to contain zero prior to any assignment to them.
• Variables assigned a value before being read are not cleared or initialized by
the runtime startup code. Only non-auto variables are considered and if they are
assigned a value before other code can read their value, they are treated as being
__persistent (see Section 4.4.9.1 “__bank() Type Qualifier”). All
__persistent objects are not cleared by the runtime startup code, so this opti-
mization will speed execution of the program startup.
• Pointer sizes are optimized to suit the target objects they can access. The com-
piler tracks all assignments to pointer variables and keeps a list of targets each
pointer can access. As the memory space of each target is known, the size and
dereference method used can be customized for each pointer.
• Dereferencing pointers with only target can be replaced with direct access of
the target object. This applies to data and function pointers.
• Unreachable code is removed. C Statements that cannot be reached are
removed before they generate assembly code. This allows subsequent optimiza-
tions to be applied at the C level.
MPLAB X IDE or other IDEs can indicate incorrect values when watching variables if
optimizations hold a variable in a register. Try to use the ELF/DWARF debug file format
to minimize such occurrences. Check the assembly list file to see if registers are used
in the routine that is being debugged.

C Language Features
4.14 PREPROCESSING
All C source files are preprocessed before compilation. The preprocessed file is
deleted after compilation, but you can examine this file by using the -E option (see
Section 3.7.2.2 “E: Preprocess Only”).
Assembler source files are preprocessed if the file uses a .S or .sx extension.
4.14.1 Preprocessor Directives

MPLAB XC8 accepts several specialized preprocessor directives, in addition to the
standard directives. All of these are listed in Table 4-14.
TABLE 4-14: PREPROCESSOR DIRECTIVES

Directive Meaning Example
# preprocessor null directive, do nothing #

#assert generate error if condition false #assert SIZE > 10
#define define preprocessor macro #define SIZE (5)
#define FLAG
#define add(a,b) ((a)+(b))
#elif short for #else #if see #ifdef
#else conditionally include source lines see #if
#endif terminate conditional source inclusion see #if
#error generate an error message #error Size too big
#if include source lines if constant #if SIZE < 10
expression true c = process(10)
#else
skip();
#endif
#ifdef include source lines if preprocessor #ifdef FLAG
symbol defined do_loop();
#elif SIZE == 5
skip_loop();
#endif
#ifndef include source lines if preprocessor #ifndef FLAG
symbol not defined jump();
#endif
#include include text file into source #include <stdio.h>
#include “project.h”
#line specify line number and filename for #line 3 final
listing
#nn (where nn is a number) short for #20
#line nn
#pragma compiler specific options See Section 4.14.3 “Pragma
Directives”.
#undef undefines preprocessor symbol #undef FLAG
#warning generate a warning message #warning Length not set

Macro expansion using arguments can use the # character to convert an argument to
a string, and the ## sequence to concatenate arguments. If two expressions are being
concatenated, consider using two macros in case either expression requires
substitution itself; for example
#define __paste1(a,b) a##b
#define __paste(a,b) __paste1(a,b)
lets you use the paste macro to concatenate two expressions that themselves can
require further expansion. Remember, that once a macro identifier has been expanded,
it will not be expanded again if it appears after concatenation.
4.14.1.1 PREPROCESSOR ARITHMETIC

Preprocessor macro replacement expressions are textual and do not utilize types.
Unless they are part of the controlling expression to the inclusion directives (discussed
below), macros are not evaluated by the preprocessor. Once macros have been textu-
ally expanded and preprocessing is complete, the expansion forms a C expression
which is evaluated by the code generator along with other C code. Tokens within the
expanded C expression inherit a type, and values are then subject to integral promotion
and type conversion in the usual way.
If a macro is part of the controlling expression to a conditional inclusion directive (#if
or #elif), the macro must be evaluated by the preprocessor. The result of this evalu-
ation is often different to the C-domain result for the same sequence. The preprocessor
assigns sizes to literal values in the controlling expression that are equal to the largest
integer size accepted by the compiler, as specified by the size of intmax_t defined in
<stdint.h>. For the MPLAB XC8 C compiler, this size is 32 bits, unless you are com-
piling for a PIC18 device with C99 in which case it is 64 bits.
The following code written for a Mid-range device does not work as you might expect
it to work. The preprocessor will evaluate MAX to be the result of a 32-bit multiplication,
0xF4240. However, the definition of the long int variable, max, will be assigned the
value 0x4240 (since the constant 1000 has a signed int type, and, therefore, the
C-domain multiplication will also be performed using a 16-bit signed int type).
#define MAX 1000*1000
...
#if MAX > INT16_MAX // evaluation of MAX by preprocessor
long int max = MAX; // evaluation of MAX by code generator
#else
int max = MAX; // evaluation of MAX by code generator
#endif
Overflow in the C domain can be avoided by using a constant suffix in the macro (see
Section 4.4.7 “Constant Types and Formats”). For example, an L after a number in a
macro expansion indicates it should be interpreted by the C compiler as a long, but
this suffix does not affect how the preprocessor interprets the value, if it needs to
evaluate it.
So, for example:
#define MAX 1000*1000L
will evaluate to 0xF4240 in C expressions.

C Language Features
4.14.2 Predefined Macros

The compiler drivers define certain symbols to the preprocessor, allowing conditional
compilation based on chip type, etc. The symbols listed in Table 4-15 show the more
common symbols defined by the drivers.
Each symbol, if defined, is equated to 1 (unless otherwise stated).
TABLE 4-15: PREDEFINED MACROS

Symbol Set
ERRATA_4000_BOUNDARY When the ERRATA_4000 applies
HI_TECH_C When the C language variety is HI-TECH C compatible
MPLAB_ICD When building for a non-PIC18 device and an MPLAB ICD
debugger, and is assigned 2 to indicate an MPLAB ICD 2,
assigned 3 for the MPLAB ICD 3
_CHIPNAME When the specific chip type selected, e.g., _16F877
_BANKBITS_ When building for non-PIC18 devices, and is assigned 0, 1
or 2 to indicate 1, 2 or 4 available banks or RAM
_BANKCOUNT_ When building for non-PIC18 devices and indicates the
number of banks of data memory implemented
_COMMON_ When common RAM is present
_COMMON_ADDR_ When common memory is present, and indicates common
memory starting address
_COMMON_SIZE_ When common memory is present, and indicates the com-
mon memory size
_EEPROMSIZE When building for non-PIC18 devices and indicates how
many bytes of EEPROM are available
_EEPROM_INT When building for non-PIC18 devices, and is assigned a
value of 2 (_NVMREG_INT), 1 (_EEREG_INT), or 0
(_NOREG_INT) to indicate the device uses the NVMREG,
EEREG, or no register interface to access EEPROM.
_ERRATA_TYPES When the errata workaround is being applied, see
-merrata option, Section 3.7.1.10 “errata”
_FAMILY_FAMILY_ (1) When building for PIC18 devices and indicates the PIC18
family
_FLASH_ERASE_SIZE (2) Always, and indicates the size of the flash erase block
(2)
_FLASH_WRITE_SIZE Always, and indicates the size of the flash write block
_GPRBITS_ When building for non-PIC18 devices, and is assigned 0, 1
or 2 to indicate 1, 2 or 4 available banks or general purpose
RAM.
_GPRCOUNT_ When building for non-PIC18 devices, and is assigned a
value which indicates the number of banks that contain gen-
eral-purpose RAM
_HAS_FUNCTIONLEVELPROF_ When -finstrument-functions is specified and
target supports profiling
_HAS_INT24 Always
_HAS_OSCVAL_ When the target device has an oscillator calibration register
_MPC_ When compiling for Microchip PIC MCU family
Note 1: To determine the family macro relevant to your device, look for the FAMILY field in
the picc-18.ini file in the compiler's dat directory.
2: These macros relate only to Flash program memory. They do not convey any infor-
mation regarding Flash data memory.

TABLE 4-15: PREDEFINED MACROS (CONTINUED)
Symbol Set
_OMNI_CODE_ When compiling using an OCG compiler
_PIC12 When building for a Baseline device (12-bit instruction)
_PIC12E When building for an Enhanced Baseline device (12-bit
instruction)
_PIC12IE When building for am Enhanced Baseline device with inter-
rupts
_PIC14 When building for an Mid-range device (14-bit instruction)
_PIC14E When building for an Enhanced Mid-range device (14-bit
instruction)
_PIC14EX When building for an extended-bank Enhanced Mid-range
PIC device (14-bit instruction)
_PIC18 When building for a PIC18 device (16-bit instruction)
_PROGMEM_ When building for a Mid-range device with flash memory,
and indicates the type of flash memory employed by the tar-
get device:
values 0xFF (unknown)
0xF0 (none)
0 (read-only)
1 (word write with auto erase)
2 (block write with auto erase)
3 (block write with manual erase)
_RAMSIZE When building for a PIC18 device and to indicates how
many bytes of data memory are available
_ROMSIZE Always, and Indicates how much program memory is avail-
able (byte units for PIC18 devices; words for other devices)
_XC8_MODE_ Always, and indicates which compiler, PRO, Standard or
Free, is in use
Values of 2, 1 or 0 are assigned, respectively.
__CHIPNAME and When the specific chip type selected, e.g., __16F877
__CHIPNAME__
__CLANG__ When the Clang frontend is in use (-std=c99)
__DATABANK When eeprom or flash memory is implemented, and identi-
fies in which bank the EEDATA/PMDATA register is found
__DATE__ Always, and indicates the current date as a string literal,
e.g., "May 21 2004"
__EXTMEM When device has external memory, and indicates the size
of this memory
__FILE__ Always, and indicates the source file being preprocessed
__FLASHTYPE When building for non-PIC18 devices with flash memory,
and indicates the type of flash memory employed by the tar-
get device, see _PROGMEM below
__LINE__ Always, and indicates this source line number
__J_PART When building for a PIC18 ‘J’ series part
__MPLAB_ICDX__ When compiling for an ICD debugger. X can be 2, or 3 indi-
cating a Microchip MPLAB ICD 2, or ICD 3, respectively

C Language Features
TABLE 4-15: PREDEFINED MACROS (CONTINUED)
Symbol Set
__MPLAB_PICKITX__ When compiling for a PICkit™. x can be 2 or 3, indicating a
Microchip MPLAB PICkit 2 or PICkit 3, respectively
__MPLAB_REALICE__ When compiling for a Microchip MPLAB REAL ICE™
In-Circuit Emulator
__OPTIMIZE_SPEED__ When using speed-orientated optimizations
__OPTIMIZE_SPACE__ and When using space-orientated optimizations
__OPTIMIZE_SIZE__
__OPTIMIZE_NONE__ When no optimizations are in effect
__OPTIM_FLAGS Always, and indicates the optimizations in effect (see text
following this table)
__PICCPRO__ and When building for any PIC10/12/14/16 device
__PICC__
__PICC18__ When not in C18 compatibility mode
__RESETBITS_ADDR When the STATUS register will be preserved, and indicates
the address at which this register will be saved
__SIZEOF_TYPE__ Always, and indicates the size in bytes of the specified type,
e.g., __SIZEOF_INT__ or __SIZEOF___INT24__
__STACK Always, and assigned with __STACK_COMPILED(1),
__STACK_HYBRID(2) or __STACK_REENTRANT(4) to indi-
cate the global stack setting: compiled, hybrid or software,
respectively
__STRICT When the -Wpedantic option is enabled.
__TIME__ Always, and indicates the current time as a string literal,
e.g., "08:06:31"
__TRADITIONAL18__ When building for a PIC18 device, and indicates the
non-extended instruction set is selected
__XC Always, and indicates MPLAB XC compiler for Microchip is
in use
__XC8 Always, and indicates MPLAB XC compiler for Microchip
8-bit devices is in use
__XC8_VERSION Always, and indicates the compiler’s version number multi-
plied by 1000, e.g., v1.00 will be represented by 1000

The compiler-defined macros shown in Table 4-16 can be used as bitwise AND masks
to determine the value held by __OPTIM_FLAGS, hence the optimizations used.
TABLE 4-16: OPTIMIZATION FLAGS

Macro Value Meaning
__OPTIM_NONE 0x0 no optimizations applied (on equality)
__OPTIM_ASM 0x1 assembler optimizations on C code
__OPTIM_ASMFILE 0x2 assembler optimizations on assembly source code
__OPTIM_SPEED 0x20000 optimized for speed
__OPTIM_SPACE 0x40000 optimized for size
__OPTIM_SIZE 0x40000 optimized for size
__OPTIM_DEBUG 0x80000 optimized for accurate debug
__OPTIM_LOCAL 0x200000 local optimizations applied

C Language Features
4.14.3 Pragma Directives

There are certain compile-time directives that can be used to modify the behavior of the
compiler. These are implemented through the use of the C Standard’s #pragma facility.
The format of a pragma is:
#pragma keyword options
where keyword is one of a set of keywords, some of which are followed by certain
options. A list of the keywords is given in Table 4-17. Those keywords not discussed
elsewhere are detailed below.
TABLE 4-17: PRAGMA DIRECTIVES

Directive Meaning Example
addrqual specify action of qualifiers #pragma addrqual require

config specify configuration bits #pragma config WDT=ON
inline inline function if possible #pragma inline(getPort)
intrinsic specify function is inline #pragma intrinsic(_delay)
interrupt_level allow call from interrupt and main-line code #pragma interrupt_level 1
pack specify structure packing #pragma pack 1
printf_check enable printf-style format string checking #pragma printf_check(printf) const
psect rename compiler-generated psect #pragma psect nvBANK0=my_nvram
regsused specify registers used by function #pragma regsused myFunc wreg,fsr
switch specify code generation for switch state- #pragma switch direct
ments
warning control messaging parameters #pragma warning disable 299,407
4.14.3.1 THE #PRAGMA ADDRQUAL DIRECTIVE

This directive allows you to control the compiler’s response to non-standard memory
qualifiers. This pragma is an in-code equivalent to the -maddrqual option and both
use the same arguments (see Section 3.7.1.1 “addrqual”).
The pragma has an effect over the entire C program and should be issued once, if
required. If the pragma is issued more than once, the last pragma determines the
compiler’s response.
For example:
#pragma addrqual require
__bank(2) int foobar;
4.14.3.2 THE #PRAGMA CONFIG DIRECTIVE

This directive allows the device Configuration bits to be specified for PIC18 target
devices. See Section 4.3.5 “Configuration Bit Access” for full details.
4.14.3.3 THE #PRAGMA INLINE DIRECTIVE

The #pragma inline directive indicates to the compiler that calls to the specified
function should be as fast as possible. This pragma has the same effect as using the
inline function specifier.
4.14.3.4 THE #PRAGMA INTRINSIC DIRECTIVE

The #pragma intrinsic directive is used to indicate to the compiler that a function
will be inlined intrinsically by the compiler. This directive should never be used with
user-defined code.

You should not attempt to redefine an existing library function that uses the intrinsic
pragma. If you need to develop your own version of such a routine, it must not use the
same name as the intrinsic function. For example, if you need to develop your own ver-
sion of memcpy(), give this a unique name, such as sp_memcpy(). Check the
standard header files to determine which library functions use this pragma.
4.14.3.5 THE #PRAGMA INTERRUPT_LEVEL DIRECTIVE

The #pragma interrupt_level directive can be used to prevent duplication of
functions called from main-line and interrupt code (see Section 4.9.7.1 “Disabling
Duplication”).
4.14.3.6 THE #PRAGMA PACK DIRECTIVE

All 8-bit PIC devices can only perform byte accesses to memory and so do not require
any alignment of memory objects within structures. This pragma will have no effect
when used.
4.14.3.7 THE #PRAGMA PRINTF_CHECK DIRECTIVE

Certain library functions accept a format string followed by a variable number of argu-
ments in the manner of printf(). Although the format string is interpreted at runtime,
it can be compile-time checked for consistency with the remaining arguments.
This directive enables this checking for the named function, for example the system
header file <stdio.h> includes the directive:
#pragma printf_check(printf) const
to enable this checking for printf(). You can also use this for any user-defined
function that accepts printf -style format strings.
The qualifier following the function name is to allow automatic conversion of pointers in
variable argument lists. The above example would cast any pointers to strings in RAM
to be pointers of the type (const char *).
Note that the warning level must be set to -1 or below for this option to have any visible
effect (see Section 3.7.4.2 “warn”).
4.14.3.8 THE #PRAGMA PSECT DIRECTIVE

The #pragma psect was used to redirect objects and functions to a new psect (sec-
tion). It has been replaced by the __section() specifier (see
Section 4.15.3 “Changing and Linking the Allocated Section”), which not only performs
the same task, but is easier to use, and has fewer restrictions as to where the psects
can be linked. It is recommended you always use the __section() specifier to loca-
tion variables and function in unique psects.
The general form of this pragma looks like:
#pragma psect standardPsect=newPsect
and instructs the code generator that anything that would normally appear in the stan-
dard psect standardPsect, will now appear in a new psect called newPsect. This
psect will be identical to standardPsect in terms of its flags and attributes; however,
it will have a unique name. Thus, you can explicitly position this new psect without
affecting the placement of anything in the original psect.
If the name of the standard psect that is being redirected contains a counter (e.g.,
text0, text1, text2, etc.), the placeholder %%u should be used in the name of the
psect at the position of the counter, e.g., text%%u.

C Language Features
4.14.3.9 THE #PRAGMA REGSUSED DIRECTIVE
The #pragma regsused directive allows the programmer to indicate register usage
for functions that will not be “seen” by the code generator; for example, if they were writ-
ten in assembly code. It has no effect when used with functions defined in C code, but
in those cases the register usage of these functions can be accurately determined by
the compiler and the pragma is not required. This pragma is not available in Free mode,
and when used with devices that can save registers into shadow registers, it has no
effect.
The general form of the pragma is:
#pragma regsused routineName registerList
where routineName is the C-equivalent name of the function or routine whose regis-
ter usage is being defined, and registerList is a space-separated list of registers’
names, as shown in Table 4-10.
Those registers that are not listed are assumed to be unused by the function or routine.
The code generator can use any of these registers to hold values across a function call.
If the routine does in fact use these registers, unreliable program execution can hap-
pen.
The register names are not case sensitive and a warning will be produced if the register
name is not recognized. An empty register list indicates that the specified function or
routine uses no registers. If this pragma is not used, the compiler will assume that the
external function uses all registers.
For example, a routine called _search is written in PIC18 assembly code. In the C
source, we can write:
extern void search(void);
#pragma regsused search wreg status fsr0
to indicate that this routine used the W register, STATUS and FSR0. Here, FSR0
expands to both FSR0L and FSR0H. These could be listed individually, if required.
The compiler can determine those registers and objects that need to be saved by an
interrupt function, so this pragma could be used, for example, to allow you to customize
the context switch code in cases where an interrupt routine calls an assembly routine.
4.14.3.10 THE #PRAGMA SWITCH DIRECTIVE

Normally, the compiler encodes switch statements to produce the smallest possible
code size. The #pragma switch directive can be used to force the compiler to use a
different coding strategy.
The switch pragma affects all subsequent code, and has the general form:
#pragma switch switchType
where switchType is one of the available selections that are listed in Table 4-18. The
only switch type currently implemented for PIC18 devices is space.
TABLE 4-18: SWITCH TYPES

Switch Type Description
speed use the fastest switch method
space use the smallest code size method
time use a fixed delay switch method
auto use smallest code size method (default)
direct (deprecated) use a fixed delay switch method
simple (deprecated) sequential xor method

Specifying the time option to the #pragma switch directive forces the compiler to
generate a table look-up style switch method. The time taken to execute each case
is the same, so this is useful where timing is an issue, e.g., with state machines.
The auto option can be used to revert to the default behavior.
Information is printed in the assembly list file for each switch statement, showing the
chosen strategy (see Section 5.4.4 “Switch Statement Information”).
4.14.3.11 THE #PRAGMA WARNING DIRECTIVE

This pragma allows control over some of the compiler’s messages, such as warnings
and errors. The pragmas have no effect when the Clang front end is used to compile
C99 projects. For full information on the messaging system employed by the compiler
see Section 3.6 “Compiler Messages”.
4.14.3.11.1 The Warning Disable Pragma

Some warning messages can be disabled by using the warning disable pragma.
This pragma will only affect warnings that are produced by the parser or the code gen-
erator; i.e., errors directly associated with C code. The position of the pragma is only
significant for the parser; i.e., a parser warning number can be disabled for one section
of the code to target specific instances of the warning. Specific instances of a warning
produced by the code generator cannot be individually controlled and the pragma will
remain in force during compilation of the entire C program, even across modules.
Those warnings that have been disabled can be preserved and recalled using the
warning push and warning pop pragmas. The warning push and pop pragmas can
be nested.
The following example normally produces the warning associated with assignment of
a const object address to a pointer to non-const objects (359).
int readp(int * ip) {
return *ip;
}
const int i = 'd';
void main(void) {
unsigned char c;
#pragma warning disable 359
readp(&i);
#pragma warning enable 359
}
This same effect would be observed using the following code.
#pragma warning push
readp(&i);
#pragma warning pop
Here, the state of the messaging system is saved by the warning push pragma.
Warning 359 is disabled, then after the source code which triggers the warning, the
state of the messaging system is retrieved by using the warning pop pragma.

C Language Features
4.14.3.11.2 The Warning Error/Warning Pragma
It is possible to change the types of some messages.
A message type can only be changed by using the warning pragma and this only
affects messages generated by the parser or code generator. The position of the
pragma is only significant for the parser; i.e., a parser message number can have its
type changed for one section of the code to target specific instances of the message.
Specific instances of a message produced by the code generator cannot be individually
controlled and the pragma will remain in force during compilation of the entire program.
The following example shows the warning produced in the previous example being
converted to an error for the instance in the function main().
void main(void) {
unsigned char c;
#pragma warning error 359
readp(&i);
}
Building this code would result in an error, not the usual warning.

4.15 LINKING PROGRAMS

The compiler will automatically invoke the linker unless the compiler has been
requested to stop earlier in the compilation sequence.
The linker will run with options that are obtained from the command-line driver. These
options specify the memory of the device and how the sections should be placed in the
memory. No linker scripts are used.
The linker options passed to the linker can be adjusted by the user, but this is only
required in special circumstances (see Section 3.7.11.6 “Wl: Linker Option” for more
information).
The linker creates a map file which details the memory assigned to sections and some
objects within the code. The map file is the best place to look for memory information.
See Section 6.4 “Map Files” for a more comprehensive explanation of the detailed
information in this file.
4.15.1 Compiler-Generated Psects

The code generator places code and data into psects, or sections, with standard
names, which are subsequent positioned by the default linker options. The linker does
not treat these compiler-generated psects any differently to a psect that has been
defined by yourself. A psect can be created in assembly code by using the PSECT
assembler directive (see Section 5.2.9.3 “PSECT”).
Some psects use special naming conventions, for example, the bss psect, which holds
uninitialized objects. There may be uninitialized objects that will need to be located in
bank 0 data memory; others may need to be located in bank 1 memory. As these two
groups of objects will need to be placed into different memory banks, they will need to
be in separate psects so they can be independently controlled by the linker.
The general form of data psect names is:
[bit]psectBaseNameCLASS[div]
where psectBaseName is the base name of the psect (listed in Section 4.15.1.2 “Data
Space Psects”). The CLASS is a name derived from the linker class (see
Section 4.15.2.2 “Data Memory Classes”) in which the psect will be linked, e.g., BANK0.
The prefix bit is used if the psect holds __bit variables. So there can be psects like:
bssBANK0, bssBANK1 and bitbssBANK0 defined by the compiler to hold the unini-
tialized variables.
Note that __eeprom-qualified variables can define psects called bssEEDATA or
dataEEDATA, for example, in the same way. Any psect using the class suffix EEDATA
is placed in the HEX file and is burnt into the EEPROM space when you program the
device.
If a data psect needs to be split around a reserved area, it will use the letters l and h
(as div in the above form) in the psect name to indicate if it is the lower or higher
division. Thus you might see bssBANK0l and bssBANK0h psects if a split took place.
If you are unsure which psect holds an object or code in your project, check the
assembly list file (see Section 5.4.1 “General Format”).

C Language Features
The contents of these psects are described below, listed by psect base name.
4.15.1.1 PROGRAM SPACE PSECTS

checksum –this is a psect that is used to mark the position of a checksum that has
been requested using the -mchecksum option.
See Section 3.7.1.2 “checksum” for more information.
The checksum value is added after the linker has executed so you will not
see the contents of this psect in the assembly list file, nor specific information
in the map file.
Do not change the default linker options relating to this psect.
cinit –used by the C initialization runtime startup code.
Code in this psect is output by the code generator along with the generated
code for the C program.
This psect can be linked anywhere within a program memory page, provided
it does not interfere with the requirements of other psects.
config –used to store the Configuration Words.
This psect must be stored in a special location in the HEX file. Do not change
the default linker options relating to this psect.
const –these PIC18-only psects hold objects that are declared const and string
literals which are not modifiable.
Used when the total amount of const data in a program exceeds 64k.
This psect can be linked anywhere within a program memory page, provided
it does not interfere with the requirements of other psects.
eeprom (PIC18: eeprom_data) – used to store initial values in EEPROM memory.
end_init -used by the C initialization runtime startup code for Baseline and
Mid-range devices.
This psect holds code which transfers control to the main() function.
idata –these psects contain the ROM image of any initialized variables.
The class name associated with these psects represents the class of the cor-
responding RAM-based data psects, to which the content of these psects will
be copied.
These psects can be linked at any address within a program memory page,
provided that they do not interfere with the requirements of other psects.
idloc –used to store the ID location words.
This psect must be stored in a special location in the HEX file.
init – used by assembly code in the runtime startup assembly module.
The code in this and cinit define the runtime startup code. If no interrupt
code is defined, the Reset vector code can “fall through” into this psect.
It is recommended that the linker options for this psect are not changed.
intcode, intcodelo – are the psects which contains the executable code for the
high-priority (default) and low-priority interrupt service routines, respectively,
linked to interrupt vector at address 0x8 and 0x18.
Do not change the default linker options relating to these psects. See
Section 3.7.1.3 “codeoffset” if moving code when using a bootloader.
intentry –contains the entry code for the interrupt service routine which is linked to
the interrupt vector.
This code saves the necessary registers and jumps to the main interrupt
code in the case of Mid-range devices; for Enhanced Mid-range devices this

psect will contain the interrupt function body. (PIC18 devices use the
intcode psects.)
This psect must be linked at the interrupt vector. Do not change the default
linker options relating to this psect. See the -mcodeoffset option
Section 3.7.1.3 “codeoffset” if you want to move code when using a boot-
loader.
ivt0xn –contains the vector table located at address n for devices that use interrupt
vector tables or that are operating in legacy mode, see Section 4.9.1 “Writing
an Interrupt Service Routine”.
jmp_tab –only used for the Baseline processors, this is a psect used to store jump
addresses and function return values.
maintext –this psect will contain the assembly code for the main() function.
The code for main() is segregated as it contains the program entry point.
Do not change the default linker options relating to this psect as the runtime
startup code can “fall through” into this psect.
mediumconst – these PIC18-only psects hold objects that are declared const and
string literals. Used when the total amount of const data in a program ex-
ceeds 255 bytes, but is less than 64k.
This psect can be linked anywhere in the lower 64k of program memory, pro-
vided it does not interfere with the requirements of other psects. For PIC18
devices, the location of the psect must be above the highest RAM address.
powerup –contains executable code for a user-supplied powerup routine.
reset_vec –this psect contains code associated with the Reset vector.
Do not change the default linker options relating to this psect. See the
-mcodeoffset option Section 3.7.1.3 “codeoffset”, if you want to move
code when using a bootloader.
reset_wrap – for Baseline PIC devices, this psect contains code that is executed
after the oscillator calibration location at the top of program memory has
been loaded.
smallconst – these psects hold objects that are declared const and string literals.
Used when the total amount of const data in a program is less than 255
bytes.
This psect can be linked anywhere in the program memory, provided it does
not cross a 0x100 boundary and it does not interfere with the requirements
of other psects. For PIC18 devices, the location of the psect must be above
the highest RAM address.
strings –the strings psect is used for const objects.
It also includes all unnamed string literals.
This psect can be linked anywhere in the program memory, provided it does
not cross a 0x100 boundary or interfere with the requirements of other
psects.
stringtextn – the stringtextn psects (where n is a decimal number) are used
for const objects when compiling for Enhanced Mid-range devices.
These psects can be linked anywhere in the program memory, provided they
do not interfere with the requirements of other psects.

C Language Features
textn –these psects (where n is a decimal number) contain all other executable
code that does not require a special link location.
These psects can be linked anywhere within any program memory page, and
provided they do not interfere with the requirements of other psects. Note
that the compiler imposes pseudo page boundaries on some PIC18 devices
to work around published errata. Check the default CODE linker class for the
presence of pages, and their size, in the executable memory.
temp – this psect contains compiler-defined temporary variables.
This psect must be linked in common memory, but can be placed at any ad-
dress in that memory, provided it does not interfere with other psects.
xxx_text –defines the psect for a function that has been made absolute; i.e., placed
at an address. xxx will be the assembly symbol associated with the function.
For example if the function rv() is made absolute, code associated with it
will appear in the psect called _rv_text.
As these psects are already placed at the address indicated in the C source
code, the linker options that position them should not be changed.
xxx_const – used for const objects that has been made absolute; i.e., placed at
an address. xxx will be the assembly symbol associated with the object.
For example, if the array nba is made absolute, values stored in this array
will appear in the psect called _nba_const.
As these psects are already placed at the address indicated in the C source
code, the linker options that position them should not be changed.
4.15.1.2 DATA SPACE PSECTS

nv – these psects are used to store variables qualified __persistent.
They are not cleared or otherwise modified at startup.
These psects can be linked anywhere in their targeted memory bank and
should not overlap any common (unbanked memory) that the device
supports if it is a banked psect.
bss – these psects contain any uninitialized variables.
data – these psects contain the RAM image of any initialized variables.
cstack –these psects contain the compiled stack.
On the stack are auto and parameter variables for the entire program. See
Section 4.5.2.2.1 “Object Size Limits” for information on the compiled stack.
stack –this psect is used as a placeholder for the software stack.
This stack is dynamic and its size is not known by the compiler. As described
in 4.3.4.2 Data Stacks this psect is typically allocated the remainder of the
free data space so that the stack may grow as large as possible.
This psect may be linked anywhere in the data memory, but adjusting the de-
fault linker options for this psect may limit the size of the software stack. Any
overflow of the software stack may cause code failure.

4.15.2 Default Linker Classes

The linker uses classes to represent memory ranges. For an introductory guide to
psects and linker classes (see Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects”).
The classes are defined by linker options (see Section 6.2.1 “-Aclass =low-high,...”)
passed to the linker by the compiler driver. Psects are typically allocated space in the
class they are associated with. The association is made using the class flag of the
PSECT directive (see Section 5.2.9.3.3 “Class”). Alternatively, a psect can be explicitly
placed into a class using a linker option (see Section 6.2.18 “-Pspec”).
Classes can represent a single memory range, or multiple ranges. Even if two ranges
are contiguous, the address where one range ends and the other begins forms a
boundary and psects placed in the class can never cross such boundaries. You will see
classes that cover the same addresses, but will be divided into different ranges and
have different boundaries. This is to accommodate psects whose contents were com-
piled under assumptions about where they would be located in memory.
Memory allocated from one class will also be reserved from other classes that specify
the same memory. To the linker, there is no significance to a class name or the memory
it defines.
Memory can be subtracted from these classes if using the -mreserve option (see
Section 3.7.1.17 “reserve”), or when subtracting memory ranges using the -mram and
-mrom options (see Section 3.7.1.16 “ram” and Section 3.7.1.19 “rom”). When speci-
fying a debugger, such as an ICD (see Section 3.7.1.6 “debugger”), memory can also
be removed from the ranges associated with some classes so that this memory is not
used by your program.
Although you can manually adjust the ranges associated with a class, this is not rec-
ommended. Never change or remove address boundaries specified by a class
definition option.
The following are the linker classes that can be defined by the compiler. Not all classes
can be present for each device.
4.15.2.1 PROGRAM MEMORY CLASSES

CODE — consists of ranges that map to the program memory pages on the target de-
vice and are used for psects containing executable code.
On Baseline devices, it can only be used by code that is accessed via a jump
table.
ENTRY —is used by Baseline devices for psects containing executable code that is ac-
cessed via a call instruction (calls can only be to the first half of a page).
The class is defined in such a way that it is the size of a page, but psects it
holds will be positioned so that they start in the first half of the page.
This class is also used in Mid-range devices and will consist of many 0x100
word-long ranges, aligned on a 0x100 boundary.
STRING —consists of ranges that are 0x100 words long and aligned on a 0x100
boundary. Thus, it is useful for psects whose contents cannot span a 0x100
word boundary.
STRCODE —defines a single memory range that covers the entire program memory. It
is useful for psects whose content can appear in any page and can cross
page boundaries.
CONST —consists of ranges that are 0x100 words long and aligned on a 0x100 bound-
ary. Thus, it is useful for psects whose contents cannot span a 0x100 word
boundary.

C Language Features
4.15.2.2 DATA MEMORY CLASSES
RAM — consist of ranges that cover all the general purpose RAM memory of the tar-
get device, but excluding any common (unbanked) memory.
Thus, it is useful for psects that must be placed within any general-purpose
RAM bank.
BIGRAM —consists of a single memory range that is designed to cover the linear data
memory of Enhanced Mid-range devices, or the entire available memory
space of PIC18 devices.
It is suitable for any psect whose contents are accessed using linear
addressing or which does not need to be contained in a single data bank.
ABS1 — consist of ranges that cover all the general purpose RAM memory of the tar-
get device, including any common (unbanked) memory.
Thus, it is useful for psects that must be placed in general purpose RAM, but
can be placed in any bank or the common memory,
BANKx (where x is a bank number) — each consist of a single range that covers the
general purpose RAM in that bank, but excluding any common (unbanked)
memory.
COMMON —consists of a single memory range that covers the common (unbanked)
RAM, if present, for all Mid-range devices.
COMRAM —consists of a single memory range that covers the common (unbanked)
RAM, if present, for all PIC18 devices.
SFRx (where x is a number) — each consists of a single range that covers the SFR
memory in bank x.
These classes would not typically be used by programmers as they do not
represent general purpose RAM.
4.15.2.3 MISCELLANEOUS CLASSES

CONFIG —consists of a single range that covers the memory reserved for
configuration bit data.
This class would not typically be used by programmers as it does not repre-
sent general purpose RAM.
IDLOC —consists of a single range that covers the memory reserved for ID location
data in the hex file.
This class would not typically be used by programmers as it does not repre-
sent general purpose RAM.
EEDATA —consists of a single range that covers the EEPROM memory of the target
device, if present.
This class is used for psects that contain data that is to be programmed into
the EEPROM.
4.15.3 Changing and Linking the Allocated Section

The __section() specifier allows you to have a object or function redirected into a
user-define psect, or section.
Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects” lists the default sections the compiler
uses to hold objects and code. The default section used by a function or object can be
changed if the object has unique linking requirements that cannot be addressed by
existing compiler features.

New sections created by the specifier for objects will have no linker class associated
with them. In addition, the compiler will not make assumptions about the final location
of the new section. You can link objects specified with __section() into any data
bank. However, since the compiler cannot know where the new section will be placed
until the linker has executed, the code to access the relocated object will be less effi-
cient than the code used to access the object without the specifier.
Since the new section is linked after other objects have been allocated memory, you
might also receive memory errors when using the __section() specifier. If this is the
case, you will need to reserve memory for the new section (see
Section 3.7.1.17 “reserve”).
New sections created by the specifier for functions will inherit the same flags. However,
there are fewer linking restrictions relating to functions and this has minimal impact on
the generated code.
The name of the new section you specify must be a valid assembly-domain identifier.
The name must contain only alphabetic, numeric characters, or the underscore char-
acter, _. It cannot have a name which is the same as that of an assembler directive,
control, or directive flag. If the new section contains executable code and you wish this
code to be optimized by the assembler, ensure that the section name contains the sub-
string “text”, e.g., usb_text. Sections named otherwise will not be modified by the
assembler optimizer.
Objects that use the __section() specifier will be cleared or initialized in the usual
way by the runtime startup code (see Section 3.4.2 “Startup and Initialization”). For the
case of initialized objects, the compiler will automatically allocate an additional new
section (whose name will be the same as the section specified, prefixed with the letter
i), which will contain the initial values. This section must be stored in program memory,
and you might need to locate this section explicitly with a linker option.
The following are examples of a object and function allocated to a non-default section.
int __section("myData") foobar;
int __section("myCode") helper(int mode) { /* ... */ }
Typically you locate new sections you create with an explicit linker option. So, for exam-
ple, if you wanted to place the sections created in the above example, you could use
the following driver options:
-Wl,-PmyData=0200h
-Wl,-AMYCODE=50h-3ffh
-Wl,-PmyCode=MYCODE
which will place the section myData at address 0x200, and the section myCode any-
where in the range 0x50 to 0x3ff represented by the linker class, MYCODE. See
Section 6.2 “Operation” for linker options that can be passed using the -Wl driver
option (Section 3.7.11.6 “Wl: Linker Option”).
If you are creating a new class for a memory range in program memory and your target
is a Baseline or Mid-range PIC device, then you will need to inform the linker that this
class defines memory that is word addressable. Do this by using the linker’s -D option,
which indicates a delta value for a class. For example:
-Wl,-DMYCODE=2
Do not use this option for PIC18 devices, which have byte-addressable program mem-
ory.

C Language Features
If you would like to set special flags with the new section, you can do this by providing
a definition of the new section in your source code. For example, if you wanted the
mycode section to be placed at an address that is a multiple of 100h, then you can
place the following in your source file:
asm("PSECT mycode,reloc=100h");
int __section("myCode") helper(int mode) { /* ... */ }
The reloc, size and limit psect flags (see for example Section 5.2.9.3.15 “Reloc”)
can all be redefined in this way. Redefinitions might trigger assembler warning mes-
sages; however, these can be ignored in this circumstance.
4.15.4 Replacing Library Modules

You can easily replace a library routine with your own without having to using the librar-
ian, ,xc8-ar (see Section 7.2 “Librarian”).
If a source file in your project contains the definition for a routine or object with the same
name as a library routine or object, the definition from the source will replace the library
definition. This is because the linker scans all the source modules for definitions before
it search library files.
You cannot replace a C library function with an equivalent written in assembly code
using the above method. If this is required, you will need to use the librarian to edit or
create a new library file.
4.15.5 Signature Checking

A signature is a 16-bit value computed from a combination of the function’s return type,
the number of its parameters and other information affecting how the function is called.
This signature is automatically generated and placed the output whenever a C function
is referenced or defined. The linker will report any mismatch of signatures, which will
indicate a discrepancy between how the function is defined and how it is called.
If it is necessary to write an assembly language routine, it is desirable to include a
signature with that routine that is compatible with its equivalent C prototype. The
simplest method of determining the correct signature for a function is to write a dummy
C function with the same prototype and check the assembly list file using the -Wa,-a
option (see Section 3.7.9.1 “Wa: Pass Option to the Assembler”).
For example, suppose you have an assembly language routine called _widget whose
equivalent C prototype takes a char argument and returns a char. To find the correct
signature for such a function, write a test function, such as the following, and check the
assembly list file after building this function as part of a test program.
char myTestFunction(char arg1) {
}
The resultant assembler code seen in the assembly list file includes the following line,
indicating that the signature value is 4217:
SIGNAT _myTestFunction,4217
Include a similar SIGNAT directive in your assembly source code that contains
_widget.
If you mistakenly declare this assembly routine in a C source file as:
extern char widget(long);
then the signature generated by this declaration will differ to that specified in your
assembly routine and trigger an error.

4.15.6 Linker-Defined Symbols

The linker defines special symbols that can be used to determine where some sections
where linked in memory. These symbols can be used in your code, if required.
The link address of a section can be obtained from the value of a global symbol with
name __Lname (two leading underscores) where name is the name of the section. For
example, __LbssBANK0 is the low bound of the bssBANK0 section. The highest
address of a section (i.e., the link address plus the size) is represented by the symbol
__Hname. If the section has different load and link addresses, the load start address is
represented by the symbol __Bname.
Sections that are not placed in memory using a -P linker option. See
Section 6.2.18 “-Pspec” are not assigned this type of symbol, and note that section
names can change from one device to another.
Assembly code can use these symbol by globally declaring them, for example:
GLOBAL __Lidata
and C code could use them by declaring a symbol such as the following.
extern char * _Lidata;
Note that there is only one leading underscore in the C domain, two in the assembler
domain. As the symbol represents an address, a pointer is the typical type choice.

Chapter 5. Macro Assembler
5.1 INTRODUCTION
An assembler is included with the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler to assemble source files for
all 8-bit PIC devices. The assembler is automatically run by the compiler driver,
xc8-cc, for any assembly source files in your project.
This chapter describes the directives (assembler pseudo-ops and controls) accepted
by the assembler in the assembly source files or assembly inline with C code.
Although the term “assembler” is almost universally used to describe the tool that con-
verts human-readable mnemonics into machine code, both “assembler” and “assem-
bly” are used to describe the source code which such a tool reads. The latter is more
common and is used in this manual to describe the language. Thus you will see the
terms assembly language (or just assembly), assembly listing and other assembly
terms, but also, assembler options, assembler directive and assembler optimizer.
The following topics are examined in this chapter of the user’s guide:
• MPLAB XC8 Assembly Language
• Assembly-Level Optimizations
• Assembly List Files

5.2 MPLAB XC8 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

Information about the source language accepted by the macro assemblers is described
in this section.
All opcode mnemonics and operand syntax are specific to the target device, and you
should consult your device data sheet. Additional mnemonics, deviations from the
instruction set, and assembler directives and controls are documented in this section.
The same assembler application is used for compiler-generated intermediate
assembly and hand-written assembly source code, and for hand-written assembly
modules and assembly inline with C code.
5.2.1 Assembly Instruction Deviations

The MPLAB XC8 assembler uses a slightly modified form of assembly language to that
specified by the Microchip data sheets. The following information details changes to the
instruction format, and pseudo instructions that can be used in addition to the device
instruction set.
These deviations can be used in assembly code in-line with C code or in hand-written
assembly modules.
5.2.1.1 DESTINATION LOCATION

The PIC device data sheets indicate that some instructions use the operands “,0” or
“,1” to specify the destination for the result of that operation. The XC8 assemblers
instead use the more-readable operands “,w” and “,f” to specify the destination.
The W register is selected as the destination when using the “,w” operand, and the file
register is selected when using the “,f” operand. The case of the letter in the destina-
tion operand in not important. For example (ignoring bank selection and address
masking for this example):
movf _foo,w ;move _foo into wreg
addwf _foo,f ;add wreg to _foo, updating the content of _foo
addwf _foo,w ;add wreg to _foo, leaving the result in wreg
It is highly recommended that the destination is always specified with each instruction
that requires this operand. If the destination is omitted, it is assumed to be the file
register. Never use the numeric destination operands.
In the same way, the PIC18 assembler also uses the RAM access operand “,b”
(instead of “,1”) to indicate that PIC18 instructions should use the bank select register
(BSR) when accessing the specified file register address. The “,c” operand (instead of
“,0”) indicates that the address is in the common memory, which is known as the
access bank on PIC18 devices. Alternatively, an instruction operand can be preceded
by the characters “c:” to indicate that the address resides in common memory. These
operands and prefix affect the RAM access bit in the instruction. For example:
addwf _bar,f,c ;add wreg to _bar in common memory
btfsc c:_bar,3 ;test bit three in the common memory symbol _bar
These operands and prefix are not applicable with operands to the PIC18 movff
instruction, which takes two untruncated addresses, and which always works
independently of the BSR.

Macro Assembler
For example, the following instructions show the W register being moved to first, an
absolute location; and, then, to an address represented by an identifier. Bank selection
and masking has been used in this example. The PIC18 op codes for these instruc-
tions, assuming that the address assigned to _foo is 0x516 and to _bar is 0x55, are
shown below.
6EE5 movwf 0FE5h ;write to access bank location 0xFE5
6E55 movwf _bar,c ;write to access bank location 0x55
0105 BANKSEL(_foo) ;set up BSR to access _foo
6F16 movwf BANKMASK(_foo),b ;write to _foo (banked)
6F16 movwf BANKMASK(_foo) ;defaults to banked access
Notice that the first two instruction opcodes have the RAM access bit (bit 8 of the
op-code) cleared, but that the bit is set in the last two instructions.
It is recommended that you always specify the RAM access operand or the common
memory prefix. If these are not present, the instruction address is absolute, and the
address is within the upper half of the access bank (which dictates that the address
must not masked), the instruction will use the access bank RAM. In all other situations,
the instruction will access banked memory.
The destination operand and the RAM access operand can be listed in any order for
PIC18 instructions. For example, the following two instructions are identical:
addwf _foo,f,c
addwf _foo,c,f
5.2.1.2 BANK AND PAGE SELECTION

The BANKSEL pseudo instruction can be used to generate instructions to select the
bank of the operand specified. The operand should be the symbol or address of an
object that resides in the data memory.
Depending on the target device, the generated code will either contain one or more bit
instructions to set/clear bits in the appropriate register, or use a MOVLB instruction (in
the case of enhanced mid-range or PIC18 devices). As this pseudo instruction can
expand to more than one instruction on mid-range or baseline parts, it should not
immediately follow a BTFSX instruction on those devices.
For example:
movlw 20
BANKSEL(_foobar) ;select bank for next file instruction
movwf BANKMASK(_foobar) ;write data and mask address
In the same way, the PAGESEL pseudo instruction can be used to generate code to
select the page of the address operand. For the current page, you can use the location
counter, $, as the operand.
Depending on the target device, the generated code will either contain one or more
instructions to set/clear bits in the appropriate register, or use a MOVLP instruction in
the case of enhanced mid-range PIC devices. As the directive could expand to more
than one instruction, it should not immediately follow a BTFSX instruction.
For example:
fcall _getInput
PAGESEL $ ;select this page
This directive is accepted when compiling for PIC18 targets but has no effect and does
not generate any code. Support is purely to allow easy migration across the 8-bit
devices.

5.2.1.3 ADDRESS MASKING
A macro, BANKMASK(), can be used with an identifier; so, it is usable as an operand
to instructions that expect a file register address. The macro does this by ANDing out
the bank information using a suitable mask. It is available once you include the
<xc.inc> file. An example of this macro is given in Section 5.2.1.2 “Bank and Page
Selection”.
All MPLAB XC8 assembly identifiers represent a full address. This address includes
the bank information for the object it represents. Virtually all instructions in the 8-bit PIC
instruction sets that take a file register operand expect this operand value to be an off-
set into the currently selected bank. As the device families have different bank sizes,
the width of this offset is different for each family. Use of this macro increases assembly
code portability across Microchip devices, since it adjusts the mask to suit the bank size
of the target device.
Do not use this macro with either operand to the PIC18’s movff instruction, which
requires two full, banked addresses to be specified, or with any other instruction that
expects a full address.
5.2.1.4 MOVFW PSEUDO INSTRUCTION

The movfw pseudo instruction implemented by MPLAB C18 is not implemented in
MPLAB XC8. You will need to use the standard PIC instruction that performs an iden-
tical function. Note that the MPLAB C18 instruction:
movfw foobar
maps directly to the standard PIC instruction:
movf foobar,w
5.2.1.5 MOVIW/MOVWI INSTRUCTIONS

Both the moviw and movwi instructions have operands which differ in syntax to that
indicated in the data sheet. These instructions are only available with enhanced
mid-range devices.
The indexed Indirect operands to these instructions have the FSR offset specified first
in square brackets, followed by the FSR name, for example:
moviw [6]FSR0
movwi [0x10]FSR1
The pre/post increment/decrement form of these instructions use the name of the FSR
register, not the indirection register (INDF), for example:
moviw ++FSR0
movwi FSR1++
movwi FSR0--
5.2.1.6 MOVFF/MOVFFL INSTRUCTIONS

The movff instruction is a physical device instruction, but for PIC18 devices that have
extended data memory, it also serves as a placeholder for the movffl instruction.
For these devices, when generating output for the movff instruction, the assembler
checks the psects that hold the operand symbols. If the psect containing the source
operand is the same psect that contains the destination operand, then the instruction
is encoded as a movff instruction. If the psects of both source and destination oper-
ands have the lowdata psect flag set, the instruction is also encoded as a movff
instruction. In all other situations, the instruction is encoded as a movffl instruction.
Note that assembly list files will always show the movff placeholder regardless of how
it is encoded.

Macro Assembler
5.2.1.7 INTERRUPT RETURN MODE
The retfie PIC18 instruction can be followed by “f” (no comma) to indicate that the
shadow registers should be retrieved and copied to their corresponding registers on
execution. Without this modifier, the registers are not updated from the shadow
registers. This replaces the “0” and “1” operands indicated in the device data sheet.
The following examples show both forms and the opcodes they generate.
0011 retfie f ;shadow registers copied
0010 retfie ;return without copy
The baseline and mid-range devices do not allow such a syntax.
5.2.1.8 LONG JUMPS AND CALLS

The assembler recognizes several mnemonics that expand into regular PIC MCU
assembly instructions. The mnemonics are fcall and ljmp. On baseline and
mid-range parts, these instructions expand into regular call and goto instructions
respectively, but also ensure the instructions necessary to set the bits in PCLATH (for
mid-range devices) or STATUS (for baseline devices) will be generated when the des-
tination is in another page of program memory. Whether the page selection instructions
are generated, and exactly where they will be located, is dependent on the surrounding
source code. Page selection instructions can appear immediately before the call or
jump, or be generated as part of, and immediately after, a previous fcall/ljmp
instruction.
On PIC18 devices, these mnemonics are present purely for compatibility with smaller
8-bit devices and are always expanded as regular PIC18 call and goto instructions.
These additional mnemonics should be used where possible as they make assembly
code independent of the final position of the routines that are to be executed. If the call
or jump is determined to be within the current page, the additional code to set the
PCLATH bits can be optimized away. Note that assembly code that is added in-line with
C code is never optimized and assembly modules require a specific option to enable
optimization (see Section 3.7.6.5 “asmfile”). Unoptimized fcall and LJMP instruction
will always generate page selection code.
The following mid-range PIC example shows an fcall instruction in the assembly list
file. You can see that the fcall instruction has expanded to five instructions. In this
example, there are two bit instructions that set/clear bits in the PCLATH register. Bits
are also set/cleared in this register after the call to reselect the page that was selected
before the fcall.
13 0079 3021 movlw 33
14 007A 120A 158A 2000 fcall _phantom
120A 118A
15 007F 3400 retlw 0
Since fcall and ljmp instructions can expand into more than one instruction, they
should never be preceded by an instruction that can skip, e.g., a btfsc instruction.
The fcall and ljmp instructions assume that the psect that contains them is smaller
than a page. Do not use these instructions to transfer control to a label in the current
psect if it is larger than a page. The default linker options will not permit code psects to
be larger than a page.
On PIC18 devices, the regular call instruction can be followed by a “,f” to indicate
that the W, STATUS and BSR registers should be pushed to their respective shadow
registers. This replaces the “,1” syntax indicated on the device data sheet.

5.2.1.9 RELATIVE BRANCHES
The PIC18 devices implement conditional relative branch instructions, e.g., bz, bnz.
These instructions have a limited jump range compared to the goto instruction.
Note that in some instance, the assembler can change a relative branch instruction to
be a relative branch with the opposite condition over a goto instruction. For example:
bz error
;next
can become:
bnz l18
goto error
l18:
;next
This is functionally identical and is performed so that the conditional branch can use
the same destination range as the goto instruction.
5.2.2 Statement Formats

Legal statement formats are shown in Table 5-1: "ASPIC Statement Formats".
The label field is optional and, if present, should contain one identifier. A label can
appear on a line of its own, or precede a mnemonic as shown in the second format.
The third format is only legal with certain assembler directives, such as MACRO, SET
and EQU. The name field is mandatory and should contain one identifier.
If the assembly file is first processed by the C preprocessor (see Section 3.2.3 “Input
File Types”), then it can also contain lines that form valid preprocessor directives. See
Section 4.14.1 “Preprocessor Directives” for more information on the format for these
directives.
There is no limitation on what column or part of the line in which any part of the
statement should appear.
TABLE 5-1: ASPIC STATEMENT FORMATS

Format # Field1 Field2 Field3 Field4
Format 1 label:
Format 2 label: mnemonic operands ; comment
Format 3 name pseudo-op operands ; comment
Format 4 ; comment only
Format 5 empty line
5.2.3 Characters
The character set used is standard 7 bit ASCII. Alphabetic case is significant for
identifiers, but not mnemonics and reserved words. Tabs are equivalent to spaces.
5.2.3.1 DELIMITERS
All numbers and identifiers must be delimited by white space, non-alphanumeric
characters or the end of a line.
5.2.3.2 SPECIAL CHARACTERS

There are a few characters that are special in certain contexts. Within a macro body,
the character & is used for token concatenation. To use the bitwise & operator within a
macro body, escape it by using && instead. In a macro argument list, the angle brackets
< and > are used to quote macro arguments.

Macro Assembler
5.2.4 Comments
An assembly comment is initiated with a semicolon that is not part of a string or
character constant.
If the assembly file is first processed by the C preprocessor (see Section 3.2.3 “Input
File Types”), then the file can also contain C or C++ style comments using the standard
/* ... */ and // syntax.
5.2.4.1 SPECIAL COMMENT STRINGS

Several comment strings are appended to compiler-generated assembly instructions
by the code generator. These comments are typically used by the assembler optimizer.
The comment string ;volatile is used to indicate that the memory location being
accessed in the instruction is associated with a variable that was declared as
volatile in the C source code. Accesses to this location which appear to be
redundant will not be removed by the assembler optimizer if this string is present.
This comment string can also be used in hand-written assembly source to achieve the
same effect for locations defined and accessed in assembly code.
The comment string ;wreg free is placed on some call instructions. The string indi-
cates that the W register was not loaded with a function parameter; i.e., it is not in use.
If this string is present, optimizations can be made to assembler instructions before the
function call, which loads the W register redundantly.
5.2.5 Constants
5.2.5.1 NUMERIC CONSTANTS
The assembler performs all arithmetic with signed 32-bit precision.
The default radix for all numbers is 10. Other radices can be specified by a trailing base
specifier, as given in Table 5-2.
TABLE 5-2: ASPIC NUMBERS AND BASES

Radix Format
Binary Digits 0 and 1 followed by B

Octal Digits 0 to 7 followed by O, Q, o or q
Decimal Digits 0 to 9 followed by D, d or nothing
Hexadecimal Digits 0 to 9, A to F preceded by 0x or followed by H or h
Hexadecimal numbers must have a leading digit (e.g., 0ffffh) to differentiate them
from identifiers. Hexadecimal digits are accepted in either upper or lower case.
Note that a binary constant must have an upper case B following it, as a lower case b
is used for temporary (numeric) label backward references.
In expressions, real numbers are accepted in the usual format, and are interpreted as
IEEE 32-bit format.
5.2.5.2 CHARACTER CONSTANTS AND STRINGS

A character constant is a single character enclosed in single quotes ’.
Multi-character constants, or strings, are a sequence of characters, not including car-
riage return or newline characters, enclosed within matching quotes. Either single
quotes ’ or double quotes " can be used, but the opening and closing quotes must be
the same.

5.2.6 Identifiers
Assembly identifiers are user-defined symbols representing memory locations or num-
bers. A symbol can contain any number of characters drawn from the alphabetics,
numerics, and the special characters: dollar, $; question mark, ?; and underscore, _.
The first character of an identifier cannot be numeric. The case of alphabetics is signif-
icant, e.g., Fred is not the same symbol as fred. Some examples of identifiers are
shown here:
An_identifier
an_identifier
an_identifier1
$
?$_12345
An identifier cannot be one of the assembler directives, keywords, or psect flags.
An identifier that begins with at least one underscore character can be accessed from
C code. Care must be taken with such symbols that they do not interact with C code
identifiers. Identifiers that do not begin with an underscore can only be accessed from
the assembly domain. See Section 4.12.3.1 “Equivalent Assembly Symbols” for the
mapping between the C and assembly domains.
5.2.6.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF IDENTIFIERS

Users of other assemblers that attempt to implement forms of data typing for identifiers
should note that this assembler attaches no significance to any symbol, and places no
restrictions or expectations on the usage of a symbol.
The names of psects (program sections) and ordinary symbols occupy separate,
overlapping name spaces, but other than this, the assembler does not care whether a
symbol is used to represent bytes, words or sports cars. No special syntax is needed
or provided to define the addresses of bits or any other data type, nor will the assembler
issue any warnings if a symbol is used in more than one context. The instruction and
addressing mode syntax provide all the information necessary for the assembler to
generate correct code.
5.2.6.2 ASSEMBLER-GENERATED IDENTIFIERS

Where a LOCAL directive is used in a macro block, the assembler will generate a
unique symbol to replace each specified identifier in each expansion of that macro.
These unique symbols will have the form ??nnnn where nnnn is a 4-digit number. The
user should avoid defining symbols with the same form.
5.2.6.3 LOCATION COUNTER

The current location within the active program section is accessible via the symbol $.
This symbol expands to the address of the currently executing instruction (which is dif-
ferent than the address contained in the program counter (PC) register when executing
this instruction). Thus:
goto $ ;endless loop
will represent code that will jump to itself and form an endless loop. By using this
symbol and an offset, a relative jump destination can be specified.
Any address offset added to $ has the native addressability of the target device. So, for
baseline and mid-range devices, the offset is the number of instructions away from the
current location, as these devices have word-addressable program memory. For PIC18
instructions, which use byte addressable program memory, the offset to this symbol
represents the number of bytes from the current location. As PIC18 instructions must
be word aligned, the offset to the location counter should be a multiple of 2. All offsets
are rounded down to the nearest multiple of 2.

Macro Assembler
For example:
goto $+2 ;skip...
movlw 8 ;to here for PIC18 devices, or
movwf _foo ;to here for baseline and mid-range devices
will skip the movlw instruction on baseline or mid-range devices. On PIC18 devices,
goto $+2 will jump to the following instruction; i.e., act like a nop instruction.
5.2.6.4 REGISTER SYMBOLS

Code in assembly modules can gain access to the special function registers by includ-
ing pre-defined assembly header files. The appropriate file can be included by add the
line:
#include <xc.inc>
to the assembler source file and using a .S or .sx extension with the source filename
to ensure it is preprocessed.This header file contains appropriate commands to ensure
that the header file specific for the target device is included into the source file.
These header files contain EQU declarations for all byte or multi-byte sized registers
and #define macros for named bits within byte registers.
5.2.6.5 SYMBOLIC LABELS

A label is a symbolic alias that is assigned a value that is equal to the current address
within the current psect. Labels are not assigned a value until link time.
A label definition consists of any valid assembly identifier followed by a colon, :. The
definition can appear on a line by itself or it can be positioned before a statement. Here
are two examples of legitimate labels interspersed with assembly code.
frank:
movlw 1
goto fin
simon44: clrf _input
Here, the label frank will ultimately be assigned the address of the movlw instruction,
and simon44 the address of the clrf instruction. Regardless of how they are defined,
the assembler list file produced by the assembler will always show labels on a line by
themselves.
Note that the colon following the label is mandatory for PIC18 assembly, but is recom-
mended in assembly for all other devices. Symbols that are not interpreted as instruc-
tions are assumed to be labels. Mistyped assembly instructions can sometimes be
treated as labels without an error message being issued. Thus the code:
mistake:
movlw 23h
MOVWF 37h
reutrn ; oops
defines a symbol called reutrn, which was intended to be the return instruction. This
does not occur with PIC18 assembly code, as the colon following a label is mandatory
and the above code would flag an error.
Labels can be used (and are preferred) in assembly code, rather than using an abso-
lute address with other instructions. In this way, they can be used as the target location
for jump-type instructions or to load an address into a register.
Like variables, labels have scope. By default, they can be used anywhere in the module
in which they are defined. They can be used by code located before their definition. To
make a label accessible in other modules, use the GLOBAL directive. See
Section 5.2.9.1 “GLOBAL” for more information.

5.2.7 Expressions
The operands to instructions and directives are comprised of expressions. Expressions
can be made up of numbers, identifiers, strings and operators.
Operators can be unary (one operand, e.g., not) or binary (two operands, e.g., +). The
operators allowable in expressions are listed in Table 5-3.
The usual rules governing the syntax of expressions apply.
The operators listed can all be freely combined in both constant and relocatable
expressions. The linker permits relocation of complex expressions, so the results of
expressions involving relocatable identifiers cannot be resolved until link time.
TABLE 5-3: ASPIC OPERATORS

Operator Purpose Example
* multiplication movlw 4*33,w
+ addition bra $+1
- subtraction DB 5-2
/ division movlw 100/4
= or eq equality IF inp eq 66
> or gt signed greater than IF inp > 40
>= or ge signed greater than or equal to IF inp ge 66
< or lt signed less than IF inp < 40
<= or le signed less than or equal to IF inp le 66
<> or ne signed not equal to IF inp <> 40
low low byte of operand movlw low(inp)
high high byte of operand movlw high(1008h)
highword high 16 bits of operand DW highword(inp)
mod modulus movlw 77mod4
& or and bitwise AND clrf inp&0ffh
^ bitwise XOR (exclusive or) movf inp^80,w
| bitwise OR movf inp|1,w
not bitwise complement movlw not 055h,w
<< or shl shift left DB inp>>8
>> or shr shift right movlw inp shr 2,w
rol rotate left DB inp rol 1
ror rotate right DB inp ror 1
float24 24-bit version of real operand DW float24(3.3)
nul tests if macro argument is null

Macro Assembler
5.2.8 Program Sections

Program sections, or psects, are simply a section of code or data. They are a way of
grouping together parts of a program (via the psect’s name) even though the source
code cannot be physically adjacent in the source file, or even where spread over
several modules. For an introductory guide to psects, see
Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects”.
A psect is identified by a name and has several attributes. The PSECT assembler direc-
tive is used to define a psect. It takes as arguments a name and an optional
comma-separated list of flags. See Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects” for a
list of all psects that the code generator defines. Chapter 6. Linker has more informa-
tion on the operation of the linker and on options that can be used to control psect
placement in memory.
The assembler associates no significance to the name of a psect. The linker, also, is
not aware of which psects are compiler-generated or which are user-defined. Unless
defined as abs (absolute), psects are relocatable.
Code or data that is not explicitly placed into a psect will become part of the default
(unnamed) psect.
When writing assembly code, you can use the existing compiler-generated psects,
described in Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects” or create your own. You will
not need to adjust the linker options if you are using compiler-generated psects. If you
create your own psects, try to associate them with an existing linker class (see
Section 4.15.2 “Default Linker Classes” and Section 5.2.9.3.3 “Class”) otherwise you
can need to specify linker options for them to be allocated correctly.
Note, that the length and placement of psects is important. It is easier to write code if
all executable code is located in psects that do not cross any device pages boundaries;
so, too, if data psects do not cross bank boundaries. The location of psects (where they
are linked) must match the assembly code that accesses the psect contents.

5.2.9 Assembler Directives

Assembler directives, or pseudo-ops, are used in a similar way to instruction mnemon-
ics. With the exception of PAGESEL and BANKSEL, these directives do not generate
instructions. The DB, DW and DDW directives place data bytes into the current psect. The
directives are listed in Table 5-4, and are detailed below in the following sections.
TABLE 5-4: ASPIC ASSEMBLER DIRECTIVES

Directive Purpose
GLOBAL make symbols accessible to other modules or allow reference to other

global symbols defined in other modules
END end assembly
PSECT declare or resume program section
ORG set location counter within current psect
EQU define symbol value
EXTRN link with global symbols defined in other modules
SET define or re-define symbol value
DB define constant byte(s)
DW define constant word(s)
DDW define double-width constant word(s) (PIC18 devices only)
DS reserve storage
DABS define absolute storage
IF conditional assembly
ELSIF alternate conditional assembly
ELSE alternate conditional assembly
ENDIF end conditional assembly
FNCALL inform the linker that one function calls another
FNROOT inform the linker that a function is the “root” of a call graph
MACRO macro definition
ENDM end macro definition
LOCAL define local tabs
ALIGN align output to the specified boundary
BANKSEL generate code to select bank of operand
PAGESEL generate set/clear instruction to set PCLATH bits for this page
PROCESSOR define the particular chip for which this file is to be assembled.
REPT repeat a block of code n times
IRP repeat a block of code with a list
IRPC repeat a block of code with a character list
SIGNAT define function signature

Macro Assembler
5.2.9.1 GLOBAL
The GLOBAL directive declares a list of comma-separated symbols. If the symbols are
defined within the current module, they are made public. If the symbols are not defined
in the current module, they are made references to public symbols defined in external
modules. Thus to use the same symbol in two modules the GLOBAL directive must be
used at least twice: once in the module that defines the symbol to make that symbol
public, and again in the module that uses the symbol to link in with the external
definition.
For example:
GLOBAL lab1,lab2,lab3
5.2.9.2 END
The END directive is optional, but if present should be at the very end of the program.
It will terminate the assembly and not even blank lines should follow this directive.
If an expression is supplied as an argument, that expression will be used to define the
entry point of the program. This is stored in a start record in the object file produced by
the assembler. Whether this is of any use will depend on the linker.
The default runtime startup code that is defined by the compiler will contain an END
directive with a start address. As only one start address can be specified for each proj-
ect, you generally do not need to define this address – you can use the END directive
with no entry point in any file.
For example:
END start_label ;defines the entry point
or
END ;do not define entry point

5.2.9.3 PSECT
The PSECT directive declares or resumes a program section. For an introductory guide
to psects, see Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects”.
The directive takes as argument a name and, optionally, a comma-separated list of
flags. The allowed flags specify attributes of the psect. They are listed in Table 5-5.
The psect name is in a separate name space to ordinary assembly symbols, so a psect
can use the same identifier as an ordinary assembly identifier. However, a psect name
cannot be one of the assembler directives, keywords, or psect flags.
Once a psect has been declared, it can be resumed later by another PSECT directive;
however, the flags need not be repeated and will be propagated from the earlier decla-
ration. An error is generated if two PSECT directives for the same psect are encoun-
tered with contradictory flags, the exceptions being that the reloc, size and limit
flags can be respecified without error.
TABLE 5-5: PSECT FLAGS

Flag Meaning
abs psect is absolute
bit psect holds bit objects
class=name specify class name for psect
delta=size size of an addressing unit
global psect is global (default)
inline psect contents (function) can be inlined when called
keep psect will not be deleted after inlining
limit=address upper address limit of psect (PIC18 only)
local psect is unique and will not link with others having the
same name
lowdata psect will be entirely located below the 0x1000 address
merge=allow allow or prevent merging of this psect
noexec for debugging purposes, this psect contains no executable
code
optim=optimizations specify optimizations allowable with this psect
ovrld psect will overlap same psect in other modules
pure psect is to be read-only
reloc=boundary start psect on specified boundary
size=max maximum size of psect
space=area represents area in which psect will reside
split=allow allow or prevent splitting of this psect
with=psect place psect in the same page as specified psect
Some examples of the use of the PSECT directive follow:

PSECT fred
PSECT bill,size=100h,global
PSECT joh,abs,ovrld,class=CODE,delta=2

Macro Assembler
5.2.9.3.1 Abs
The abs flag defines the current psect as being absolute; i.e., it is to start at location 0.
This does not mean that this module’s contribution to the psect will start at 0, since
other modules can contribute to the same psect (See also Section 5.2.9.3.13 “Ovrld”).
An abs-flagged psect is not relocatable and an error will result if a linker option is
issued that attempts to place such a psect at any location.
5.2.9.3.2 Bit
The bit flag specifies that a psect holds objects that are 1 bit long. Such psects will
have a scale value of 8 to indicate that there are 8 addressable units to each byte of
storage and all addresses associated with this psect will be bit address, not byte
addresses. The scale value is indicated in the map file (see Section 6.4 “Map Files”).
5.2.9.3.3 Class
The class flag specifies a corresponding linker class name for this psect. A class is a
range of addresses in which psects can be placed.
Class names are used to allow local psects to be located at link time, since they cannot
always be referred to by their own name in a -P linker option (as would be the case if
there are more than one local psect with the same name).
Class names are also useful where psects need only be positioned anywhere within a
range of addresses rather than at a specific address. The association of a class with a
psect that you have defined typically means that you do not need to supply a custom
linker option to place it in memory.
See Section 6.2.1 “-Aclass =low-high,...” for information on how linker classes are
defined.
5.2.9.3.4 Delta
The delta flag defines the size of the addressable unit. In other words, the number of
data bytes that are associated with each address.
With PIC mid-range and baseline devices, the program memory space is word
addressable; so, psects in this space must use a delta of 2. That is to say, each address
in program memory requires 2 bytes of data in the HEX file to define their contents. So,
addresses in the HEX file will not match addresses in the program memory.
The data memory space on these devices is byte addressable; so, psects in this space
must use a delta of 1. This is the default delta value.
All memory spaces on PIC18 devices are byte addressable; so a delta of 1 (the default)
should be used for all psects on these devices.
The redefinition of a psect with conflicting delta values can lead to phase errors being
issued by the assembler.
5.2.9.3.5 Global
A psect defined as global will be combined with other global psects with the same
name at link time. Psects are grouped from all modules being linked.
Psects are considered global by default, unless the local flag is used.
5.2.9.3.6 Inline
This flag is deprecated. Consider, instead, using the optim psect flag.
The inline flag is used by the code generator to tell the assembler that the contents
of a psect can be inlined. If this operation is performed, the contents of the inline
psect will be copied and used to replace calls to the function defined in the psect.

5.2.9.3.7 Keep
Psects that are candidates for inlining (see Section 5.2.9.3.6 “Inline”) can be deleted
after the inlining takes place. This flag ensures that the psect is not deleted after any
inlining by the assembler optimizer.
5.2.9.3.8 Limit
The limit flag specifies a limit on the highest address to which a psect can extend. If
this limit is exceeded when it is positioned in memory, an error will be generated. This
is currently only available when building for PIC18 devices.
5.2.9.3.9 Local
A psect defined as local will not be combined with other local psects from other
modules at link time, even if there are others with the same name. Where there are two
local psects in the one module, they reference the same psect. A local psect
cannot have the same name as any global psect, even one in another module.
Psects which are local and which are not associated with a linker class (see
Section 5.2.9.3.3 “Class”) cannot be linked to an address using the -P linker option,
since there could be more than one psect with this name. Typically these psects define
a class flag and they are placed anywhere in that class range.
5.2.9.3.10 Merge
This flag can be assigned 0, 1, or not specified. When assigned 0, the psect will never
be merged by the assembly optimizer during optimizations. If assigned the value 1, the
psect can be merged if other psect attributes allow it and the optimizer can see an
advantage in doing so. If this flag is not specified, then merging will not take place.
Typically, merging is only performed on code-based psects (text psects).
5.2.9.3.11 Noexec
The noexec flag is used to indicate that the psect contains no executable code. This
information is only relevant for debugging purposes.

Macro Assembler
5.2.9.3.12 Optim
The optim psect flag is used to indicate the optimizations that can be performed on
the psect’s content, provided the assembler optimizer is enabled and that optimization
is available in the compiler’s operating mode (see Section 3.7.6 “Options for Con-
trolling Optimization”). The optimizations are indicated by a colon-separated list of
names, shown in Table 5-6. An empty list implies that no optimizations can be per-
formed on the psect.
TABLE 5-6: OPTIM FLAG NAMES

Name Optimization
inline allow the psect content to be inlined

jump perform jump-based optimizations
merge allow the psect’s content to be merged with that of other similar psects
(PIC10/12/16 devices only)
pa perform proceedural abstraction
peep perform peephole optimizations
remove allow the psect to be removed entirely if it is completely inlined
split allow the psect to be split into smaller psects if it surpasses size restrictions
(PIC10/12/16 devices only)
empty perform no optimization on this psect
So, for example, the psect definition:

PSECT myText,class=CODE,reloc=2,optim=inline:jump:split
allows the assembler optimizer to perform inlining, splitting and jump-type optimiza-
tions of the myText psect content if those optimizations are enabled. The definition:
PSECT myText,class=CODE,reloc=2,optim=
disables all optimizations associated with this psect regardless of the optimizer setting.
The optim psect flag replaces the use of the separate psect flags: merge, split,
inline, and keep.
5.2.9.3.13 Ovrld
A psect defined as ovrld will have the contribution from each module overlaid, rather
than concatenated at link time. This flag in combination with the abs flag (see
Section 5.2.9.3.1 “Abs”) defines a truly absolute psect; i.e., a psect within which any
symbols defined are absolute.
5.2.9.3.14 Pure
The pure flag instructs the linker that this psect will not be modified at runtime. So, for
example, be placed in ROM. This flag is of limited usefulness since it depends on the
linker and target system enforcing it.
5.2.9.3.15 Reloc
The reloc flag allows the specification of a requirement for alignment of the psect on
a particular boundary. The boundary specification must be a power of two, for example
2, 8 or 0x40. For example, the flag reloc=100h would specify that this psect must
start on an address that is a multiple of 0x100 (e.g., 0x100, 0x400, or 0x500).
PIC18 instructions must be word aligned, so a reloc value of 2 must be used for any
PIC18 psect that contains executable code. All other sections, and all sections for all
other devices, can typically use the default reloc value of 1.

5.2.9.3.16 Size
The size flag allows a maximum size to be specified for the psect, e.g., size=100h.
This will be checked by the linker after psects have been combined from all modules.
5.2.9.3.17 Space
The space flag is used to differentiate areas of memory that have overlapping
addresses, but are distinct. Psects that are positioned in program memory and data
memory have a different space value to indicate that the program space address 0, for
example, is a different location to the data memory address 0.
The memory spaces associated with the space flag numbers are shown in Table 5-7.
TABLE 5-7: SPACE FLAG NUMBERS

Space Flag Number Memory Space
0 Program memory
1 Data memory
2 Reserved
3 EEPROM
Devices that have a banked data space do not use different space values to identify
each bank. A full address that includes the bank number is used for objects in this
space. So, each location can be uniquely identified. For example, a device with a bank
size of 0x80 bytes will use address 0 to 0x7F to represent objects in bank 0, and then
addresses 0x80 to 0xFF to represent objects in bank 1, etc.
5.2.9.3.18 Split
This flag can be assigned 0, 1, or not specified. When assigned 0, the psect will never
be split by the assembly optimizer during optimizations. If assigned the value 1, the
psect can be split if other psect attributes allow it and the psect is too large to fit in avail-
able memory. If this flag is not specified, then the splitability of this psect is based on
whether the psect can be merged, see Section 5.2.9.3.10 “Merge”.
5.2.9.3.19 With
The with flag allows a psect to be placed in the same page with another psect. For
example the flag with=text will specify that this psect should be placed in the same
page as the text psect.
The term withtotal refers to the sum of the size of each psect that is placed “with” other
psects.
5.2.9.4 ORG
The ORG directive changes the value of the location counter within the current psect.
This means that the addresses set with ORG are relative to the base address of the
psect, which is not determined until link time.
Note: The much-abused ORG directive does not move the location counter to the
absolute address you specify. Only if the psect in which this directive is
placed is absolute and overlaid will the location counter be moved to the
specified address. To place objects at a particular address, place them in a
psect of their own and link this at the required address using the linkers -P
option (see Section 6.2.18 “-Pspec”). The ORG directive is not commonly
required in programs.

Macro Assembler
The argument to ORG must be either an absolute value, or a value referencing the cur-
rent psect. In either case, the current location counter is set to the value determined by
the argument. It is not possible to move the location counter backward. For example:
ORG 100h
will move the location counter to the beginning of the current psect plus 100h. The
actual location will not be known until link time.
In order to use the ORG directive to set the location counter to an absolute value, the
directive must be used from within an absolute, overlaid psect. For example:
PSECT absdata,abs,ovrld
ORG 50h
;this is guaranteed to reside at address 50h
5.2.9.5 EQU
This pseudo-op defines a symbol and equates its value to an expression. For example
thomas EQU 123h
The identifier thomas will be given the value 123h. EQU is legal only when the symbol
has not previously been defined. See Section 5.2.9.7 “SET” for redefinition of values.
This directive performs a similar function to the preprocessor’s #define directive (see
Section 4.14.1 “Preprocessor Directives”).
5.2.9.6 EXTRN
This pseudo-op is similar to GLOBAL (see Section 5.2.9.1 “GLOBAL”), but can only be
used to link in with global symbols defined in other modules. An error will be triggered
if you use EXTRN with a symbol that is defined in the same module.
5.2.9.7 SET
This pseudo-op is equivalent to EQU (Section 5.2.9.5 “EQU”), except that allows a sym-
bol to be re-defined without error. For example:
thomas SET 0h
This directive performs a similar function to the preprocessor’s #define directive (see
Section 4.14.1 “Preprocessor Directives”).
5.2.9.8 DB
The DB directive is used to initialize storage as bytes. The argument is a comma-sep-
arated list of expressions, each of which will be assembled into one byte and
assembled into consecutive memory locations.
Examples:
alabel: DB ’X’,1,2,3,4,
If the size of an address unit in the program memory is 2 bytes, as it will be for baseline
and mid-range devices (see Section 5.2.9.3.4 “Delta”), the DB pseudo-op will initialize
a word with the upper byte set to zero. So, the above example will define bytes padded
to the following words.
0058 0001 0002 0003 0004
However, on PIC18 devices (PSECT directive’s delta flag should be 1), no padding
will occur and the following data will appear in the HEX file.
58 01 02 03 04
5.2.9.9 DW
The DW directive operates in a similar fashion to DB, except that it assembles
expressions into 16-bit words. Example:

DW -1, 3664h, ’A’
5.2.9.10 DDW
The DDW directive operates in a similar fashion to DW, except that it assembles
expressions into double-width (32-bit) words. Example:
DDW ’d’, 12345678h, 0
5.2.9.11 DS
This directive reserves, but does not initialize, memory locations. The single argument
is the number of bytes to be reserved.
This directive is typically used to reserve memory location for RAM-based objects in
the data memory. If used in a psect linked into the program memory, it will move the
location counter, but not place anything in the HEX file output. Note that because the
size of an address unit in the program memory is 2 bytes (see
Section 5.2.9.3.4 “Delta”), the DS pseudo-op will actually reserve an entire word.
A variable is typically defined by using a label and then the DS directive to reserve
locations at the label location.
Examples:
alabel: DS 23 ;Reserve 23 bytes of memory
xlabel: DS 2+3 ;Reserve 5 bytes of memory
5.2.9.12 DABS
This directive allows one or more bytes of memory to be reserved at the specified
address. The general form of the directive is:
DABS memorySpace, address, bytes[ ,symbol]
where memorySpace is a number representing the memory space in which the reser-
vation will take place, address is the address at which the reservation will take place,
and bytes is the number of bytes that is to be reserved. The symbol is optional and
refers to the name of the object at the address.
Use of symbol in the directive will aid debugging. The symbol is automatically made
globally accessible and is equated to the address specified in the directive. So, for
example, the following directive uses a symbol:
DABS 1,0x100,4,foo
that is identical to the following directives:
GLOBAL foo
foo EQU 0x100
DABS 1,0x100,4
This directive differs to the DS directive in that it can be used to reserve memory at any
location, not just within the current psect. Indeed, these directives can be placed any-
where in the assembly code and do not contribute to the currently selected psect in any
way.
The memory space number is the same as the number specified with the space flag
option to psects (see Section 5.2.9.3.17 “Space”).
The code generator issues a DABS directive for every user-defined absolute C variable,
or for any variables that have been allocated an address by the code generator.
The linker reads this DABS-related information from object files and ensures that the
reserved addresses are not used for other memory placement.
5.2.9.13 IF, ELSIF, ELSE AND ENDIF

These directives implement conditional assembly.

Macro Assembler
The argument to IF and ELSIF should be an absolute expression. If it is non-zero, then
the code following it up to the next matching ELSE, ELSIF or ENDIF will be assembled.
If the expression is zero, then the code up to the next matching ELSE or ENDIF will not
be output.At an ELSE, the sense of the conditional compilation will be inverted, while
an ENDIF will terminate the conditional assembly block. Conditional assembly blocks
can be nested.
These directives do not implement a runtime conditional statement in the same way
that the C statement if() does; they are only evaluated at compile time. In addition,
assembly code in both true and false cases is always scanned and interpreted, but the
machine code corresponding to instructions is output only if the condition matches.
This implies that assembler directives (e.g., EQU) will be processed regardless of the
state of the condition expression, and so, should not be used inside an IF construct.
For example:
IF ABC
goto aardvark
ELSIF DEF
goto denver
ELSE
goto grapes
ENDIF
ENDIF
In this example, if ABC is non-zero, the first goto instruction will be assembled but not
the second or third. If ABC is zero and DEF is non-zero, the second goto instruction will
be assembled but the first and third will not. If both ABC and DEF are zero, the third
goto instruction will be assembled.
5.2.9.14 MACRO AND ENDM

These directives provide for the definition of assembly macros, optionally with argu-
ments. See Section 5.2.9.5 “EQU” for simple association of a value with an identifier,
or Section 4.14.1 “Preprocessor Directives” for the preprocessor’s #define macro
directive, which can also work with arguments.
The MACRO directive should be preceded by the macro name and optionally followed
by a comma-separated list of formal arguments. When the macro is used, the macro
name should be used in the same manner as a machine opcode, followed by a list of
arguments to be substituted for the formal parameters.
For example:
;macro: movlf - Move a literal value into a nominated file register
;args: arg1 - the literal value to load
; arg2 - the NAME of the source variable
movlf MACRO arg1,arg2

movlw arg1
movwf arg2 mod 080h
ENDM
When used, this macro will expand to the 2 instructions in the body of the macro, with
the formal parameters substituted by the arguments. Thus:
movlf 2,tempvar
expands to:
movlw 2
movwf tempvar mod 080h
The & character can be used to permit the concatenation of macro arguments with
other text, but is removed in the actual expansion. For example:

loadPort MACRO port, value
movlw value
movwf PORT&port
ENDM
will load PORTA if port is A when called, etc. The special meaning of the & token in
macros implies that you can not use the bitwise AND operator, (also represented by
&), in assembly macros; use the and form of this operator instead.
A comment can be suppressed within the expansion of a macro (thus saving space in
the macro storage) by opening the comment with a double semicolon, ;;.
When invoking a macro, the argument list must be comma-separated. If it is desired to
include a comma (or other delimiter such as a space) in an argument then angle
brackets < and > can be used to quote
If an argument is preceded by a percent sign, %, that argument will be evaluated as an
expression and passed as a decimal number, rather than as a string. This is useful if
evaluation of the argument inside the macro body would yield a different result.
The nul operator can be used within a macro to test a macro argument, for example:
IF nul arg3 ; argument was not supplied.
...
ELSE ; argument was supplied
...
ENDIF
See Section 5.2.9.15 “LOCAL” for use of unique local labels within macros.
By default, the assembly list file will show macro in an unexpanded format; i.e., as the
macro was invoked. Expansion of the macro in the listing file can be shown by using
the EXPAND assembler control (see Section 5.2.10.4 “EXPAND”).
5.2.9.15 LOCAL
The LOCAL directive allows unique labels to be defined for each expansion of a given
macro. Any symbols listed after the LOCAL directive will have a unique assembler
generated symbol substituted for them when the macro is expanded. For example:
down MACRO count
LOCAL more
more: decfsz count
goto more
ENDM
when expanded, will include a unique assembler generated label in place of more. For
example:
down foobar
expands to:
??0001 decfsz foobar
goto ??0001
If invoked a second time, the label more would expand to ??0002, and multiply defined
symbol errors will be averted.

Macro Assembler
5.2.9.16 ALIGN
The ALIGN directive aligns whatever is following, data storage or code etc., to the spec-
ified offset boundary within the current psect. The boundary is specified as a number
of bytes following the directive.
For example, to align output to a 2-byte (even) address within a psect, the following
could be used.
ALIGN 2
Note that what follows will only begin on an even absolute address if the psect begins
on an even address; i.e., alignment is done within the current psect. See
Section 5.2.9.3.15 “Reloc” for psect alignment.
The ALIGN directive can also be used to ensure that a psect’s length is a multiple of a
certain number. For example, if the above ALIGN directive was placed at the end of a
psect, the psect would have a length that was always an even number of bytes long.
5.2.9.17 REPT
The REPT directive temporarily defines an unnamed macro, then expands it a number
of times as determined by its argument.
For example:
REPT 3
addwf fred,w
ENDM
will expand to:
addwf fred,w
addwf fred,w
addwf fred,w
(see Section 5.2.9.18 “IRP and IRPC”).
5.2.9.18 IRP AND IRPC

The IRP and IRPC directives operate in a similar way to REPT; however, instead of
repeating the block a fixed number of times, it is repeated once for each member of an
argument list.
In the case of IRP, the list is a conventional macro argument list. In the case or IRPC,
it is each character in one argument. For each repetition, the argument is substituted
for one formal parameter.
For example:
IRP number,4865h,6C6Ch,6F00h
DW number
ENDM
would expand to:
DW 4865h
DW 6C6Ch
DW 6F00h
Note that you can use local labels and angle brackets in the same manner as with
conventional macros.
The IRPC directive is similar, except it substitutes one character at a time from a string
of non-space characters.

For example:
IRPC char,ABC
DB ’char’
ENDM
will expand to:
DB ’A’
DB ’B’
DB ’C’
5.2.9.19 BANKSEL
This directive can be used to generate code to select the bank of the operand. The
operand should be the symbol or address of an object that resides in the data memory
(see Section 5.2.1.2 “Bank and Page Selection”).
5.2.9.20 PAGESEL
This directive can be used to generate code to select the page of the address operand.
(see Section 5.2.1.2 “Bank and Page Selection”).
5.2.9.21 PROCESSOR
The output of the assembler can vary, depending on the target device. The device
name is typically set using the -mcpu option to the command-line driver xc8-cc (see
Section 3.7.1.5 “cpu”). However, it can also be set with this directive for example:
PROCESSOR 16F877
This directive will override any device selected by any command-line option.
5.2.9.22 SIGNAT
This directive is used to associate a 16-bit signature value with a label. At link time, the
linker checks that all signatures defined for a particular label are the same. The linker
will produce an error if they are not. The SIGNAT directive is used by MPLAB XC8 to
enforce link time checking of C function prototypes and calling conventions.
Use the SIGNAT directive if you want to write assembly language routines that are
called from C. For example:
SIGNAT _fred,8192
associates the signature value 8192 with the symbol _fred. If a different signature
value for _fred is present in any object file, the linker will report an error.
The easiest way to determine the correct signature value for a routine is to write a C
routine with the same prototype as the assembly routine and check the signature value
determined by the code generator. This will be shown in the assembly list file (see
Section 3.7.10 “Mapped Assembler Options” and Section 5.3 “Assembly-Level Optimi-
zations”).

Macro Assembler
5.2.10 Assembler Controls

Assembler controls can be included in the assembler source to control assembler oper-
ation. These keywords have no significance anywhere else in the program. The control
is invoked by the directive OPT, followed by the control name. Some keywords are
followed by one or more arguments. For example:
OPT EXPAND
A list of keywords is given in Table 5-8, and each is described in the text that follows
the table.
TABLE 5-8: ASPIC ASSEMBLER CONTROLS(1)

Control Meaning Format
ASMOPT_ON, ASMOPT_OFF start and stop assembly optimizations OPT ASMOPT_OFF
;protected code
OPT ASMOPT_ON
ASMOPT_PUSH, save and restore the state of the assembly OPT ASMOPT_PUSH ;save state
ASMOPT_POP optimizations OPT ASMOPT_OFF
;protected code
OPT ASMOPT_POP ;restore state
COND*, NOCOND include/do not include conditional code in OPT COND
the listing
EXPAND, NOEXPAND expand/do not expand macros in the listing OPT EXPAND
output
INCLUDE textually include another source file OPT INCLUDE < pathname >
LIST*, NOLIST define options for listing output/disable list- OPT LIST [< listopt >, ..., <
ing output listopt >]
PAGE start a new page in the listing output OPT PAGE
SPACE add blank lines to listing OPT SPACE 3
SUBTITLE specify the subtitle of the program OPT SUBTITLE “< subtitle >”
TITLE specify the title of the program OPT TITLE “< title >”
Note 1: The default options are listed with an asterisk (*)
5.2.10.1 ASMOPT_OFF AND ASMOPT_ON

These controls allow the assembler optimizer to be selectively disabled for sections of
assembly code. No code is modified after an ASMOPT_OFF control until a subsequent
ASMOPT_ON control is encountered.
5.2.10.2 ASMOPT_PUSH AND ASMOPT_POP

These controls allow the state of the assembler optimizer to be saved onto a stack of
states and then restored at a later time. They are useful when you need to ensure the
optimizers are disabled for a small section of code, but you do not know if the optimiz-
ers have previously been disabled. See Table 5-8 for an example of how these might
be used.
5.2.10.3 COND
Any conditional code is included in the listing output. (see the NOCOND control in
Section 5.2.10.7 “NOCOND”).
5.2.10.4 EXPAND
When EXPAND is in effect, the code generated by macro expansions appears in the list-
ing output. (see the NOEXPAND control in Section 5.2.10.8 “NOEXPAND”).

5.2.10.5 INCLUDE
This control causes the file specified by pathname to be textually included at that point
in the assembly file. The INCLUDE control must be the last control keyword on the line,
for example:
OPT INCLUDE "options.h"
The driver does not pass any search paths to the assembler, so if the include file is not
located in the working directory, the pathname must specify the exact location.
See also how to preprocess assembly source files in Section 3.2.3 “Input File Types”
thus allowing use of preprocessor directives, such as #include.
5.2.10.6 LIST
If, previously, the listing was turned off using the NOLIST control, the LIST control
automatically turns listing on.
Alternatively, the LIST control can include options to control the assembly and the
listing. The options are listed in Table 5-9.
TABLE 5-9: LIST CONTROL OPTIONS
List Option Default Description
c= nnn 80 Set the page (i.e., column) width.
n= nnn 59 Set the page length.
t= ON|OFF OFF Truncate listing output lines. The default wraps lines.
p=< device > n/a Set the device type.
r=< radix > HEX Set the default radix to HEX, dec or oct.
x= ON|OFF OFF Turn macro expansion on or off.
(see the NOLIST control in Section 5.2.10.9 “NOLIST”).
5.2.10.7 NOCOND
Using this control will prevent conditional code from being included in the assembly list
file output (see the COND control in Section 5.2.10.3 “COND”).
5.2.10.8 NOEXPAND
The NOEXPAND control disables macro expansion in the assembly list file. The macro
call will be listed instead. See the EXPAND control in Section 5.2.10.4 “EXPAND”.
Assembly macros are discussed in Section 5.2.9.14 “MACRO and ENDM”.
5.2.10.9 NOLIST
This control turns the listing output off from a precise point forward (see the LIST con-
trol in Section 5.2.10.6 “LIST”).

Macro Assembler
5.2.10.10 PAGE
The PAGE control causes a new page to be started in the listing output. A Control-L
(form feed) character will also cause a new page when it is encountered in the source.
5.2.10.11 SPACE
The SPACE control places a number of blank lines in the listing output, as specified by
its parameter.
5.2.10.12 SUBTITLE
The SUBTITLE control defines a subtitle to appear at the top of every listing page, but
under the title. The string should be enclosed in single or double quotes (see the TITLE
control in Section 5.2.10.13 “TITLE”).
5.2.10.13 TITLE
This control keyword defines a title to appear at the top of every listing page. The string
should be enclosed in single or double quotes (see the SUBTITLE control in
Section 5.2.10.12 “SUBTITLE”).

5.3 ASSEMBLY-LEVEL OPTIMIZATIONS

The assembler performs optimizations on assembly code, in addition to those
optimizations performed by the code generator directly on the C code.
The assembler only optimizes hand-written assembly source modules if the
-fasmfile driver optimization setting is enabled, see Section 3.7.6.5 “asmfile”.
Assembly added in-line (see Section 4.12.2 “Inline Assembly”) with C code is never
optimized.
The optimizations that can be performed by the assembler include the following. Note,
however, that these optimizations are skipped if the compiler is operating with level 0
or 1 optimizations, unless indicated below (see Section 3.7.6 “Options for Controlling
Optimization”).
Assembly-level optimizations include:
• In-lining of small routines is done so that a call to the routine is not required. Only
very small routines (typically a few instructions) that are called only once will be
changed so that code size is not adversely impacted. This speeds code execution
without a significant increase in code size.
• Explicit inlining of functions that use the inline specifier (see
Section 4.8.1.2 “Inline Specifier”).
• Procedural abstraction is performed on assembly code sequences that appear
more than once. This is essentially a reverse in-lining process. The code sequences
are abstracted into callable routines that use a label, PLx, where x is a number. A
call to this routine will replace every instance of the original code sequence. This
optimization reduces code size considerably, with a small impact on code speed. It
can, however, adversely impact debugging. Procedural abstraction is only employed
by compilers operating in PRO mode.
• Jump-to-jump type optimizations are made primarily to tidy the output related to
conditional code sequences that follow a generic template. Jump-to-jump optimiza-
tions can remove jump instructions whose destinations are also jump instructions.
This optimization is enabled in all modes, including Free mode.
• Unreachable code is removed. Code can become orphaned by other optimiza-
tions and cannot be reached during normal execution, e.g., instructions after a
return instruction. The presence of any label is considered a possible entry point,
and code following a label is always considered reachable.
• Peephole optimizations are performed on every instruction. These optimizations
consider the state of execution at, and immediately around, each instruction –
hence the name. They either alter or delete one or more instructions at each step.
For example, if W is known to contain the value 0, and an instruction moves W to an
address (MOVWF), this might be replaceable with a CLRF instruction.
• Psect merging can be performed to allow other optimizations to take place. Code
within the same psect is guaranteed to be located in the same program memory
page. So, calls and jumps within the psect do not need to have the page selection
bits set before executing. Code using the LJMP and fcall instructions will benefit
from this optimization (see Section 5.2.1 “Assembly Instruction Deviations”).
Assembly optimizations can often interfere with debugging in some tools, such as
MPLAB X IDE. It can be necessary to select level disable them when debugging code,
if that is possible (see Section 3.7.6 “Options for Controlling Optimization”). The
assembler optimizations can drastically reduce code size. However, they typically have
little effect on RAM usage.

Macro Assembler
5.4 ASSEMBLY LIST FILES

The assembler will produce an assembly list file if instructed. The xc8-cc driver option
-Wa,-a is typically used to request generation of such a file (see
Section 3.7.10 “Mapped Assembler Options”).
The assembly list file shows the assembly output produced by the compiler for both C
and assembly source code. If the assembler optimizers are enabled, the assembly
output can be different than assembly source code. It is still useful for assembly
programming.
The list file is in a human-readable form and cannot be go any farther in the compilation
sequence. It differs from an assembly output file in that it contains address and op-code
data. In addition, the assembler optimizer simplifies some expressions and removes
some assembler directives from the listing file for clarity, although these directives are
included in the true assembly output files. If you are using the assembly list file to look
at the code produced by the compiler, you might wish to turn off the assembler opti-
mizer so that all the compiler-generated directives are shown in the list file. Re-enable
the optimizer when continuing development. Section 3.7.6 “Options for Controlling
Optimization” gives more information on controlling the optimizers.
Provided that the link stage has successfully concluded, the listing file is updated by
the linker so that it contains absolute addresses and symbol values. Thus, you can use
the assembler list file to determine the position and exact op codes of instructions.
Tick marks “'” in the assembly listing, next to addresses or opcodes, indicate that the
linker did not update the list file, most likely due to a compiler error, or a compiler option
that stopped compilation before the link stage. For example, in the following listing:
85 000A' 027F subwf 127,w
86 000B' 1D03 skipz
87 000C' 2800' goto u15
These marks indicate that addresses are just address offsets into their enclosing psect,
and that opcodes have not been fixed up. Any address field in the opcode that has not
been fixed up is shown with a value of 0.
There is a single assembly list file produced by the assembler for each assembly file
passed to it. So, there is a single file produced for all the C source code in a project,
including p-code based library code. The file also contains some of the C initialization
that forms part of the runtime startup code. There is also a single file produced for each
assembly source file. Typically, there is at least one assembly file in each project. It
contains some of the runtime startup file and is typically named startup.s.

5.4.1 General Format

The format of the main listing is in the form shown in Figure 5-1.
The line numbers purely relate to the assembly list file and are not associated with the
lines numbers in the C or assembly source files. Any assembly that begins with a semi-
colon indicates it is a comment added by the code generator. Such comments contain
either the original source code, which corresponds to the generated assembly, or is a
comment inserted by the code generator to explain some action taken.
Before the output for each function, there is detailed information regarding that function
summarized by the code generator. This information relates to register usage, local
variable information, functions called, and the calling function.
FIGURE 5-1: GENERAL FORM OF ASSEMBLY LISTING FILE

1 4
768 ;sp2_inpADC.c: 119: void ADC_start(unsigned char chan)
769 2 ;sp2_inpADC.c: 120: {
770 0243 _ADC_start:
771 3 ; Regs used in _ADC_start: [reg0,reg3]
3]
]
772 0243 00A3 movwf ADC_start@chan 1 line number
773 ;sp2_inpADC.c: 121: chan &= 0x07;
774 0244 3007 movlw 7 2 address
775 0245 05A3 andwf ADC_start@chan
5 3 op code
776 ;sp2_inpADC.c: 128: }
777 0252 0008 instruction 4 source comment
778 ; ========= function _ADC_start ends ========
5 assembly
5.4.2 Psect Information

The assembly list file can be used to determine the name of the psect in which a data
object or section of code has been placed.
For global symbols, you can check the symbol table in the map file which lists the psect
name with each symbol. For symbols local to a module, find the definition of the symbol
in the list file. For labels, it is the symbol’s name followed by a colon, ‘:’. Look for the
first PSECT assembler directive above this code. The name associated with this direc-
tive is the psect in which the code is placed (see Section 5.2.9.3 “PSECT”).
5.4.3 Function Information

For each C function, printed before the function’s assembly label (search for the func-
tion’s name that is immediately followed by a colon :), is general information relating
to the resources used by that function. A typical printout is shown in Figure
5-2: Function Information. Most of the information is self-explanatory, but special com-
ments follow.
The locations shown use the format offset[space]. For example, a location of
42[BANK0] means that the variable was located in the bank 0 memory space and that
it appears at an offset of 42 bytes into the compiled stack component in this space (see
Section 4.5.2.2.1 “Object Size Limits”).
Whenever pointer variables are shown, they are often accompanied by the targets that
the pointer can reference, these targets appear after the arrow -> (see
Section 5.4.5 “Pointer Reference Graph”). The auto and parameter section of this infor-
mation is especially useful because the size of pointers is dynamic (see
Section 4.4.6 “Pointer Types”). This information shows the actual number of bytes
assigned to each pointer variable.

Macro Assembler
The tracked objects are generally not used. It indicates the known state of the currently
selected RAM bank on entry to the function and at its exit points. It also indicates the
bank selection bits that did, or did not, change in the function.
The hardware stack information shows how many stack levels were taken up by this
function alone, and the total levels used by this function and any functions it calls. Note
that this is only valid for functions that are have not been inlined.
Functions that use a non-reentrant model are those that allocate auto and parameter
variables to a compiled stack and which are, as a result, not reentrant. If a function is
marked as being reentrant, it allocates stack-based variables to the software stack and
can be reentrantly called.
Functions marked as using a non-reentrant model are those which allocate auto and
parameter variables to a compiled stack and which are, hence, not reentrant. If a func-
tion is marked as being reentrant, then it allocates stack-based variables to the soft-
ware stack and can be reentrantly called.
FIGURE 5-2: FUNCTION INFORMATION
1 *************** function _render *****************

4064 ;;
4065 ;; Defined at:
4066 ;; line 29 in file "draw.c" 2
3 Parameters:
4067 ;; Size Location Type
4068 ;; None
4069 ;; Auto vars: Size Location Type
4070 ;; lll 4 42[BANK0 ] long
4071 ;; x 4 2 46[BANK0 ] volatile int
4072 ;; cp 1 41[BANK0 ] PTR unsigned char
4073 ;; -> inputData(2),
5 Return value: Size Location
4074 ;; Type
4075 ;; None void
6 Registers used:
4076 ;;
4077 ;; wreg, fsr0l, fsr0h, status,2, status,0, pclath, cstack
7 Tracked objects:
4078 ;;
4079 ;; On entry : 17F/0
4080 ;; On exit : 0/0
4081 ;; Unchanged: FFE00/0
4082 ;; Data sizes: COMMON BANK0 BANK1 BANK2
4083 ;; Params: 0 0 0 0
8
4084 ;; Locals: 0 7 0 0
4085 ;; Temps: 0 5 0 0
4086 ;; Totals: 0 12 0 0
4087 ;;Total ram usage: 12 bytes 1 function's name
4088 ;; Hardware stack levels used: 1
2 file name and line number of definition
9 Hardware stack levels required when called:
4089 ;; 4
4090 ;; This function calls: 3 size, location and type of parameters
4091 ;; _lrv
4092 ;; ___altofl 4 size, location and type of auto variables
10
4093 ;; ___awdiv 5 size, location and type of return value
4094 ;; ___awmod
11
4095 ;; This function is called by: 6 registers that the function code used
4096 ;; _main
7 selected GPR bank on entry and exit
4097 12 rant model
r
;; This function uses a non-reentrant
8 RAM memory summary for entire function
9 hardware stack requirements
10 functions called by this function
11 which functions call this function
12 how the function was encoded

5.4.4 Switch Statement Information

Along with the generated code for each switch statement is information about how
that statement was encoded. There are several strategies the compiler can use for
switch statements. The compiler determines the appropriate strategy (see
Section 4.6.3 “Switch Statements”) or you can indicate a preference for a particular
type of strategy using a pragma (see Section 4.14.3.10 “The #pragma switch
Directive”). The information printed will look similar to that shown in Figure 5-3.
FIGURE 5-3: SWITCH STATEMENT INFORMATION
206 1 ; Switch size 1, requested type "space"

207 ; Number of cases is 4, Range of values is 0 to 254 2
208 ; switch strategies available:
209 ; Name Instructions Cycles
210 ; simple_byte 13 7 (average)
211 ; jumptable 260 6 (fixed)
3
212 ; rangetable 259 6 (fixed)
213 ; spacedrange 516 9 (fixed)
214 ; locatedrange 255 3 (fixed)
215 ; Chosen strategy
egy
egy is simple_byte
4 1 size of the switched value
2 number and range of the case values
3 all switch strategies and their attributes
4 the strategy choosen for this switch
statement
5.4.5 Pointer Reference Graph

Other important information contained in the assembly list file is the pointer reference
graph (look for pointer list with targets: in the list file). This is a list of each pointer con-
tained in the program and each target the pointer can reference through the program.
The size and type of each target is indicated, as well as the size and type of the pointer
variable itself.
For example, the following shows a pointer called task_tmr in the C code. It is local
to the function timer_intr(). It is also a pointer to an unsigned int, and it is one
byte wide. There is only one target to this pointer and it is the member timer_count
in the structure called task. This target variable resides in the BANK0 class and is two
bytes wide.
timer_intr@task_tmr PTR unsigned int size(1); Largest target is 2
-> task.timer_count(BANK0[2]),
The pointer reference graph shows both pointers to data objects and pointers to
functions.

Macro Assembler
5.4.6 Call Graph

The other important information in the assembly list file is the call graph. This is pro-
duced for all 8-bit devices, which can use a compiled stack to facilitate stack-based
variables (function parameters, auto and temporary variables). See
Section 4.5.2.2.1 “Object Size Limits”, for more detailed information on compiled stack
operation.
Call graph tables, showing call information on a function-by-function basis, are pre-
sented in the map file, followed by more traditional call graphs for the entire program.
The call graphs are built by the code generator, and are used to allow overlapping of
functions’ auto-parameter blocks (APBs) in the compiled stack. The call graphs are not
used when functions use the software stack (see Section 4.5.2.2.1 “Object Size Lim-
its”). The call graphs are not used when functions use the software stack (see
Section 4.5.2.2.1 “Object Size Limits”). You can obtain the following information from
studying the call graph.
• The functions in the program that are “root” nodes marking the top of a call tree,
and that are called spontaneously
• The functions that the linker deemed were called, or can have been called, during
program execution (and those which were called indirectly via a pointer)
• The program’s hierarchy of function calls
• The size of the auto and parameter areas within each function’s APB
• The offset of each function’s APB within the compiled stack
• The estimated call tree depth.
These features are discussed in sections that follow.
5.4.6.1 CALL GRAPH TABLES

A typical call graph table can look like the extract shown in Figure 5-4. Look for Call
Graph Tables: in the list file.
FIGURE 5-4: CALL GRAPH FORM
Call Graph Tables:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Depth) Function Calls Base Space Used Autos Params Refs
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(0) _main 12 12 0 34134
43 BANK0 5 5 0
0 BANK1 7 7 0
_aOut
_initSPI
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(1) _aOut 2 0 2 68
2 BANK0 2 0 2
_SPI
_GetDACValue (ARG)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(1) _initSPI 0 0 0 0
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2) _SPI 2 2 0 23
0 BANK0 2 2 0
...
Estimated maximum stack depth 6

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The graph table starts with the function main(). Note that the function name will
always be shown in the assembly form, thus the function main() appears as the sym-
bol _main. main() is always a root of a call tree. Interrupt functions will form separate
trees.
All the functions that main() calls, or can call, are shown below the function name in
the Calls column. So in this example, main() calls aOut() and initSPI(). These
have been grouped in the orange box in the figure. If a star (*) appears next to the func-
tion’s name, this implies the function has been called indirectly via a pointer. A func-
tion’s inclusion into the call graph does not imply the function was actually called, but
there is a possibility that the function was called. For example, code such as:
int test(int a) {
if(a)
foo();
else
bar();
}
will list foo() and bar() under test(), as either can be called. If a is always true,
then the function bar() will never be called, even though it appears in the call graph.
In addition to the called functions, information relating to the memory allocated in the
compiled stack for main() is shown. This memory will be used for the stack-based
variables that are defined in main(), as well as a temporary location for the function’s
return value, if appropriate.
In the orange box for main() you can see that it defines 12 auto and temporary vari-
able (under the Autos column). It defines no parameters – main() never has parame-
ters – under the Params column. There is a total of 34134 references in the assembly
code to local objects in main(), shown under the Refs column. The Used column indi-
cates the total number of bytes of local storage, i.e., the sum of the Autos and Params
columns.
Rather than the compiled stack being one block of memory in one memory space, it
can be broken up into multiple blocks placed in different memory spaces to utilize all of
the available memory on the target device. This breakdown is shown under the memory
summary line for each function. In this example, it shows that 5 bytes of auto objects
for main() are placed in the bank 0 component of the compiled stack (Space column),
at an offset of 43 (Base column) into this stack. It also shows that 7 bytes of auto
objects were placed in the bank 1 data component of the compiled stack at an offset of
0. The name listed under the Space column, is the same name as the linker class which
will hold this section of the stack.
Below the information for main() (outside the orange box) you will see the same infor-
mation repeated for the functions that main() called, i.e., aOut()and initSPI().
For clarity, only the first few functions of this program are shown in the figure.
Before the name of each function, and in brackets, is the call stack depth for that par-
ticular function. A function can be called from many places in a program, and it can
have a different stack depth in the call graph at each call. The maximum call depth is
always shown for a function, regardless of its position in the call table. The main()
function will always have a depth of 0. The starting call depth for interrupt functions
assumes a worst case and will start at the start depth of the previous tree plus one.
After each tree in the call graph, there is an indication of the maximum stack depth that
might be realized by that tree. This stack depth is not printed if any functions in the
graph use the software stack. (In that case, a single stack depth estimate is printed for
the entire program at the end of the graphs.) In the example shown, the estimated max-
imum stack depth is 6. Check the associated data sheet for the depth of your device’s

Macro Assembler
hardware stack (see Section 4.3.4 “Stacks”). The stack depth indicated can be used as
a guide to the stack usage of the program. No definitive value can be given for the
program’s total stack usage for several reasons:
• Certain parts of the call tree may never be reached, reducing that tree’s stack
usage.
• The exact contribution of interrupt (or other) trees to the main() tree cannot be
determined as the point in main’s call tree at which the interrupt (or other function
invocation) will occur cannot be known. (The compiler assumes the worst case
situation of interrupts occurring at the maximum main() depth.)
• The assembler optimizer may have replaced function calls with jumps to
functions, reducing that tree’s stack usage.
• The assembler’s procedural abstraction optimizations can have added in calls to
abstracted routines, increasing the stack depth. (Checks are made to ensure this
does not exceed the maximum stack depth.)
• Functions which are inlined are not called, reducing the stack usage.
The compiler can be configured to manage the hardware stack for PIC10/12/16
devices only (see Section 3.7.1.22 “stackcall”). When this mode is selected, the com-
piler will convert calls to jumps if it thinks the maximum stack depth of the device is
being exceeded. The stack depth estimate listed in the call table will reflect the stack
savings made by this feature. Thus, the stack depth and call depth cannot be the same.
Note that main() is jumped to by the runtime startup, not called; so, main() itself
does not consume a level of stack (see also Section 4.10.2 “Runtime Startup Code”).
The code generator produces a warning if the maximum stack depth appears to have
been exceeded and the stack is not being managed by the compiler. For the above
reasons, this warning, too, is intended to be a only a guide to potential stack problems.
5.4.6.2 CALL GRAPH CRITICAL PATHS

Immediately prior to the call graph tables in the list file are the critical paths for memory
usage identified in the call graphs. A critical path is printed for each memory space and
for each call graph. Look for a line similar to Critical Paths under _main in BANK0,
which, for this example, indicates the critical path for the main function (the root of one
call graph) in bank 0 memory. There will be one call graph for the function main and
another for each interrupt function. Each of these will appear for every memory space
the device defines.
A critical path here represents the biggest range of APBs stacked together in a contig-
uous block. Essentially, it identifies those functions whose APBs are contributing to the
program’s memory usage in that particular memory space. If you can reduce the mem-
ory usage of these functions in the corresponding memory space, then you will affect
the program’s total memory usage in that memory space.
This information can be presented as follows.
3793 ;; Critical Paths under _main in BANK0
3794 ;;
3795 ;; _main->_foobar
3796 ;; _foobar->___flsub
3797 ;; ___flsub->___fladd
In this example, it shows that of all the call graph paths starting from the function main,
the path in which main calls foobar, which calls flsub, which calls fladd, is using
the largest block of memory in bank 0 RAM. The exact memory usage of each function
is shown in the call graph tables.
The memory used by functions that are not in the critical path will overlap entirely with
that in the critical path. Reducing the memory usage of these will have no impact on
the memory usage of the entire program.

5.4.6.3 CALL GRAPH GRAPHS
Following the call tables are the call graphs, which show the full call tree for main()
and any interrupt functions. This is a subset of the information presented in the call
tables, and it is shown in a different form. The call graphs will look similar to the one
shown in Figure 5-5.
FIGURE 5-5: CALL GRAPH GRAPHS

Call Graph Graphs:
_main (ROOT)
_initSPI
_aOut
_SPI
_GetDACValue
___ftadd
___ftpack
___ftmul (ARG)
...
Indentation is used to indicate the call depth. In the diagram, you can see that main()
calls aOut(), which in turn calls GetDACValue(), which in turn calls the library
function __ftadd(), etc. If a star (*) appears next to the function’s name, this implies
that the function has been called indirectly via a pointer.
5.4.6.4 ARG NODES

In both the call trees and the call graph itself, you can see functions listed with the anno-
tation (ARG) after its name. This implies that the call to that function at that point in the
call graph is made to obtain an argument to another function. For example, in the fol-
lowing code snippet, the function input() is called to obtain an argument value to the
function process().
result = process(input(0x7));
For such code, if it were to appear inside the main() function, the call graph would
contain the following.
_main (ROOT)
_input
_process
_input (ARG)
This indicates that main() calls input() and main() also calls process(), but
input() is also called as an argument expression to process().
These argument nodes in the graph do not contribute to the overall stack depth usage
of the program, but they are important for the creation of the compiled stack. The call
depth stack usage of the tree indicated above would only be 1, not 2, even though the
argument node function is at an indicated depth of 2. This is because there is no actual
reentrancy in terms of an actual call and a return address being stored on the hardware
stack.
The compiler must ensure that the parameter area for a function and any of its ‘argu-
ment functions’ must be at unique addresses in the compiled stack to avoid data cor-
ruption. Note that a function’s return value is also stored in its parameter area; so, that
needs to be considered by the compiler even if there are no parameters. A function’s
parameters become ‘active’ before the function is actually called (when the arguments
are passed) and its return value location remains ‘active’ after the function has returned
(while that return value is being processed).

Macro Assembler
In terms of data allocation, the compiler assumes a function has been ‘called’ the
moment that any of its parameters have been loaded and is still considered ‘called’ up
until its return value is no longer required. Thus, the definition for ‘reentrancy’ is much
broader when considering data allocation than it is when considering stack call depth.
5.4.7 Symbol Table

At the bottom of each assembly list file is a symbol table. This differs from the symbol
table presented in the map file (see Section 6.4.2.6 “Symbol Table”) in two ways:
• It lists only those symbols associated with the assembly module from which the
list file is produced (as opposed to the entire program); and
• It lists local as well as global symbols associated with that module.
Each symbol is listed along with the address it has been assigned.

NOTES:

Chapter 6. Linker
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the theory behind, and the usage of, the linker.
The application name of the linker is hlink. In most instances it will not be necessary
to invoke the linker directly, as the compiler driver, xc8-cc, will automatically execute
the linker with all the necessary arguments. Using the linker directly is not simple, and
should be attempted only by those with a sound knowledge of the compiler, and linking
in general. The compiler often makes assumptions about the way in which the program
will be linked. If the psects are not linked correctly, code failure can result.
If it is absolutely necessary to use the linker directly, the best way to start is to copy the
linker arguments constructed by the compiler driver, and modify them as is appropriate.
This ensures that the necessary startup module and arguments are present.
The following topics are examined in this chapter of the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler User’s
Guide:
• Operation
• Relocation and Psects
• Map Files
6.2 OPERATION
A command to the linker takes the following form:
hlink [options] files
The options are zero or more linker options, each of which modifies the behavior of
the linker in some way. The files is one or more object files and zero or more library
files (.a extension).

The options recognized by the linker are listed in Table 6-1 and discussed in the
following paragraphs.
TABLE 6-1: LINKER COMMAND-LINE OPTIONS

Option Effect
-8 use 8086 style segment: offset address form
-Aclass=low-high ,... specify address ranges for a class
-Cpsect=class specify a class name for a global psect
-Cbaseaddr produce binary output file based at baseaddr
-Dclass=delta specify a class delta value
-Dsymfile produce old-style symbol file
-Eerrfile write error messages to errfile
-F produce .obj file with only symbol records
-G spec specify calculation for segment selectors
-H symfile generate symbol file
-H+ symfile generate enhanced symbol file
-I ignore undefined symbols
-J num set maximum number of errors before aborting
-K prevent overlaying function parameter and auto areas
-L preserve relocation items in .obj file
-LM preserve segment relocation items in .obj file
-N sort symbol table in map file by address order
-Nc sort symbol table in map file by class address order
-Ns sort symbol table in map file by space address order
-Mmapfile generate a link map in the named file
-Ooutfile specify name of output file
-Pspec specify psect addresses and ordering
-Qprocessor specify the device type (for cosmetic reasons only)
-S inhibit listing of symbols in symbol file
-Sclass=limit[,bound] specify address limit, and start boundary for a class of psects
-Usymbol pre-enter symbol in table as undefined
-Vavmap use file avmap to generate an Avocet format symbol file
-Wwarnlev set warning level (-9 to 9)
-Wwidth set map file width (>=10)
-X remove any local symbols from the symbol file
-Z remove trivial local symbols from the symbol file
--DISL=list specify disabled messages
--EDF=path specify message file location
--EMAX=number specify maximum number of errors
--NORLF do not relocate list file
--VER print version number and stop

Linker
If the standard input is a file, then this file is assumed to contain the command-line
argument. Lines can be broken by leaving a backslash \ at the end of the preceding
line. In this fashion, hlink commands of almost unlimited length can be issued. For
example, a link command file called x.lnk and containing the following text:
-Z -OX.OBJ -MX.MAP \
-Ptext=0,data=0/,bss,nvram=bss/. \
X.OBJ Y.OBJ Z.OBJ
can be passed to the linker by one of the following:
hlink @x.lnk
hlink < x.lnk
Several linker options require memory addresses or sizes to be specified. The syntax
for all of these is similar. By default, the number is interpreted as a decimal value. To
force interpretation as a HEX number, a trailing H, or h, should be added. For example,
765FH will be treated as a HEX number.
6.2.1 -Aclass =low-high,...

-A option allows one or more of the address ranges to be assigned a linker class, so
that psects can be placed anywhere in this class. Ranges do not need to be contiguous.
For example:
-ACODE=1020h-7FFEh,8000h-BFFEh
specifies that the class called CODE represents the two distinct address ranges shown.
Psect can be placed anywhere in these ranges by using the -P option and the class
name as the address (see Section 6.2.18 “-Pspec”), for example:
-PmyText=CODE
Alternatively, any psect that is made part of the CODE class, when it is defined (see
Section 5.2.9.3.3 “Class”), will automatically be linked into this range, unless they are
explicitly located by another option.
Where there are a number of identical, contiguous address ranges, they can be
specified with a repeat count following an x character. For example:
-ACODE=0-0FFFFhx16
specifies that there are 16 contiguous ranges, each 64k bytes in size, starting from
address zero. Even though the ranges are contiguous, no psect will straddle a 64k
boundary, thus this can result in different psect placement to the case where the option
-ACODE=0-0FFFFFh
had been specified, which does not include boundaries on 64k multiples.
The -A option does not specify the memory space associated with the address. Once
a psect is allocated to a class, the space value of the psect is then assigned to the class
(see Section 5.2.9.3.17 “Space”).
6.2.2 -Cpsect=class
This option allows a psect to be associated with a specific class. Normally, this is not
required on the command line because psect classes are specified in object files (see
Section 5.2.9.3.3 “Class”).
6.2.3 -Dclass=delta
This option allows the delta value for psects that are members of the specified class to
be defined. The delta value should be a number. It represents the number of bytes per
addressable unit of objects within the psects. Most psects do not need this option as
they are defined with a delta value (see Section 5.2.9.3.4 “Delta”).

6.2.4 -Dsymfile
Use this option to produce an old-style symbol file. An old-style symbol file is an ASCII
file, where each line has the link address of the symbol followed by the symbol name.
6.2.5 -Eerrfile
Error messages from the linker are written to the standard error stream. Under DOS,
there is no convenient way to redirect this to a file (the compiler drivers will redirect
standard errors, if standard output is redirected). This option makes the linker write all
error messages to the specified file instead of the screen, which is the default standard
error destination.
6.2.6 -F
Normally the linker will produce an object file that contains both program code and data
bytes, and symbol information. Sometimes you want to produce a symbol-only object
file that can be used again in a subsequent linker run to supply symbol values. The -F
option suppresses data and code bytes from the output file, leaving only the symbol
records.
This option can be used when part of one project (i.e., a separate build) is to be shared
with another, as might be the case with a bootloader and application. The files for one
project are compiled using this linker option to produce a symbol-only object file. That
file is then linked with the files for the other project.
6.2.7 -Gspec
When linking programs using segmented, or bank-switched psects, there are two ways
the linker can assign segment addresses, or selectors, to each segment. A segment is
defined as a contiguous group of psects where each psect in sequence has both its link
and load addresses concatenated with the previous psect in the group. The segment
address or selector for the segment is the value derived when a segment type
relocation is processed by the linker.
By default the segment selector is generated by dividing the base load address of the
segment by the relocation quantum of the segment, which is based on the reloc= flag
value given to psects at the assembler level (see Section 5.2.9.3.15 “Reloc”). The -G
option allows an alternate method for calculating the segment selector. The argument
to -G is a string similar to:
A /10h-4h
where A represents the load address of the segment and / represents division. This
means “Take the load address of the psect, divide by 10 HEX, then subtract 4.” This
form can be modified by substituting N for A, * for / (to represent multiplication) and
adding, rather than subtracting, a constant. The token N is replaced by the ordinal
number of the segment, which is allocated by the linker. For example:
N*8+4
means “take the segment number, multiply by 8, then add 4.” The result is the segment
selector. This particular example would allocate segment selectors in the sequence 4,
12, 20, ... for the number of segments defined.
The selector of each psect is shown in the map file (see Section 6.4.2.2 “Psect
Information Listed by Module”).
6.2.8 -Hsymfile
This option instructs the linker to generate a symbol file. The optional argument
symfile specifies the name of the file to receive the data. The default file name is
l.sym.

Linker
6.2.9 -H+symfile
This option will instruct the linker to generate an enhanced symbol file, which provides,
in addition to the standard symbol file, class names associated with each symbol and
a segments section which lists each class name and the range of memory it occupies.
This format is recommended if the code is to be run in conjunction with a debugger. The
optional argument symfile specifies a file to receive the symbol file. The default file
name is l.sym.
6.2.10 -I
Usually, failure to resolve a reference to an undefined symbol is a fatal error. Using this
option causes undefined symbols to be treated as warnings, instead.
6.2.11 -Jerrcount
The linker will stop processing object files after a certain number of errors (other than
warnings). The default number is 10, but the -J option allows this to be altered.
6.2.12 -K
This option should not be used. It is for older compilers that use a compiled stack. In
those cases, the linker tries to overlay function auto and parameter blocks to reduce
the total amount of RAM required. For debugging purposes, that feature can be dis-
abled with this option. However, doing so will increase the data memory requirements.
This option has no effect when compiled stack allocation is performed by the code gen-
erator. This is the case for OCG (PRO-Standard-Free mode) compilers, and this option
should not be used.
6.2.13 -L
When the linker produces an output file it does not usually preserve any relocation
information, since the file is now absolute. In some circumstances a further “relocation”
of the program is done at load time. The -L option generates, in the output file, one null
relocation record for each relocation record in the input.
6.2.14 -LM
Similar to the above option, this preserves relocation records in the output file, but only
segment relocations.
6.2.15 -Mmapfile
This option causes the linker to generate a link map in the named file, or on the stan-
dard output, if the file name is omitted. The format of the map file is illustrated in
Section 6.4 “Map Files”.
6.2.16 -N, -Ns and-Nc

By default the symbol table in the map file is sorted by name. The -N option causes it
to be sorted numerically, based on the value of the symbol. The -Ns and -Nc options
work similarly except that the symbols are grouped by either their space value, or class.
6.2.17 -Ooutfile
This option allows specification of an output file name for the object file.

6.2.18 -Pspec
Psects are linked together and assigned addresses based on information supplied to
the linker via -P options. The argument to the -P option consists of comma-separated
sequences with the form:
-Ppsect=linkaddr+min/loadaddr+min,psect=linkaddr/loadaddr,...
All values can be omitted, in which case a default will apply, depending on previous val-
ues. The link address of a psect is the address at which it can be accessed at runtime.
The load address is the address at which the psect starts within the output file (HEX or
binary file etc.), but it is rarely used by 8-bit PIC devices. The addresses specified can
be numerical addresses, the names of other psects, classes, or special tokens.
Examples of the basic and most common forms of this option are:
-Ptext10=02000h
which places (links) the starting address of psect text10 at address 0x2000;
-PmyData=AUXRAM
which places the psect myData anywhere in the range of addresses specified by the
linker class AUXRAM (which would need to be defined using the -A option, see
Section 6.2.1 “-Aclass =low-high,...”), and
-PstartCode=0200h,endCode
which places endCode immediately after the end of startCode, which will start at
address 0x200.
The additional variants of this option are rarely needed; but, are described below.
If a link or load address cannot be allowed to fall below a minimum value, the +min,
suffix indicates the minimum address.
If the link address is a negative number, the psect is linked in reverse order with the top
of the psect appearing at the specified address minus one. Psects following a negative
address will be placed before the first psect in memory.
If the load address is omitted entirely, it defaults to the link address. If the slash / char-
acter is supplied with no address following, the load address will concatenate with the
load address of the previous psect. For example, after processing the option:
-Ptext=0,data=0/,bss
the text psect will have a link and load address of 0; data will have a link address of
0 and a load address following that of text. The bss psect will concatenate with data
in terms of both link and load addresses.
A load address specified as a dot character, “.” tells the linker to set the load address
to be the same as the link address.
The final link and load address of psects are shown in the map file (see
Section 6.4.2.2 “Psect Information Listed by Module”).
6.2.19 -Qprocessor
This option allows a device type to be specified. This is purely for information placed in
the map file. The argument to this option is a string describing the device. There are no
behavioral changes attributable to the device type.
6.2.20 -S
This option prevents symbol information relating from being included in the symbol file
produced by the linker. Segment information is still included.

Linker
6.2.21 -Sclass =limit[,bound]

A class of psects can have an upper address limit associated with it. The following
example places a limit on the maximum address of the CODE class of psects to one less
than 400h.
-SCODE=400h
Note that to set an upper limit to a psect, this must be set in assembler code using the
psect limit flag, (see Section 5.2.9.3.8 “Limit”).
If the bound (boundary) argument is used, the class of psects will start on a multiple of
the bound address. This example below places the FARCODE class of psects at a
multiple of 1000h, but with an upper address limit of 6000h.
-SFARCODE=6000h,1000h
6.2.22 -Usymbol
This option will enter the specified symbol into the linker’s symbol table as an undefined
symbol. This is useful for linking entirely from libraries, or for linking a module from a
library where the ordering has been arranged so that by default a later module will be
linked.
6.2.23 -Vavmap
To produce an Avocet format symbol file, the linker needs to be given a map file to allow
it to map psect names to Avocet memory identifiers. The avmap file will normally be
supplied with the compiler, or created automatically by the compiler driver as required.
6.2.24 -Wnum
The -W option can be used to set the warning level, in the range -9 to 9, or the width of
the map file, for values of num >= 10.
-W9 will suppress all warning messages. -W0 is the default. Setting the warning level
to -9 (-W-9) will give the most comprehensive warning messages.
6.2.25 -X
Local symbols can be suppressed from a symbol file with this option. Global symbols
will always appear in the symbol file.
6.2.26 -Z
Some local symbols are compiler generated and not of interest in debugging. This
option will suppress from the symbol file all local symbols that have the form of a single
alphabetic character, followed by a digit string. The set of letters that can start a trivial
symbol is currently “klfLSu“. The -Z option will strip any local symbols starting with
one of these letters, and followed by a digit string.
6.2.27 --DISL=message numbers Disable Messages

This option is mainly used by the command-line driver, xc8-cc, to disable particular
message numbers. It takes a comma-separate list of message numbers that will be
disabled during compilation.
See Section 3.6 “Compiler Messages” for full information about the compiler’s
messaging system.

6.2.28 --EDF=message file: Set Message File Path

This option is mainly used by the command-line driver, xc8-cc, to specify the path of
the message description file. The default file is located in the dat directory in the com-
piler’s installation directory.
messaging system.
6.2.29 --EMAX=number: Specify Maximum Number of Errors

This option is mainly used by the command-line driver, xc8-cc, to specify the maxi-
mum number of errors that can be encountered before the assembler terminates. The
default number is 10 errors.
This option is applied if compiling using xc8-cc, the command-line driver and the
-fmax-errors driver option (see Section 3.7.4.1 “max-errors”).
messaging system.
6.2.30 --NORLF: Do Not Relocate List File

Use of this option prevents the linker applying fixups to the assembly list file produced
by the assembler. This option is normally using by the command line driver, xc8-cc,
when performing pre-link stages, but is omitted when performing the final link step so
that the list file shows the final absolute addresses.
If you are attempting to resolve fixup errors, this option should be disabled so as to fix
up the assembly list file and allow absolute addresses to be calculated for this file. If
the compiler driver detects the presence of a preprocessor macro __DEBUG, which is
equated to 1, then this option will be disabled when building. This macro is set when
choosing a Debug build in MPLAB X IDE. So, always have this option selected if you
encounter such errors.
6.2.31 --VER: Print Version Number

This option prints information stating the version and build of the linker. The linker will
terminate after processing this option, even if other options and files are present on the
command line.

Linker
6.3 RELOCATION AND PSECTS

This section looks at the input files that the linker has to work with.
The linker can read both relocatable object files and object-file libraries (.lib exten-
sion). The library files are a collection of object files packaged into a single unit. So,
essentially, we only need consider the format of object files.
Each object file consists of a number of records. Each record has a type that indicates
what sort of information it holds. Some record types hold general information about the
target device and its configuration, other records types can hold data; and others,
program debugging information, for example.
A lot of the information in object files relates to psects. Psects are an assembly domain
construct and are essentially a block of something, either instructions or data. Every-
thing that contributes to the program is located in a psect. See Section 5.2.8 “Program
Sections” for an introductory guide. There is a particular record type that is used to hold
the data in psects. The bulk of each object file consists of psect records containing the
executable code and variables etc.
We are now in a position to look at the fundamental tasks the linker performs, which
are:
• combining all the relocatable object files into one
• relocation of psects contained in the object files into memory
• fixup of symbolic references in the psects
There are at least two object files that are passed to the linker. One is produced from
all the C code in the project, including C library code. There is only one of these files
since the code generator compiles and combines all the C code of the program and
produces just the one assembly output. The other file passed to the linker will be the
object code produced from the runtime startup code (see Section 3.4.2 “Startup and
Initialization”).
If there are assembly source files in the project, then there will also be one object file
produced for each source file, and these will be passed to the linker. Existing object
files, or object file libraries can also be specified in a project; and if present, these will
also be passed to the linker.
The output of the linker is also an object file, but there is only a single file produced.
The file is absolute, since relocation will have been performed by the linker. The output
file consists of the information from all input object files, merged together.
Relocation consists of placing the psect data into the memory of the target device.
The target device memory specification is passed to the linker by the way of linker
options. These options are generated by the command-line driver, xc8-cc. There are
no linker scripts or means of specifying options in any source file. The default linker
options rarely need adjusting. But, they can be changed, if required, with caution, using
the driver option -Wl, (see 3.7.11.6 Wl: Linker Option).
When the psects are placed at actual memory locations, symbolic references made in
the psects data can be replaced with absolute values. This is a process called fixup.
For each psect record in the object file, there is a corresponding relocation record that
indicates which bytes (or bits) in the psect record need to be adjusted once relocation
is complete. The relocation records also specify how the values are to be determined.
A linker fixup overflow error can occur if the value determined by the linker is too large
to fit in the “hole” reserved for the value in the psect. See (477) fixup overflow in
expression (location 0x* (0x*+*), size *, value 0x*) (Linker) for information on finding
the cause of these errors.

6.4 MAP FILES

The map file contains information relating to the relocation of psects and the addresses
assigned to symbols within those psects.
6.4.1 Generation
If compilation is being performed via MPLAB X IDE, a map file is generated by default.
If you are using the driver from the command line, use the -Wl,-Map option to request
that the map file be produced (see Section 3.7.12 “Mapped Linker Options”). Map files
have the extension .map.
Map files are produced by the linker. If the compilation process is stopped before the
linker is executed, then no map file is produced. The linker produces a map file, even
if it encounters errors. The file, then, helps you track down the cause of the errors. How-
ever, if the linker ultimately reports too many errors, the linker did not run to com-
pletion, the map file was not created. You can use the -fmax-errors option (see
Section 3.7.4.1 “max-errors”) on the command line to increase the number of errors
encountered before the linker exits.
6.4.2 Contents
The sections in the map file, in order of appearance, are as follows.
• the compiler name and version number
• a copy of the command line used to invoke the linker
• the version number of the object code in the first file linked
• the machine type
• a psect summary sorted by the psect’s parent object file
• a psect summary sorted by the psect’s CLASS
• a segment summary
• unused address ranges summary
• the symbol table
• information summary for each function
• information summary for each module
Portions of an example map file, along with explanatory text, are shown in the following
sections.
6.4.2.1 GENERAL INFORMATION

At the top of the map file is general information relating to the execution of the linker.
When analyzing a program, always confirm the compiler version number shown in the
map file if you have more than one compiler version installed to ensure the desired
compiler is being executed.
The device selected with the -mcpu option (Section 3.7.1.5 “cpu”), or the one selected
in your IDE, should appear after the Machine type entry.
The object code version relates to the file format used by relocatable object files pro-
duced by the assembler. Unless either the assembler or linker have been updated
independently, this should not be of concern.

Linker
A typical map file can begin something like the following. This example has been cut
down for clarity.
--edf=/home/jeff/Microchip/XC8/1.00/dat/en_msgs.txt -cs -h+main.sym -z \
-Q16F946 -ol.obj -Mmain.map -ver=XC8 -ACONST=00h-0FFhx32 \
-ACODE=00h-07FFhx4 -ASTRCODE=00h-01FFFh -AENTRY=00h-0FFhx32 \
-ASTRING=00h-0FFhx32 -ACOMMON=070h-07Fh -ABANK0=020h-06Fh \
-ABANK1=0A0h-0EFh -ABANK2=0120h-016Fh -ABANK3=01A0h-01EFh \
-ARAM=020h-06Fh,0A0h-0EFh,0120h-016Fh,01A0h-01EFh \
-AABS1=020h-07Fh,0A0h-0EFh,0120h-016Fh,01A0h-01EFh -ASFR0=00h-01Fh \
-ASFR1=080h-09Fh -ASFR2=0100h-011Fh -ASFR3=0180h-019Fh \
-preset_vec=00h,intentry,init,end_init -ppowerup=CODE -pfunctab=CODE \
-ACONFIG=02007h-02007h -pconfig=CONFIG -DCONFIG=2 -AIDLOC=02000h-02003h \
-pidloc=IDLOC -DIDLOC=2 -AEEDATA=00h-0FFh/02100h -peeprom_data=EEDATA \
-DEEDATA=2 -DCODE=2 -DSTRCODE=2 -DSTRING=2 -DCONST=2 -DENTRY=2 -k \
startup.obj main.obj
Object code version is 3.10
Machine type is 16F946
The Linker command line shows all the command-line options and files that were
passed to the linker for the last build. Remember, these are linker options, not
command-line driver options.
The linker options are necessarily complex. Fortunately, they rarely need adjusting
from their default settings. They are formed by the command-line driver, xc8-cc,
based on the selected target device and the specified driver options. You can often con-
firm that driver options were valid by looking at the linker options in the map file. For
example, if you ask the driver to reserve an area of memory, you should see a change
in the linker options used.
If the default linker options must be changed, this can be done indirectly through the
driver using the driver -Wl option (see Section 3.7.12 “Mapped Linker Options”). If you
use this option, always confirm the change appears correctly in the map file.
6.4.2.2 PSECT INFORMATION LISTED BY MODULE

The next section in the map file lists those modules that have made a contribution to
the output, and information regarding the psects that these modules have defined. See
Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects” for an introductory explanation of psects.
This section is heralded by the line that contains the headings:
Name Link Load Length Selector Space Scale
Under this on the far left is a list of object files. These object files include both files gen-
erated from source modules and those that were extracted from object library files (.a
extension). In the latter case, the name of the library file is printed before the object file
list. Note that since the code generator combines all C source files (and p-code librar-
ies), there is only one object file representing the entire C part of the program. The
object file corresponding to the runtime startup code is normally present in this list.
The information in this section of the map file can be used to confirm that a module is
making a contribution to the output file and to determine the exact psects that each
module defines.
Shown are all the psects (under the Name column) that were linked into the program
from each object file, and information about that psect.
The linker deals with two kinds of addresses: link and load. Generally speaking, the link
address of a psect is the address by which it is accessed at runtime.

The load address, which is often the same as the link address, is the address at which
the psect starts within the output file (HEX or binary file etc.). If a psect is used to hold
bits, the load address is irrelevant and is, instead, used to hold the link address (in bit
units) converted into a byte address.
The Length of the psect is shown in the units that are used by that psect.
The Selector is less commonly used and is of no concern when compiling for PIC
devices.
The Space field is important as it indicates the memory space in which the psect was
placed. For Harvard architecture machines, with separate memory spaces (such as the
PIC10/12/16 devices), this field must be used in conjunction with the address to specify
an exact storage location. A space of 0 indicates the program memory, and a space of
1 indicates the data memory (see Section 5.2.9.3.17 “Space”).
The Scale of a psect indicates the number of address units per byte. This remains blank
if the scale is 1, and shows 8 for psects that hold bit objects. The load address of psects
that hold bits is used to display the link address converted into units of bytes, rather
than the load address (see Section 5.2.9.3.2 “Bit”).
For example, the following appears in a map file.
Name Link Load Length Selector Space Scale
ext.obj text 3A 3A 22 30 0
bss 4B 4B 10 4B 1
rbit 50 A 2 0 1 8
This indicates that one of the files that the linker processed was called ext.obj. (This
can have been derived from C code or a source file called ext.s.)
This object file contained a text psect, as well as psects called bss and rbit.
The psect text was linked at address 3A and bss at address 4B. At first glance, this
seems to be a problem, given that text is 22 words long. However, they are in different
memory areas, as indicated by the space flag (0 for text and 1 for bss), and so they
do not occupy the same memory.
The psect rbit contains bit objects, and this can be confirmed by looking at the scale
value, which is 8. Again, at first glance it seems that there could be an issue with rbit
linked over the top of bss. Their space flags are the same, but since rbit contains bit
objects, its link address is in units of bits. The load address field of rbit psect displays
the link address converted to byte units, i.e., 50h/8 => Ah.
Underneath the object file list there can be a label COMMON. This shows the contribu-
tion to the program from program-wide psects, in particular that used by the compiled
stack.
6.4.2.3 PSECT INFORMATION LISTED BY CLASS

The next section in the map file shows the same psect information but grouped by the
psects’ class.
TOTAL Name Link Load Length
Under this are the class names followed by those psects which belong to this class (see
Section 5.2.9.3.3 “Class”). These psects are the same as those listed by module in the
above section; there is no new information contained in this section, just a different
presentation.

Linker
6.4.2.4 SEGMENT LISTING
The class listing in the map file is followed by a listing of segments. Typically this sec-
tion of the map file can be ignored by the user.
A segment is a conceptual grouping of contiguous psects in the same memory space,
and is used by the linker as an aid in psect placement. There is no segment assembler
directive and segments cannot be controlled in any way.
SEGMENTS Name Load Length Top Selector Space Class
The name of a segment is derived from the psect in the contiguous group with the low-
est link address. This can lead to confusion with the psect with the same name. Do not
read psect information from this section of the map file.
Again, this section of the map file can be ignored.
6.4.2.5 UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES

The last of the memory summaries show the memory that has not been allocated, and
is unused. The linker is aware of any memory allocated by the code generator (for
absolute variables), and so this free space is accurate.
This section follows the heading:
UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES
and is followed by a list of classes and the memory that is still available in each class.
If there is more than one memory range available in a class, each range is printed on
a separate line. Any paging boundaries located within a class are not displayed. But,
the column Largest block shows the largest contiguous free space (which takes into
account any paging in the memory range). If you are looking to see why psects cannot
be placed into memory (e.g., cant-find-space type errors) then this is important infor-
mation to study.
Note that the memory associated with a class can overlap that in others, thus the total
free space is not simply the addition of all the unused ranges.

6.4.2.6 SYMBOL TABLE
The next section in the map file alphabetically lists the global symbols that the program
defines. This section has the heading:
Symbol Table
As always with the linker, any C-derived symbol is shown with its assembler-equivalent
symbol name (see Section 4.12.3 “Interaction between Assembly and C Code”).
The symbols listed in this table are:
• Global assembly labels
• Global EQU /SET assembler directive labels
• Linker-defined symbols
Assembly symbols are made global via the GLOBAL assembler directive, see
Section 5.2.9.1 “GLOBAL” for more information.
Linker-defined symbols act like EQU directives. However, they are defined by the linker
during the link process, and no definition for them appears in any source or
intermediate file (see Section 4.15.6 “Linker-Defined Symbols”).
Each symbol is shown with the psect in which it is defined and the value (usually an
address) it has been assigned. There is not any information encoded into a symbol to
indicate whether it represents code or data – nor in which memory space it resides.
If the psect of a symbol is shown as (abs), this implies that the symbol is not directly
associated with a psect. Such is the case for absolute C variables, or any symbols that
are defined using an EQU directive in assembly.
Note that a symbol table is also shown in each assembler list file. (See
Section 3.7.10 “Mapped Assembler Options” for information on generating these files.)
These differ to that shown in the map file as they also list local symbols, and they only
show symbols defined in the corresponding module.
6.4.2.7 FUNCTION INFORMATION

Following the symbol table is information relating to each function in the program. This
information is identical to the function information displayed in the assembly list file.
However, the information from all functions is collated in the one location. See
Section 5.4.3 “Function Information” for detailed descriptions of this information.
6.4.2.8 MODULE INFORMATION

The final section in the map file shows code usage summaries for each module. Each
module in the program will show information similar to the following.
Module Function Class Link Load Size
main.c
init CODE 07D8 0000 1
main CODE 07E5 0000 13
getInput CODE 07D9 0000 4
main.c estimated size: 18

The module name is listed (main.c in the above example). The special module name
shared is used for data objects allocated to program memory and to code that is not
specific to any particular module.
Next, the user-defined and library functions defined by each module are listed along
with the class in which that psect is located (see Section 4.15.2 “Default Linker
Classes”), the psect’s link and load address, and its size (shown as bytes for PIC18
devices and words for other 8-bit devices).
After the function list is an estimated size of the program memory used by that module.

Chapter 7. Utilities
7.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses some of the utility applications that are bundled with the
compiler.
The applications discussed in this chapter are those more commonly used, but you do
not typically need to execute them directly. Most of their features are invoked indirectly
by the command line driver that is based on the command-line arguments or MPLAB
X IDE project property selections.
The following applications are described in this chapter of the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler
User’s Guide:
• Librarian
• HEXMATE
• Hash Functions

7.2 LIBRARIAN
The librarian program, xc8-ar, has the function of combining several intermediate files
into a single file, known as a library or archive file. Libraries are easier to manage and
might consume less disk space that the individual files.
The librarian can build all library types needed by the compiler and can detect the for-
mat of existing libraries.
7.2.1 Using the Librarian

The librarian program is called xc8-ar, and has the following basic command format:
xc8-ar [options] file.a [file1.p1 file2.p1...]
where file.a represents the library being created or edited. The following files, if
required, are the modules of the library that is required by the command specified.
The options is zero or more options, shown in Table 7-1, that control the program.
TABLE 7-1: LIBRARIAN COMMAND-LINE OPTIONS

Option Effect
-d Delete module
-m Re-order modules
-p List modules
-r Replace modules
-x Extract modules
--target Specify target device
When replacing or extracting modules, the names of the modules to be replaced or

extracted must be specified. If no names are supplied, all the modules in the library will
be replaced or extracted respectively.
Creating a library file or adding a file to an existing library is performed by requesting
the librarian to replace the module in the library. Since the module is not present, it will
be appended to the library. The librarian creates libraries with the modules in the order
in which they were given on the command line. When updating a library, the order of
the modules is preserved. Any modules added to a library will be appended to the end.
The ordering of the modules in a library is significant to the linker. If a library contains
a module that references a symbol defined in another module in the same library, the
module defining the symbol should come after the module referencing the symbol.
When using the -d option, the specified modules will be deleted from the library. In this
instance, it is an error not to supply any module names.
The -p option will list the modules within the library file.
The -m option takes a list of module names and re-orders the matching modules in the
library file so that they have the same order as the one listed on the command line.
Modules that are not listed are left in their existing order, and will appear after the
re-ordered modules.
7.2.1.1 EXAMPLES
Here are some examples of usage of the librarian. The following command:
xc8-ar -r myPicLib.a ctime.p1 init.p1
creates a library called myPicLib.a that contains the modules ctime.p1 and
init.p1
The following command deletes the object module a.p1 from the library lcd.a:
xc8-ar -d lcd.a a.p1

Utilities
7.3 HEXMATE
The hexmate utility is a program designed to manipulate Intel HEX files. hexmate is a
post-link stage utility that is automatically invoked by the compiler driver, and that
provides the facility to:
• Calculate and store variable-length hash values
• Fill unused memory locations with known data sequences
• Merge multiple Intel HEX files into one output file
• Convert INHX32 files to other INHX formats (e.g., INHX8M)
• Detect specific or partial opcode sequences within a HEX file
• Find/replace specific or partial opcode sequences
• Provide a map of addresses used in a HEX file
• Change or fix the length of data records in a HEX file
• Validate checksums within Intel HEX files.
Typical applications for hexmate might include:
• Merging a bootloader or debug module into a main application at build time
• Calculating a checksum or CRC value over a range of program memory and
storing its value in program memory or EEPROM
• Filling unused memory locations with an instruction to send the PC to a known
location if it gets lost
• Storage of a serial number at a fixed address
• Storage of a string (e.g., time stamp) at a fixed address
• Store initial values at a particular memory address (e.g., initialize EEPROM)
• Detecting usage of a buggy/restricted instruction
• Adjusting HEX file to meet requirements of particular bootloaders
7.3.1 hexmate Command Line Options

hexmate is automatically called by the command line driver, xc8-cc. This is primarily
to merge HEX files in with the output generated by the source files. However, there are
some xc8-cc options which map directly to hexmate options. Other functionality can
be requested without running hexmate on the command line explicitly. For other func-
tionality, the following sections detail the options that are available when running this
application.
If hexmate is to be run directly, its usage is:
hexmate [specs,]file1.hex [... [specs,]fileN.hex] [options]
where file1.hex through to fileN.hex form a list of input Intel HEX files to merge
using hexmate.

If only one HEX file is specified, no merging takes place, but other functionality is
specified by additional options. Table 7-2 lists the command line options that hexmate
accepts.
TABLE 7-2: HEXMATE COMMAND-LINE OPTIONS

Option Effect
--EDF Specify the message description file
--EMAX Set the maximum number of permitted errors before terminating
--MSGDISABLE Disable messages with the numbers specified
--SLA Set the start linear address for type 5 records
--VER Display version and build information then quit
-ADDRESSING Set address fields in all hexmate options to use word addressing or
other
-BREAK Break continuous data so that a new record begins at a set address.
-CK Calculate and store a value.
-FILL Program unused locations with a known value.
-FIND Search and notify if a particular code sequence is detected.
-FIND...,DELETE Remove the code sequence if it is detected (use with caution).
-FIND...,REPLACE Replace the code sequence with a new code sequence.
-FORMAT Specify maximum data record length or select INHX variant.
-HELP Show all options or display help message for specific option.
-LOGFILE Save hexmate analysis of output and various results to a file.
-MASK Logically AND a memory range with a bitmask
-Ofile Specify the name of the output file.
-SERIAL Store a serial number or code sequence at a fixed address.
-SIZE Report the number of bytes of data contained in the resultant HEX
image.
-STRING Store an ASCII string at a fixed address.
-STRPACK Store an ASCII string at a fixed address using string packing.
-W Adjust warning sensitivity.
+ Prefix to any option to overwrite other data in its address range, if
necessary.
If you are using the driver, xc8, to compile your project (or the IDE), a log file is
produced by default. It will have the project’s name and the extension .hxl.
The input parameters to hexmate are now discussed in detail. The format or assumed
radix of values associated with options are described with each option. Note that any
address fields specified in these options are to be entered as byte addresses, unless
specified otherwise in the -ADDRESSING option.

Utilities
7.3.1.1 SPECIFICATIONS,FILENAME.HEX
hexmate can process Intel HEX files that use either INHX32 or INHX8M format. Addi-
tional specifications can be applied to each HEX file to place restrictions or conditions
on how this file should be processed.
If any specifications are used, they must precede the filename. The list of specifications
will then be separated from the filename by a comma.
A range restriction can be applied with the specification rStart-End, where Start
and End are both assumed to be hexadecimal values. A range restriction will cause
only the address data falling within this range to be used. For example:
r100-1FF,myfile.hex
will use myfile.hex as input, but only process data which is addressed within the
range 100h-1FFh (inclusive) from that file.
An address shift can be applied with the specification sOffset. If an address shift is
used, data read from this HEX file will be shifted (by the offset specified) to a new
address when generating the output. The offset can be either positive or negative. For
example:
r100-1FFs2000,myfile.HEX
will shift the block of data from 100h-1FFh to the new address range 2100h-21FFh.
Be careful when shifting sections of executable code. Program code should only be
shifted if it is position independent.
7.3.1.2 + PREFIX
When the + operator precedes an argument or input file, the data obtained from that
source will be forced into the output file and will overwrite another other data existing
at that address range. For example:
+input.HEX +-STRING@1000=”My string”
Ordinarily, hexmate will issue an error if two sources try to store differing data at the
same location. Using the + operator informs hexmate that if more than one data source
tries to store data to the same address, the one specified with a + prefix will take priority.
7.3.1.3 --EDF
This option must be used to have warning and hexmate error messages correctly dis-
played. The argument should be the full path to the message file to use when executing
hexmate. The message files are located in the MPLAB XC8 compiler’s pic/dat direc-
tory (e.g., the English language file is called en_msgs.txt).
7.3.1.4 --EMAX
This option sets the maximum number of errors hexmate will display before execution
is terminated, e.g., --EMAX=25. By default, up to 20 error messages will be displayed.
7.3.1.5 --MSGDISABLE
This option allows error, warning or advisory messages to be disabled during execution
of hexmate.
The option is passed a comma-separated list of message numbers that are to be dis-
abled. Any error message numbers in this list are ignored unless they are followed by
an :off argument. If the message list is specified as 0, then all warnings are disabled.
(See Section 3.6 “Compiler Messages” for more information on the messaging
system.)

7.3.1.6 --SLA
This option allows you to specify the linear start address for type 5 records in the Hex
output file, e.g., --SLA=0x10000.
7.3.1.7 --VER
This option will ask hexmate to print version and build information and then quit.
7.3.1.8 -ADDRESSING
By default, all address arguments in hexmate options expect that values will be entered
as byte addresses. In some device architectures, the native addressing format can be
something other than byte addressing. In these cases, it would be much simpler to be
able to enter address-components in the device’s native format. To facilitate this, the
-ADDRESSING option is used.
This option takes one parameter that configures the number of bytes contained per
address location. If, for example, a device’s program memory naturally used a 16-bit (2
byte) word-addressing format, the option -ADDRESSING=2 will configure hexmate to
interpret all command line address fields as word addresses. The affect of this setting
is global and all hexmate options will now interpret addresses according to this setting.
This option will allow specification of addressing modes from one byte per address to
four bytes per address.
7.3.1.9 -BREAK
This option takes a comma-separated list of addresses. If any of these addresses are
encountered in the HEX file, the current data record will conclude and a new data
record will recommence from the nominated address. This can be useful to use new
data records to force a distinction between functionally different areas of program
space. Some HEX file readers depend on this.
7.3.1.10 -CK
The -CK option is for calculating a hash value. The usage of this option is:
-CK=start-end@dest [+offset][wWidth][tCode][gAlgorithm][pPolynomial]
where:
• start and end specify the address range over which the hash will be calculated.
If these addresses are not a multiple of the algorithm width, the value zero will be
padded into the relevant input word locations that are missing.
• dest is the address where the hash result will be stored. This value cannot be
within the range of calculation.
• offset is an optional initial value to be used in the calculations.
• Width is optional and specifies the byte-width of the result. Results can be calcu-
lated for byte-widths of 1 to 4 bytes. If a positive width is requested, the result will
be stored in big-endian byte order. A negative width will cause the result to be
stored in little-endian byte order. If the width is left unspecified, the result will be 2
bytes wide and stored in little-endian byte order. This width argument is not used if
you have selected any Fletcher algorithm.
• Code is a hexadecimal code that will trail each byte in the result. This can allow
each byte of the hash result to be embedded within an instruction.
• Algorithm is an integer to select which hexmate hash algorithm to use to calcu-
late the result. A list of selectable algorithms is provided in Table 7-3. If
unspecified, the default algorithm used is 8-bit checksum addition (1).
• Polynomial is a hexadecimal value which is the polynomial to be used if you
have selected a CRC algorithm.

Utilities
All numerical arguments are assumed to be hexadecimal values, except for the
algorithm selector and result width, which are assumed to be decimal values.
A typical example of the use of the checksum option is:
-CK=0-1FFF@2FFE+2100w2g2
This will calculate a checksum over the range 0 to 0x1FFF and program the checksum
result at address 0x2FFE. The checksum value will be offset by 0x2100. The result will
be two bytes wide.
TABLE 7-3: HEXMATE HASH ALGORITHM SELECTION

Selector Algorithm Description
-5 Reflected cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
5 Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
See Section 7.3.2 “Hash Functions” for more details about the algorithms that are used
to calculate checksums.

7.3.1.11 -FILL
The -FILL option is used for filling unused memory locations with a known value. The
usage of this option is:
-FILL=[const_width:]fill_expr@address[:end_address]
where:
• const_width has the form wn and signifies the width (n bytes) of each constant
in fill_expr. If const_width is not specified, the default value is two bytes.
That is, -FILL=w1:1 with fill every unused byte with the value 0x01.
• fill_expr can use the syntax (where const and increment are n-byte
constants):
- const fill memory with a repeating constant; i.e., -FILL=0xBEEF becomes
0xBEEF, 0xBEEF, 0xBEEF, 0xBEEF
- const+=increment fill memory with an incrementing constant; i.e.,
-FILL=0xBEEF+=1 becomes 0xBEEF, 0xBEF0, 0xBEF1, 0xBEF2
- const-=increment fill memory with a decrementing constant; i.e.,
-FILL=0xBEEF-=0x10 becomes 0xBEEF, 0xBEDF, 0xBECF, 0xBEBF
- const,const,...,const fill memory with a list of repeating constants; i.e.,
-FILL=0xDEAD,0xBEEF becomes 0xDEAD,0xBEEF,0xDEAD,0xBEEF
• The options following fill_expr result in the following behavior:
- @address fill a specific address with fill_expr; i.e.,
-FILL=0xBEEF@0x1000 puts 0xBEEF at address 1000h. If the fill value is
wider than the addressing value specified with -ADDRESSING, then only part
of the fill value is placed in the output. For example, if the addressing is set to
1, the option above will place 0xEF at address 0x1000 and a warning will be
issued.
- @address:end_address fill a range of memory with fill_expr; i.e.,
-FILL=0xBEEF@0:0xFF puts 0xBEEF in unused addresses between 0 and
255. If the address range (multiplied by the -ADDRESSING value) is not a mul-
tiple of the fill value width, the final location will only use part of the fill value,
and a warning will be issued.
The fill values are word-aligned so they start on an address that is a multiple of the fill
width. Should the fill value be an instruction opcode, this alignment ensures that the
instruction can be executed correctly.
All constants can be expressed in (unsigned) binary, octal, decimal or hexadecimal, as
per normal C syntax, for example, 1234 is a decimal value, 0xFF00 is hexadecimal and
FF00 is illegal.

Utilities
7.3.1.12 -FIND
This option is used to detect and log occurrences of an opcode or partial code
sequence. The usage of this option is:
-FIND=Findcode [mMask]@Start-End [/Align][w][t”Title”]
where:
• Findcode is the hexadecimal code sequence to search for and is entered in little
endian byte order.
• Mask is optional. It specifies a bit mask applied over the Findcode value to allow
a less restrictive search. It is entered in little endian byte order.
• Start and End limit the address range to search.
• Align is optional. It specifies that a code sequence can only match if it begins on
an address that is a multiple of this value.
• w, if present, will cause hexmate to issue a warning whenever the code sequence
is detected.
• Title is optional. It allows a title to be given to this code sequence. Defining a
title will make log-reports and messages more descriptive and more readable. A
title will not affect the actual search results.
All numerical arguments are assumed to be hexadecimal values.
Here are some examples.
The option -FIND=3412@0-7FFF/2w will detect the code sequence 1234h when
aligned on a 2 (two) byte address boundary, between 0h and 7FFFh. w indicates that
a warning will be issued each time this sequence is found.
In this next example, -FIND=3412M0F00@0-7FFF/2wt”ADDXY”, the option is the
same as in last example but the code sequence being matched is masked with 000Fh,
so hexmate will search for any of the opcodes 123xh, where x is any digit. If a
byte-mask is used, is must be of equal byte-width to the opcode it is applied to. Any
messaging or reports generated by hexmate will refer to this opcode by the name,
ADDXY, as this was the title defined for this search.
If hexmate is generating a log file, it will contain the results of all searches. -FIND
accepts whole bytes of HEX data from 1 to 8 bytes in length. Optionally, -FIND can be
used in conjunction with REPLACE or DELETE (as described below).
7.3.1.13 -FIND...,DELETE
If the DELETE form of the -FIND option is used, any matching sequences will be
removed. This function should be used with extreme caution and is not normally
recommended for removal of executable code.
7.3.1.14 -FIND...,REPLACE
If the REPLACE form of the -FIND option is used, any matching sequences will be
replaced, or partially replaced, with new codes. The usage for this sub-option is:
-FIND...,REPLACE=Code [mMask]
where:
• Code is a little endian hexadecimal code to replace the sequences that match the
-FIND criteria.
• Mask is an optional bit mask to specify which bits within Code will replace the
code sequence that has been matched. This can be useful if, for example, it is
only necessary to modify 4 bits within a 16-bit instruction. The remaining 12 bits
can masked and left unchanged.

7.3.1.15 -FORMAT
The -FORMAT option can be used to specify a particular variant of INHX format or
adjust maximum record length. The usage of this option is:
-FORMAT=Type [,Length]
where:
• Type specifies a particular INHX format to generate.
• Length is optional and sets the maximum number of bytes per data record. A
valid length is between 1 and 16 decimal, with 16 being the default.
Consider the case of a bootloader trying to download an INHX32 file, which fails
because it cannot process the extended address records that are part of the INHX32
standard. You know that this bootloader can only program data addressed within the
range 0 to 64k, and that any data in the HEX file outside of this range can be safely
disregarded. In this case, by generating the HEX file in INHX8M format the operation
might succeed. The hexmate option to do this would be -FORMAT=INHX8M.
Now, consider if the same bootloader also required every data record to contain exactly
8 bytes of data. This is possible by combining the -FORMAT with -FILL options. Appro-
priate use of -FILL can ensure that there are no gaps in the data for the address range
being programmed. This will satisfy the minimum data length requirement. To set the
maximum length of data records to 8 bytes, just modify the previous option to become
-FORMAT=INHX8M,8.
The possible types that are supported by this option are listed in Table 7-4. Note that
INHX032 is not an actual INHX format. Selection of this type generates an INHX32 file,
but will also initialize the upper address information to zero. This is a requirement of
some device programmers.
TABLE 7-4: INHX TYPES USED IN -FORMAT OPTION

Type Description
INHX8M cannot program addresses beyond 64K

INHX32 can program addresses beyond 64K with extended linear address records
INHX032 INHX32 with initialization of upper address to zero
7.3.1.16 -HELP
Using -HELP will list all hexmate options. Entering another hexmate option as a param-
eter of -HELP will show a detailed help message for the given option. For example:
-HELP=string
will show additional help for the -STRING hexmate option.
7.3.1.17 -LOGFILE
The -LOGFILE option saves HEX file statistics to the named file. For example:
-LOGFILE=output.hxl
will analyze the HEX file that hexmate is generating, and save a report to a file named
output.hxl.

Utilities
7.3.1.18 -MASK
Use this option to logically AND a memory range with a particular bitmask. This is used
to ensure that the unimplemented bits in program words (if any) are left blank. The
usage of this option is as follows:
-MASK=hexcode@start-end
where hexcode is a value that will be ANDed with data within the start to end
address range. All values are assumed to be hexadecimal. Multibyte mask values can
be entered in little endian byte order.
7.3.1.19 -OFILE
The generated Intel HEX output will be created in this file. For example:
-Oprogram.hex
will save the resultant output to program.hex. The output file can take the same name
as one of its input files; but, by doing so, it will replace the input file entirely.
7.3.1.20 -SERIAL
This option will store a particular HEX value sequence at a fixed address. The usage
of this option is:
-SERIAL=Code [+/-Increment]@Address [+/-Interval][rRepetitions]
where:
• Code is a hexadecimal sequence to store. The first byte specified is stored at the
lowest address.
• Increment is optional and allows the value of Code to change by this value with
each repetition (if requested).
• Address is the location to store this code, or the first repetition thereof.
• Interval is optional and specifies the address shift per repetition of this code.
• Repetitions is optional and specifies the number of times to repeat this code.
All numerical arguments are assumed to be hexadecimal values, except for the
Repetitions argument, which is decimal value by default.
For example:
-SERIAL=000001@EFFE
will store HEX code 00001h to address EFFEh.
Another example:
-SERIAL=0000+2@1000+10r5
will store 5 codes, beginning with value 0000 at address 1000h. Subsequent codes
will appear at address intervals of +10h and the code value will change in increments
of +2h.
7.3.1.21 -SIZE
Using the -SIZE option will report the number of bytes of data within the resultant HEX
image to standard output. The size will also be recorded in the log file if one has been
requested.

7.3.1.22 -STRING
The -STRING option will embed an ASCII string at a fixed address. The usage of this
option is:
-STRING@Address [tCode]=”Text”
where:
• Address is assumed to be a hexadecimal value representing the address at
which the string will be stored.
• Code is optional and allows a byte sequence to trail each byte in the string. This
can allow the bytes of the string to be encoded within an instruction.
• Text is the string to convert to ASCII and embed.
For example:
-STRING@1000=”My favorite string”
will store the ASCII data for the string, My favorite string (including the null
character terminator), at address 1000h.
And again:
-STRING@1000t34=”My favorite string”
will store the same string, trailing every byte in the string with the HEX code 34h.
7.3.1.23 -STRPACK
This option performs the same function as -STRING, but with two important differ-
ences. First, only the lower seven bits from each character are stored. Pairs of 7-bit
characters are then concatenated and stored as a 14-bit word rather than in separate
bytes. This is known as string packing. This is usually only useful for devices where pro-
gram space is addressed as 14-bit words (PIC10/12/16 devices). The second
difference is that -STRING’s t specifier is not applicable with the -STRPACK option.
7.3.2 Hash Functions

A hash value is a small fixed-size value that is calculated from, and used to represent,
all the values in an arbitrary-sized block of data. If that data block is copied, a hash
recalculated from the new block can be compared to the original hash. Agreement
between the two hashes provides a high level of certainty that the copy is valid. There
are many hash algorithms. More complex algorithms provide a more robust verification,
but could use too many resources when used in an embedded environment.
hexmate can be used to calculate the hash of a program image that is contained in a
HEX file built by the MPLAB XC8 compiler. This hash can be embedded into that HEX
file and burned into the target device along with the program image. At runtime, the tar-
get device might be able to run a similar hash algorithm over the program image, now
stored in its memory. If the stored and calculated hashes are the same, the embedded
program can assume that it has a valid program image to execute.
hexmate implements several checksum and cyclic redundancy check algorithms to cal-
culate the hash. If you are using the XC8 C Compiler driver or MPLAB X IDE to perform
project builds, the driver’s -mchecksum option (see 3.7.1.2 checksum) will instruct the
driver to invoke hexmate and pass it the appropriate hexmate options. If you are driving
hexmate explicitly, the option to select the algorithm is described in
Section 7.3.1.10 “-CK”. In the discussion of the algorithms below, it is assumed you are
using the compiler driver to request a checksum or CRC.
Some consideration is required when program images contain unused memory loca-
tions. The driver’s -mchecksum option automatically requests that hexmate fill unused
memory locations to match unprogrammed device memory. You might need to mimic
this action if invoking hexmate explicitly.

Utilities
Although hexmate will work with any PIC device, not all devices can read the entire
width of their program memory. Thus some devices cannot calculate a hash at runtime
from memory containing instructions, and the code examples in the following sections
are not usable with all devices.
The following sections provide examples of the algorithms that can be used to calculate
the hash at runtime.
7.3.3 Addition Algorithms

hexmate has several simple checksum algorithms that sum data values over a range
in the program image. These algorithms correspond to the selector values 1, 2, 3, and
4 in the algorithm suboption and read the data in the program image as 1, 2, 3 or 4
byte quantities, respectively. This summation is added to an initial value (offset) that is
supplied to the algorithm via the same option. The width to which the final checksum is
truncated is also specified by this option and can be 1, 2, 3, or 4 bytes. hexmate will
automatically store the checksum in the HEX file at the address specified in the
checksum option.
The function shown below can be customized to work with any combination of data size
(readType) and checksum width (resultType).
typedef unsigned char readType; // size of data values read and summed
typedef unsigned int resultType; // size of checksum result
// add to offset n additions of values starting at address data,

// truncating and returning the result
// data: the address of the first value to sum
// n: the number of sums to perform
// offset: the intial value to which the sum is added
resultType ck_add(const readType *data, unsigned n, resultType offset)
{
resultType chksum;
chksum = offset;
while(n--) {
chksum += *data;
data++;
}
return chksum;
}
The readType and resultType type definitions should be adjusted to suit the data
read/sum width and checksum result width, respectively. When using MPLAB XC8 and
for a size of 1, use a char type; for a size of 4, use a long type, etc., or consider using
the exact-width types provided by <stdint.h>. If you never use an offset, that param-
eter can be removed and chksum assigned 0 before the loop.
Here is how this function might be used when, for example, a 2-byte-wide checksum is
to be calculated from the addition of 1-byte-wide values over the address range 0x100
to 0x7fd, starting with an offset of 0x20. The checksum is to be stored at 0x7fe and 0x7ff
in little endian format. The following option is specified when building the project. (In
MPLAB X IDE, only enter the information to the right of the first = in the Checksum field
in the Additional options Option category in the XC8 Linker category.)
-mchecksum=100-7fd@7fe,offset=20,algorithm=1,width=-2
Into your project, add the following code snippet, which calls ck_add, above, and
compare the runtime checksum with that stored by hexmate at compile time.
extern const readType ck_range[0x6fe/sizeof(readType)] @ 0x100;
extern const resultType hexmate @ 0x7fe;
resultType result;

result = ck_add(ck_range, sizeof(ck_range)/sizeof(readType), 0x20);

if(result != hexmate)
ck_failure(); // take appropriate action
This code uses the placeholder array, ck_range, to represent the memory over which
the checksum is calculated, and the variable hexmate is mapped over the locations
where hexmate will have stored its checksum result. Being extern and absolute, nei-
ther of these objects consume additional device memory. Adjust the addresses and
sizes of these objects to match the option you pass to hexmate.
hexmate can calculate a checksum over any address range; however, the test function,
ck_add, assumes that the start and end address of the range being summed are a mul-
tiple of the readType width. (Clearly this is a non-issue if the size of readType is 1.)
It is recommended that your checksum specification adheres to this assumption, oth-
erwise you will need to modify the test code to perform partial reads of the starting
and/or ending data values. This will significantly increase the code complexity.

Utilities
7.3.4 Subtraction Algorithms

hexmate has several checksum algorithms that subtract data values over a range in
the program image. These algorithms correspond to the selector values -1, -2, -3, and
-4 in the algorithm suboption and read the data in the program image as 1-, 2-, 3- or
4-byte quantities, respectively. In other respects, these algorithms are identical to the
addition algorithms described in Section 7.3.3 “Addition Algorithms”.
The function shown below can be customized to work with any combination of data size
(readType) and checksum width (resultType).
typedef unsigned char readType; // size of data values read and summed
typedef unsigned int resultType; // size of checksum result
// add to offset n subtractions of values starting at address data,

// truncating and returning the result
// data: the address of the first value to subtract
// n: the number of subtractions to perform
// offset: the intial value to which the subtraction is added
resultType ck_sub(const readType *data, unsigned n, resultType offset)
{
resultType chksum;
chksum = offset;
while(n--) {
chksum -= *data;
data++;
}
return chksum;
}
Here is how this function might be used when, for example, a 4-byte-wide checksum is
to be calculated from the addition of 2-byte-wide values over the address range 0x0 to
0x7fd, starting with an offset of 0x0. The checksum is to be stored at 0x7fe and 0x7ff in
little endian format. The following option is specified when building the project. (In
MPLAB X IDE, only enter the information to the right of the first = in the Checksum field
in the Additional options Option category in the XC8 Linker category.)
-mchecksum=0-7fd@7fe,offset=0,algorithm=-2,width=-4
Into your project add the following code snippet, which calls ck_sub, above, and
compare the runtime checksum with that stored by hexmate at compile time.
extern const readType ck_range[0x7fe/sizeof(readType)] @ 0x0;
extern const resultType hexmate @ 0x7fe;
resultType result;
result = ck_sub(ck_range, sizeof(ck_range)/sizeof(readType), 0x0);

if(result != hexmate)
ck_failure(); // take appropriate action

7.3.5 Fletcher Algorithms

hexmate has several algorithms that implement Fletcher’s checksum. These algo-
rithms are more complex, providing a robustness approaching that of a cyclic redun-
dancy check, but with less computational effort. There are two forms of this algorithm,
which correspond to the selector values 7 and 8 in the algorithm suboption, and
which implement a 1-byte calculation and 2-byte result, and a 2-byte calculation and
4-byte result, respectively. hexmate will automatically store the checksum in the HEX
file at the address specified in the checksum option.
The function shown below performs a 1-byte-wide addition and produces a 2-byte
result.
unsigned int
fletcher8(const unsigned char * data, unsigned int n )
{
unsigned int sum = 0xff, sumB = 0xff;
unsigned char tlen;
while (n) {
tlen = n > 20 ? 20 : n;
n -= tlen;
do {
sumB += sum += *data++;
} while (--tlen);
sum = (sum & 0xff) + (sum >> 8);
sumB = (sumB & 0xff) + (sumB >> 8);
}
sum = (sum & 0xff) + (sum >> 8);
sumB = (sumB & 0xff) + (sumB >> 8);
return sumB << 8 | sum;

}
This code can be called in a manner similar to that shown for the addition algorithms
(see Section 7.3.3 “Addition Algorithms”).
The code for the 2-byte-addition Fletcher algorithm, producing a 4-byte result is shown
below.
unsigned long
fletcher16(const unsigned int * data, unsigned n)
{
unsigned long sum = 0xffff, sumB = 0xffff;
unsigned tlen;
while (n) {
tlen = n > 359 ? 359 : n;
n -= tlen;
do {
sumB += sum += *data++;
} while (--tlen);
sum = (sum & 0xffff) + (sum >> 16);
sumB = (sumB & 0xffff) + (sumB >> 16);
}
sum = (sum & 0xffff) + (sum >> 16);
sumB = (sumB & 0xffff) + (sumB >> 16);
return sumB << 16 | sum;

}

Utilities
7.3.6 CRC Algorithms

hexmate has several algorithms that implement the robust cyclic redundancy checks
(CRC). There is a choice of two algorithms that correspond to the selector values 5 and
-5 in the algorithm suboption to -mchecksum, and that implement a CRC calculation
and reflected CRC calculation, respectively. The reflected algorithm works on the least
significant bit of the data first. The polynomial to be used and the initial value can be
specified in the option. hexmate will automatically store the CRC result in the HEX file
at the address specified in the checksum option.
The function shown below can be customized to work with any result width
(resultType). It calculates a CRC hash value using the polynomial specified by the
POLYNOMIAL macro.
typedef unsigned int resultType;
#define POLYNOMIAL 0x1021
#define WIDTH (8 * sizeof(resultType))
#define MSb ((resultType)1 << (WIDTH - 1))
resultType
crc(const unsigned char * data, unsigned n, resultType remainder) {
unsigned pos;
unsigned char bitp;
for (pos = 0; pos != n; pos++) {

remainder ^= ((resultType)data[pos] << (WIDTH - 8));
for (bitp = 8; bitp > 0; bitp--) {
if (remainder & MSb) {
remainder = (remainder << 1) ^ POLYNOMIAL;
} else {
remainder <<= 1;
}
}
}
return remainder;
}
The resultType type definition should be adjusted to suit the result width. When
using MPLAB XC8 and for a size of 1, use a char type; for a size of 4, use a long type,
etc., or consider using the exact-width types provided by <stdint.h>.
Here is how this function might be used when, for example, a 2-byte-wide CRC hash
value is to be calculated values over the address range 0x0 to 0xFF, starting with an
initial value of 0xFFFF. The result is to be stored at 0x100 and 0x101 in little endian
format. The following option is specified when building the project. (In MPLAB X IDE,
only enter the information to the right of the first = in the Checksum field in the Addi-
tional options Option category in the XC8 Linker category.)
-mchecksum=0-FF@100,offset=0xFFFF,algorithm=5,width=-2,polynomial=0x1021

Into your project, add the following code snippet, which calls crc(), above, and
compares the runtime hash result with that stored by hexmate at compile time.
extern const unsigned char ck_range[0x100] @ 0x0;
extern const resultType hexmate @ 0x100;
resultType result;
result = crc(ck_range, sizeof(ck_range), 0xFFFF));

if(result != hexmate){
// something’s not right, take appropriate action
ck_failure();
}
// data verifies okay, continue with the program
The reflected CRC result can be calculated by reflecting the input data and final result,
or by reflecting the polynomial. The functions shown below can be customized to work
with any result width (resultType). The crc_reflected_IO() function calculates
a reflected CRC hash value by reflecting the data stream bit positions. The
crc_reflected_poly() function does not adjust the data stream but reflects
instead the polynomial, which in both functions is specified by the POLYNOMIAL macro.
Both functions use the reflect() function to perform bit reflection.
typedef unsigned int resultType;
typedef unsigned char readType;
typedef unsigned int reflectWidth;
// This is the polynomial used by the CRC-16 algorithm we are using.

#define POLYNOMIAL 0x1021
#define WIDTH (8 * sizeof(resultType))

#define MSb ((resultType)1 << (WIDTH - 1))
#define LSb (1)
#define REFLECT_DATA(X) ((readType) reflect((X), 8))

#define REFLECT_REMAINDER(X) (reflect((X), WIDTH))
reflectWidth
reflect(reflectWidth data, unsigned char nBits)
{
reflectWidth reflection = 0;
reflectWidth reflectMask = (reflectWidth)1 << nBits - 1;
unsigned char bitp;
for (bitp = 0; bitp != nBits; bitp++) {

if (data & 0x01) {
reflection |= reflectMask;
}
data >>= 1;
reflectMask >>= 1;
}
return reflection;
}

Utilities
resultType
crc_reflected_IO(const unsigned char * data, unsigned n, resultType
remainder) {
unsigned pos;
unsigned char reflected;
unsigned char bitp;

reflected = REFLECT_DATA(data[pos]);
remainder ^= ((resultType)reflected << (WIDTH - 8));

if (remainder & MSb) {
remainder = (remainder << 1) ^ POLYNOMIAL;
} else {
remainder <<= 1;
}
}
}
remainder = REFLECT_REMAINDER(remainder);
return remainder;
}
resultType
crc_reflected_poly(const unsigned char * data, unsigned n, resultType
remainder) {
unsigned pos;
unsigned char bitp;
resultType rpoly;
rpoly = reflect(POLYNOMIAL, WIDTH);

remainder ^= data[pos];

if (remainder & LSb) {
remainder = (remainder >> 1) ^ rpoly;
} else {
remainder >>= 1;
}
}
}
return remainder;
}
Here is how this function might be used when, for example, a 2-byte-wide reflected
CRC result is to be calculated over the address range 0x0 to 0xFF, starting with an ini-
tial value of 0xFFFF. The result is to be stored at 0x100 and 0x101 in little endian for-
mat. The following option is specified when building the project. (Note the algorithm
selected is negative 5 in this case.)
-mchecksum=0-FF@100,offset=0xFFFF,algorithm=-5,width=-2,polynomial=0x1021
In your project, call crc(), as shown previously.

NOTES:

Appendix A. Library Functions
A.1 INTRODUCTION
The functions, variables, types, and preprocessor macros defined by the standard
compiler library are summarized in this chapter, listed under the header file which
declares them.
TABLE A-1: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <ASSERT.H>

Name Definition
NDEBUG
__conditional_software_breakpoint __conditional_software_breakpoint(expression)
assert void assert(scalar expression)
TABLE A-2: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <CTYPE.H>

Name Definition
isalnum int isalnum(int c);
isalpha int isalpha(int c);
isblank int isblank(int c);
iscntrl int iscntrl(int c);
isdigit int isdigit(int c);
isgraph int isgraph(int c);
islower int islower(int c);
isprint int isprint(int c);
ispunct int ispunct(int c);
isspace int isspace(int c);
isupper int isupper(int c);
isxdigit int isxdigit(int c);
tolower int tolower(int c);
toupper int toupper(int c);
TABLE A-3: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <ERRNO.H>

Name Definition
EDOM
EILSEQ
ERANGE
errno

Those macros defined by <float.h>, below, that contain XXX are defined for float
and double types, and XXX can be either of FLT or DBL, respectively.
TABLE A-4: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <FLOAT.H>

Name Definition
FLT_RADIX 2
FLT_ROUNDS 1
FLT_EVAL_METHOD 0
DECIMAL_DIG 9
XXX_MAX 3.40282346639e+38
XXX_MIN 1.17549435082e-38
XXX_MIN_EXP -125
XXX_MIN_10_EXP -37
XXX_MAX_EXP 128
XXX_MAX_10_EXP 38
XXX_DIG 6
XXX_MANT_DIG 24
XXX_EPSILON 1.19209289551e-07
Those macros defined by <inttypes.h>, shown below, that contain PPP are defined
as the placeholder string for printing intmax_t and intptr_t types, and PPP can be
either of MAX or PTR, respectively. Those macros below that contain YYYY are defined
as the placeholder string for printing intn_t, intleastn_t and intfastn_t types
(where n is the size, in bytes, of the type) and YYYY can be either of <empty>, LEAST
or FAST, respectively. For example PRIdLEAST16 could be used as the placeholder
string for a value with int_least16_t type.
TABLE A-5: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY C99 <INTTYPES.H>

Name Definition
PRIdPPP
PRIdYYYYn
PRIiPPP
PRIiYYYYn
PRIoPPP
PRIoYYYYn
PRIuPPP
PRIuYYYYn
PRIxPPP
PRIxYYYYn
PRIXPPP
PRIXYYYYn
SCNdPPP
SCNdYYYYn
SCNiPPP
SCNiYYYYn
SCNoPPP
SCNoYYYYn
SCNuPPP

Library Functions
TABLE A-5: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY C99 <INTTYPES.H>
Name Definition
SCNuYYYYn
SCNxPPP
SCNxYYYYn
imaxdiv_t
imaxabs intmax_t imaxabs(intmax_t j);
imaxdiv imaxdiv_t imaxdiv(intmax_t numer, intmax_t denom);
strtoimax intmax_t strtoimax(const char * restrict nptr,
char ** restrict endptr, int base);
strtoumax uintmax_t strtoumax(const char * restrict nptr,
TABLE A-6: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY C99 <ISO646.H>

Name Definition
and &&
and_eq &=
bitand &
bitor |
compl ~
not !
not_eq !=
or ||
or_eq |=
xor ^
xor_eq ^=

The long long types are 64-bit C99 Standard types when building for PIC18 devices,
but when compiling to the C90 Standard or for any other device, this implementation
limits their size to only 32 bits.
TABLE A-7: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <LIMITS.H>

Name C99 PIC18 Definition All other Definitions
CHAR_BIT 8 8
CHAR_MAX 255 255
CHAR_MIN 0 0
SCHAR_MAX 127 127
SCHAR_MIN -128 -128
UCHAR_MAX 255 255
SHRT_MAX 32767 32767
SHRT_MIN -32768 -32768
USHRT_MAX 65535 65535
INT_MAX 32767 32767
INT_MIN -32768 -32768
UINT_MAX 65535 65535
SHRTLONG_MAX 8388607 8388607
SHRTLONG_MIN -8388608 -8388608
USHRTLONG_MAX 16777215 16777215
LONG_MAX 2147483647 2147483647
LONG_MIN -2147483648 -2147483648
ULONG_MAX 4294967295 4294967295
LLONG_MAX 9223372036854775807 2147483647
LLONG_MIN -9223372036854775808 -2147483648
ULLONG_MAX 18446744073709551615 4294967295
TABLE A-8: DECLARATIONS DEFINED BY <MATH.H>

Name Definition
HUGE_VAL
HUGE_VALF
HUGE_VALL
INFINITY
NAN
FP_INFINITE
FP_NAN
FP_NORMAL
FP_SUBNORMAL
FP_ZERO
FP_FAST_FMA
FP_FAST_FMAF
FP_FAST_FMAL

Library Functions
Name Definition
FP_ILOGB0
FP_ILOGBNAN
MATH_ERRNO
MATH_ERREXCEPT
math_errhandling
float_t
double_t
fpclassify int fpclassify(real-floating x);
isfinite int isfinite(real-floating x);
isinf int isinf(real-floating x);
isnan int isnan(real-floating x);
isnormal int isnormal(real-floating x);
signbit int signbit(real-floating x);
acos double acos(double x);
acosf float acosf(float x);
acosl long double acosl(long double x);
asin double asin(double x);
asinf float asinf(float x);
asinl long double asinl(long double x);
atan double atan(double x);
atanf float atanf(float x);
atanl long double atanl(long double x);
atan2 double atan2(double y, double x);
atan2f float atan2f(float y, float x);
atan2l long double atan2l(long double y, long double x);
cos double cos(double x);
cosf float cosf(float x);
cosl long double cosl(long double x);
sin double sin(double x);
sinf float sinf(float x);
sinl long double sinl(long double x);
tan double tan(double x);
tanf float tanf(float x);
tanl long double tanl(long double x);
acosh double acosh(double x);
acoshf float acoshf(float x);
acoshl long double acoshl(long double x);
asinh double asinh(double x);
asinhf float asinhf(float x);
asinhl long double asinhl(long double x);
atanh double atanh(double x);
atanhf float atanhf(float x);

Name Definition
atanhl long double atanhl(long double x);
cosh double cosh(double x);
coshf float coshf(float x);
coshl long double coshl(long double x);
sinh double sinh(double x);
sinhf float sinhf(float x);
sinhl long double sinhl(long double x);
tanh double tanh(double x);
tanhf float tanhf(float x);
tanhl long double tanhl(long double x);
exp double exp(double x);
expf float expf(float x);
expl long double expl(long double x);
exp2 double exp2(double x);
exp2f float exp2f(float x);
exp2l long double exp2l(long double x);
expm1 double expm1(double x);
expm1f float expm1f(float x);
expm1l long double expm1l(long double x);
frexp double frexp(double value, int *exp);
frexpf float frexpf(float value, int *exp);
frexpl long double frexpl(long double value, int *exp);
ilogb int ilogb(double x);
ilogbf int ilogbf(float x);
ilogbl int ilogbl(long double x);
ldexp double ldexp(double x, int exp);
ldexpf float ldexpf(float x, int exp);
ldexpl long double ldexpl(long double x, int exp);
log double log(double x);
logf float logf(float x);
logl long double logl(long double x);
log10 double log10(double x);
log10f float log10f(float x);
log10l long double log10l(long double x);
log1p double log1p(double x);
log1pf float log1pf(float x);
log1pl long double log1pl(long double x);
log2 double log2(double x);
log2f float log2f(float x);
log2l long double log2l(long double x);
logb double logb(double x);
logbf float logbf(float x);

Library Functions
Name Definition
logbl long double logbl(long double x);
modf double modf(double value, double *iptr);
modff float modff(float value, float *iptr);
modfl long double modfl(long double value, long double *iptr);
scalbn double scalbn(double x, int n);
scalbnf float scalbnf(float x, int n);
scalbnl long double scalbnl(long double x, int n);
scalbln double scalbln(double x, long int n);
scalblnf float scalblnf(float x, long int n);
scalblnl long double scalblnl(long double x, long int n);
cbrt double cbrt(double x);
cbrtf float cbrtf(float x);
cbrtl long double cbrtl(long double x);
fabs double fabs(double x);
fabsf float fabsf(float x);
fabsl long double fabsl(long double x);
hypot double hypot(double x, double y);
hypotf float hypotf(float x, float y);
hypotl long double hypotl(long double x, long double y);
pow double pow(double x, double y);
powf float powf(float x, float y);
powl long double powl(long double x, long double y);
sqrt double sqrt(double x);
sqrtf float sqrtf(float x);
sqrtl long double sqrtl(long double x);
erf double erf(double x);
erff float erff(float x);
erfl long double erfl(long double x);
erfc double erfc(double x);
erfcf float erfcf(float x);
erfcl long double erfcl(long double x);
lgamma double lgamma(double x);
lgammaf float lgammaf(float x);
lgammal long double lgammal(long double x);
tgamma double tgamma(double x);
tgammaf float tgammaf(float x);
tgammal long double tgammal(long double x);
ceil double ceil(double x);
ceilf float ceilf(float x);
ceill long double ceill(long double x);
floor double floor(double x);
floorf float floorf(float x);

Name Definition
floorl long double floorl(long double x);
nearbyint double nearbyint(double x);
nearbyintf float nearbyintf(float x);
nearbyintl long double nearbyintl(long double x);
rint double rint(double x);
rintf float rintf(float x);
rintl long double rintl(long double x);
lrint long int lrint(double x);
lrintf long int lrintf(float x);
lrintl long int lrintl(long double x);
llrint long long int llrint(double x);
llrintf long long int llrintf(float x);
llrintl long long int llrintl(long double x);
round double round(double x);
roundf float roundf(float x);
roundl long double roundl(long double x);
lround long int lround(double x);
lroundf long int lroundf(float x);
lroundl long int lroundl(long double x);
llround long long int llround(double x);
llroundf long long int llroundf(float x);
llroundl long long int llroundl(long double x);
trunc double trunc(double x);
truncf float truncf(float x);
truncl long double truncl(long double x);
fmod double fmod(double x, double y);
fmodf float fmodf(float x, float y);
fmodl long double fmodl(long double x, long double y);
remainder double remainder(double x, double y);
remainderf float remainderf(float x, float y);
remainderl long double remainderl(long double x, long double y);
remquo double remquo(double x, double y, int *quo);
remquof float remquof(float x, float y, int *quo);
remquol long double remquol(long double x, long double y,int *quo);
copysign double copysign(double x, double y);
copysignf float copysignf(float x, float y);
copysignl long double copysignl(long double x, long double y);
nan double nan(const char *tagp);
nanf float nanf(const char *tagp);
nanl long double nanl(const char *tagp);
nextafter double nextafter(double x, double y);
nextafterf float nextafterf(float x, float y);

Library Functions
Name Definition
nextafterl long double nextafterl(long double x, long double y);
nexttoward double nexttoward(double x, long double y);
nexttowardf float nexttowardf(float x, long double y);
nexttowardl long double nexttowardl(long double x, long double y);
fdim double fdim(double x, double y);
fdimf float fdimf(float x, float y);
fdiml long double fdiml(long double x, long double y);
fmax double fmax(double x, double y);
fmaxf float fmaxf(float x, float y);
fmaxl long double fmaxl(long double x, long double y);
fmin double fmin(double x, double y);
fminf float fminf(float x, float y);
fminl long double fminl(long double x, long double y);
fma double fma(double x, double y, double z);
fmaf float fmaf(float x, float y, float z);
fmal long double fmal(long double x, long double y, long double z);
isgreater int isgreater(real-floating x, real-floating y);
isgreaterequal int isgreaterequal(real-floating x, real-floating y);
isless int isless(real-floating x, real-floating y);
islessequal int islessequal(real-floating x, real-floating y);
islessgreater int islessgreater(real-floating x, real-floating y);
isunordered int isunordered(real-floating x, real-floating y);
TABLE A-9: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <SETJMP.H>

Name Definition
jmp_buf
setjmp int setjmp(jmp_buf env);
longjmp void longjmp(jmp_buf env, int val);
TABLE A-10: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <STDARG.H>

Name Definition
va_list
va_arg type va_arg(va_list ap, type);
va_copy void va_copy(va_list dest, va_list src);
va_end void va_end(va_list ap);
va_start void va_start(va_list ap, parmN);

TABLE A-11: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY C99 <STDBOOL.H>

Name Definition
bool _Bool
true 1
false 0
__bool_true_false_are_defined 1
TABLE A-12: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <STDDEF.H>

Name Definition
NULL
ptrdiff_t
size_t
offsetof offsetof(type, member-designator)
TABLE A-13: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY C99 <STDINT.H>

Name Definition
INTN_MIN
INTN_MAX
UINTN_MAX
INT_LEASTN_MIN
INT_LEASTN_MAX
UINT_LEASTN_MAX
INT_FASTN_MIN
INT_FASTN_MAX
UINT_FASTN_MAX
INTPTR_MIN
INTPTR_MAX
UINTPTR_MAX
INTMAX_MIN
INTMAX_MAX
UINTMAX_MAX
PTRDIFF_MIN
PTRDIFF_MAX
SIG_ATOMIC_MIN
SIG_ATOMIC_MAX
SIZE_MAX
INTN_C INTN_C(value)
UINTN_C UINTN_C(value)
INTMAX_C INTMAX_C(value)
UINTMAX_C UINTMAX_C(value)
intN_t

Library Functions
TABLE A-13: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY C99 <STDINT.H>
Name Definition
uintN_t
int_leastN_t
uint_leastN_t
int_fastN_t
uint_fastN_t
intptr_t
uintptr_t
intmax_t
uintmax_t
TABLE A-14: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <STDIO.H>

Name Definition
NULL
size_t
printf int printf(const char * restrict format, ...);
scanf int scanf(const char * restrict format, ...);
snprintf int snprintf(char * restrict s, size_t n,
const char * restrict format, ...);
sprintf int sprintf(char * restrict s,
sscanf int sscanf(const char * restrict s,
vprintf int vprintf(const char * restrict format, va_list arg);
vscanf int vscanf(const char * restrict format, va_list arg);
vsnprintf int vsnprintf(char * restrict s, size_t n,
const char * restrict format, va_list arg);
vsprintf int vsprintf(char * restrict s,
vsscanf int vsscanf(const char * restrict s,
getchar int getchar(void);
gets char *gets(char *s);
putchar int putchar(int c);
puts int puts(const char *s);
perror void perror(const char *s);
TABLE A-15: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <STDLIB.H>

Name Definition
NULL
EXIT_FAILURE
EXIT_SUCCESS
RAND_MAX

TABLE A-15: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <STDLIB.H>
Name Definition
size_t
div_t
ldiv_t
lldiv_t
atexit int atexit(void (*func)(void));
atof double atof(const char *nptr);
atoi int atoi(const char *nptr);
atol long int atol(const char *nptr);
atoll long long int atoll(const char *nptr);
strtod double strtod(const char * restrict nptr,
char ** restrict endptr);
strtof float strtof(const char * restrict nptr,
strtold long double strtold(const char * restrict nptr,
strtol long int strtol(const char * restrict nptr,
strtoll long long int strtoll(const char * restrict nptr,
strtoul unsigned long int strtoul(const char * restrict nptr,
strtoull unsigned long long int strtoull(const char * restrict nptr,
rand int rand(void);
srand void srand(unsigned int seed);
abort void abort(void);
exit void exit(int status);
bsearch void *bsearch(const void *key, const void *base,
size_t nmemb, size_t size,
int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));
qsort void qsort(void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size,
int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));
abs int abs(int j);
labs long int labs(long int j);
llabs long long int llabs(long long int j);
div div_t div(int numer, int denom);
ldiv ldiv_t ldiv(long int numer, long int denom);
lldiv lldiv_t lldiv(long long int numer, long long int denom);
_Exit void _Exit(int status);
TABLE A-16: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <STRING.H>

Name Definition
NULL
size_t

Library Functions
TABLE A-16: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <STRING.H>
Name Definition
memcpy void *memcpy(void * restrict s1,
const void * restrict s2, size_t n);
memmove void *memmove(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);
strcpy char *strcpy(char * restrict s1, const char * restrict s2);
strncpy char *strncpy(char * restrict s1,
const char * restrict s2, size_t n);
strcat char *strcat(char * restrict s1, const char * restrict s2);
strncat char *strncat(char * restrict s1,
memcmp int memcmp(const void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);
strcmp int strcmp(const char *s1, const char *s2);
strcoll int strcoll(const char *s1, const char *s2);
strncmp int strncmp(const char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
strxfrm size_t strxfrm(char * restrict s1,
memchr void *memchr(const void *s, int c, size_t n);
strchr char *strchr(const char *s, int c);
strcspn size_t strcspn(const char *s1, const char *s2);
strpbrk char *strpbrk(const char *s1, const char *s2);
strrchr char *strrchr(const char *s, int c);
strspn size_t strspn(const char *s1, const char *s2);
strstr char *strstr(const char *s1, const char *s2);
strtok char *strtok(char * restrict s1, const char * restrict s2);
memset void *memset(void *s, int c, size_t n);
strerror char *strerror(int errnum);
strlen size_t strlen(const char *s);

TABLE A-17: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <TIME.H>

Name Definition
NULL
size_t
time_t
tm struct tm
difftime double difftime(time_t time1, time_t time0);
mktime time_t mktime(struct tm *timeptr);
time time_t time(time_t *timer);
asctime char *asctime(const struct tm *timeptr);
ctime char *ctime(const time_t *timer);
gmtime struct tm *gmtime(const time_t *timer);
localtime struct tm *localtime(const time_t *timer);
strftime size_t strftime(char * restrict s,
size_t maxsize,
const char * restrict format,
const struct tm * restrict timeptr);
The macros and functions provided by <xc.h> are device-specified and are described
in the sections that follow Table A-18.
TABLE A-18: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <XC.H>

Name Definition
di
ei
CRLWDT
EEPROM_READ EEPROM_READ(address)
EEPROM_WRITE EEPROM_WRITE(address, value)
NOP
READTIMERX
RESET
SLEEP
WRITETIMERX WRITETIMER(value)
eeprom_read unsigned char eeprom_read(unsigned char address);
eeprom_write void eeprom_write(unsigned char address,
unsigned char value);
__debug_break
___mkstr ___mkstr(value)
__EEPROM_DATA __EEPROM_DATA(a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h)
get_cal_data double get_cal_data(const unsigned char *);
_delay _delay(n)
_delaywdt _delaywdt(n)
_delay3 _delay3(n)
__builtin_software_breakpoint void __builtin_software_breakpoint(void);
__delay_ms __delay_ms(time)

Library Functions
TABLE A-18: DECLARATIONS PROVIDED BY <XC.H>
Name Definition
__delay_us __delay_us(time)
__delaywdt_ms __delaywdt_ms(time)
__delaywdt_us __delaywdt_us(time)
__fpnormalize double __fpnormalize(double);
__osccal_val unsigned char __osccal_val(void);

EEPROM_READ
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
unsigned char eeprom_read(unsigned char address);

Description
This function is available for all Mid-range devices that implement EEPROM. For PIC18
devices, calls to this routine will instead attempt to call the equivalent functions in the
legacy PIC18 peripheral library, which you must download and install separately. It is
recommended that for PIC18 devices you use MPLAB MCC to generate EEPROM
access code, if possible.
This function tests and waits for any concurrent writes to EEPROM to conclude before
performing the required operation.
Example
#include <xc.h>
int
main (void)
{
unsigned char serNo;
serNo = eeprom_read(0x20);
}
EEPROM_WRITE
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
void eeprom_write(unsigned char address, unsigned char value);

Description
This function is available for all Mid-range devices that implement EEPROM. For PIC18
devices, calls to this routine will instead attempt to call the equivalent functions in the
legacy PIC18 peripheral library, which you must download and install separately. It is
recommended that for PIC18 devices you use MPLAB MCC to generate EEPROM
access code, if possible.
This function tests and waits for any concurrent writes to EEPROM to conclude before
performing the required operation. The function will initiate the write to EEPROM and
this process will still be taking place when the function returns. The new data written to
EEPROM will become valid at a later time. See your device data sheet for exact infor-
mation about EEPROM on your target device.
Example
#include <xc.h>
int
main (void)
{
eeprom_write(0x20, 0x55);
}

Library Functions
EEPROM_READ (MACRO)
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
EEPROM_READ(address);
Description
This macro is available for all Mid-range devices that implement EEPROM.
Unlike the function version, this macro does not wait for any concurrent writes to
EEPROM to conclude before performing the required operation.
Example
#include <xc.h>
int
main (void)
{
unsigned char serNo;
// wait for end-of-write before EEPROM_READ

while(WR)
continue; // read from EEPROM at address
serNo = EEPROM_READ(0x55);
EEPROM_WRITE (MACRO)
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
EEPROM_WRITE(address, value);
Description
This macro is available for all Mid-range devices that implement EEPROM.
This macro tests and waits for any concurrent writes to EEPROM to conclude before
performing the required operation. The function will initiate the write to EEPROM and
this process will still be taking place when the function returns. The new data written to
EEPROM will become valid at a later time. See your device data sheet for exact infor-
mation about EEPROM on your target device.
Example
#include <xc.h>
int
main (void)
{
EEPROM_WRITE(0x20, 0x55);
}

__BUILTIN_SOFTWARE_BREAKPOINT
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
void __builtin_software_breakpoint(void);
Description
This builtin unconditionally inserts code into the program output which triggers a
software breakpoint when the code is executed using a debugger.
The software breakpoint code is only generated for mid-range and PIC18 devices.
Baseline devices do not support software breakpoints in this way, and the builtin will be
ignored if used with these devices.
Example
#include <xc.h>
int
main (void)
{
__builtin_software_breakpoint(); // stop here to begin
...
__CONDITIONAL_SOFTWARE_BREAKPOINT
Synopsis
#include <assert.h>
__conditional_software_breakpoint(expression)
Description
This macro implements a light-weight embedded version of the standard C assert()
macro, and is used in the same way.
When executed, the expression argument is evaluated. If the argument is false the
macro attempts to halt program execution; the macro performs no action if the argu-
ment is true.
The macro is removed from the program output if the manifest constant NDEBUG is
defined. In addition, it is included only for debug builds (i.e., when the __DEBUG macro
is defined). Thus, it does not consume device resources for production builds.
If the target device does not support the ability to halt via a software breakpoint, use of
this macro will trigger a compiler error.
Example
#include <assert.h>
void getValue(int * ip) {

__conditional_software_breakpoint(ip != NULL);
...
}

Library Functions
__DEBUG_BREAK
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
void __debug_break(void);
Description
This macro conditionally inserts code into the program output which triggers a software
breakpoint when the code is executed using a debugger. The code is only generated
for debug builds (see Section 2.3.7 “What is Different About an MPLAB X IDE Debug
Build?”) and is omitted for production builds (i.e., when the __DEBUG macro is defined).
The software breakpoint code is only generated for mid-range and PIC18 devices.
Baseline devices do not support software breakpoints in this way, and the macro will
be ignored if used with these devices.
Example
#include <xc.h>
int
main (void)
{
__debug_break(); // stop here to begin
...
See also
__builtin_software_breakpoint()
__DELAY_MS, __DELAY_US, __DELAYWDT_US, __DELAYWDT_MS

Synopsis
__delay_ms(x) // request a delay in milliseconds
__delay_us(x) // request a delay in microseconds
__delaywdt_ms(x) // request a delay in milliseconds
__delaywdt_us(x) // request a delay in microseconds
Description
It is often more convenient to request a delay in time-based terms, rather than in cycle
counts. The macros __delay_ms(x) and __delay_us(x) are provided to meet this
need. These macros convert the time-based request into instruction cycles that can be
used with _delay(n). In order to achieve this, these macros require the prior defini-
tion of preprocessor macro _XTAL_FREQ, which indicates the system frequency. This
macro should equate to the oscillator frequency (in hertz) used by the system. Note that
this macro only controls the behavior of these delays and does not affect the device
execution speed.
On PIC18 devices only, you can use the alternate WDT-form of these functions, which
uses the CLRWDT instruction as part of the delay code. See the _delaywdt function.
The macro argument must be a constant expression. An error will result if these macros
are used without defining the oscillator frequency symbol, the delay period requested
is too large, or the delay period is not a constant.
See also
_delay(), _delaywdt()

__EEPROM_DATA
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
__EEPROM_DATA(a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h)
Description
This macro is used to store initial values in the device’s EEPROM registers at the time
of programming.
The macro must be given blocks of 8 bytes to write each time it is called, and can be
called repeatedly to store multiple blocks.
__EEPROM_DATA() will begin writing to EEPROM address zero, and auto-increments
the address written to by 8 each time it is used.
Example
#include <xc.h>
__EEPROM_DATA(0x00,0x01,0x02,0x03,0x04,0x05,0x06,0x07)
__EEPROM_DATA(0x08,0x09,0x0A,0x0B,0x0C,0x0D,0x0E,0x0F)
void
main (void)
{
}
__FPNORMALIZE
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
double __fpnormalize(double fnum)

Description
This function can be used to ensure that an arbitrary 32-bit floating-point value (which
is not the result of a calculation performed by the compiler) conforms to the "relaxed"
floating-point rules (as described in Section 4.4.4 “Floating-Point Data Types”).
This function returns the value passed to it, but ensures that any subnormal argument
is flushed to zero, and converts any negative zero argument to a positive zero result.
Example
#include <xc.h>
void
main (void)
{
double input_fp;
// read in a floating-point value from an external source

input_fp = getFP();
// ensure it is formatted using the relaxed rules
input_fp = __fpnormalize(input_fp);
...
}

Library Functions
__OSCCAL_VAL
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
unsigned char __osccal_val(void);

Description
This is a pseudo-function that is defined by the code generator to be a label only. The
label’s value is equated to the address of the retlw instruction, which encapsulates
the oscillator configuration value. This function is only available for those devices that
are shipped with such a value stored in program memory.
Calls to the function will return the device’s oscillator configuration value, which can
then be used in any expression, if required.
Note that this function is automatically called by the runtime start-up code (unless you
have explicitly disabled this option, see Section 3.7.1.14 “osccal”) and you do not need
to call it to calibrate the internal oscillator.
Example
#include <xc.h>
void
main (void)
{
unsigned char c;
c = __osccal_val();
}

_DELAY() , _DELAYWDT
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
void _delay(unsigned long cycles);

void _delaywdt(unsigned long cycles);
Description
This is an in-line function that is expanded by the code generator. When called, this rou-
tine expands to an in-line assembly delay sequence. The sequence will consist of code
that delays for the number of instruction cycles that is specified as the argument. The
argument must be a constant expression.
The _delay in-line function can use loops and the NOP instruction to implement the
delay. The _delaywdt in-line function performs the same task, but will use the
CLRWDT instruction, as well as loops, to achieve the specified delay.
An error will result if the requested delay is not a constant expression or is greater than
50,463,240 instructions. For even larger delays, call this function multiple times.
Example
#include <xc.h>
void
main (void)
{
control |= 0x80;
_delay(10); // delay for 10 cycles
control &= 0x7F;
}
_DELAY3()
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
void _delay3(unsigned char cycles);

Description
This is an in-line function that is expanded by the code generator. It is only available on
PIC18 and enhanced mid-range devices. When called, this routine expands to an
in-line assembly delay sequence consisting of code that delays for 3 times the argu-
ment value, assuming that the argument can be loaded to WREG in one instruction,
and that there are no errata-workaround NOPs present in the loop. If this is not the
case, the delay will be longer. The argument can be a byte-sized constant or variable.
Example
#include <xc.h>
void
main (void)
{
control |= 0x80;
_delay3(10); // delay for 30 cycles
control &= 0x7F;
}

Library Functions
ASSERT
Synopsis
#include <assert.h>
void assert (int e)

Description
This macro is used for debugging purposes; the basic method of usage is to place
assertions liberally throughout your code at points where correct operation of the code
depends upon certain conditions being true initially. An assert() routine can be used
to ensure at runtime that an assumption holds true. For example, the following
statement asserts that mode is larger than zero:
assert(mode > 0);
If the expression passed to assert() evaluates to false at runtime, the macro
attempts to print diagnostic information and abort the program. A fuller discussion of
the uses of assert() is impossible in limited space, but it is closely linked to methods
of proving program correctness.
The assert() macro depends on the implementation of the function _fassert().
The default _fassert() function, built into the library files, first calls the printf()
function, which prints a message identifying the source file and line number of the
assertion. Next, _fassert() attempts to terminate program execution by calling
abort(). The exact behaviour of abort() is dependent on the selected device and
whether the executable is a debug or production build. For debug builds, abort() will
consist of a software breakpoint instruction followed by a Reset instruction, if possible.
For production builds, abort() will consist only of a Reset instruction, if possible. In
both cases, if a Reset instruction is not available, a goto instruction that jumps to itself
in an endless loop is output.
The _fassert() routine can be adjusted to ensure it meets your application needs.
Include the source file defining this function into your project, if you modify it.
Example
#include <assert.h>
void
ptrfunc (struct xyz * tp)
{
assert(tp != 0);
}

CLRWDT
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
CLRWDT();
Description
This macro is used to clear the device’s internal watchdog timer.
Example
#include <xc.h>
void
main (void)
{
WDTCON=1;
/* enable the WDT */
CLRWDT();
}
DI, EI
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
void ei (void)
void di (void)
Description
The di() and ei() routines disable and re-enable interrupts respectively. These are
implemented as macros. The example shows the use of ei() and di() around access
to a long variable that is modified during an interrupt. If this was not done, it would be
possible to return an incorrect value, if the interrupt occurred between accesses to
successive words of the count value.
The ei() macro should never be called in an interrupt function.
Example
#include <xc.h>
long count, val;
void
__interrupt(high_priority) tick (void)
{
count++;
}
void
getticks (void)
{
di();
val = count;
ei();
}

Library Functions
EVAL_POLY
Synopsis
#include <math.h>
double eval_poly (double x, const double * d, int n)

Description
The eval_poly() function evaluates a polynomial, whose coefficients are contained in
the array d, at x, for example:
y = x*x*d2 + x*d1 + d0.
The order of the polynomial is passed in n.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
void
main (void)
{
double x, y;
double d[3] = {1.1, 3.5, 2.7};
x = 2.2;
y = eval_poly(x, d, 2);
printf(“The polynomial evaluated at %f is %f\n”, x, y);
}
Return Value
A double value, being the polynomial evaluated at x.
abs(), labs()

GET_CAL_DATA
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
double get_cal_data (const unsigned char * code_ptr)

Description
This function returns the 32-bit floating-point calibration data from the PIC MCU 14000
calibration space. It cannot be used with other devices. Only use this function to access
KREF, KBG, VHTHERM and KTC (that is, the 32-bit floating-point parameters). FOSC and
TWDT can be accessed directly as they are bytes.
Example
#include <xc.h>
void
main (void)
{
double x;
unsigned char y;
/* Get the slope reference ratio. */

x = get_cal_data(KREF);
/* Get the WDT time-out. */

y = TWDT;
}
Return Value
The value of the calibration parameter
NOP
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
NOP();
Description
Execute NOP instruction here. This is often useful to fine tune delays or create a handle
for breakpoints. The NOP instruction is sometimes required during some sensitive
sequences in hardware.
Example
#include <xc.h>
void
crude_delay(void) {
RA1 = 0;
NOP();
RA1 = 1;
}
}

Library Functions
PUTCH
Synopsis
#include <conio.h>
void putch (char c)

Description
The putch() function is provided as an empty stub which can be completed as each
project requires. It must be defined if you intend to use the printf() function. Typi-
cally this function will accept one byte of data and send this to a peripheral which is
associated with stdout.
Example
#include <conio.h>
char * x = "This is a string";
void
main (void)
{
char * cp;
cp = x;
while(*x)
putch(*x++);
putch(’\n’);
}

READTIMERx
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
unsigned short READTIMERx (void);
Description
The READTIMERx() macro returns the value held by the TMRx register, where x is one
of the digits 0, 1 or 3.
Example
#include <xc>
void
main (void)
{
while(READTIMER0() != 0xFF)
continue;
SLEEP();
}
See Also
WRITETIMERx()
Return Value
The value held by the TMRx register.
Note
This macro can only be used with PIC18 devices.
RESET
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
RESET();
Description
Execute a RESET instruction here. This will trigger a software device Reset.
Example
#include <xc.h>
void
main(void)
{
init();
while( ! (fail_code = getStatus())) {
process();
}
if(fail_code > 2) // something’s serious wrong
RESET(); // reset the whole device
// otherwise try restart code from main()
}

Library Functions
SLEEP
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
SLEEP();
Description
This macro is used to put the device into a low-power standby mode.
Example
#include <xc.h>
extern void init(void);
void
main (void)
{
init(); /* enable peripherals/interrupts */
while(1)
SLEEP(); /* save power while nothing happening */
}
WRITETIMERx
Synopsis
#include <xc.h>
void WRITETIMERx (int n);
Description
The WRITETIMERx() macro writes the 16-bit argument, n, to both bytes of the TMRx
register, where x is one of the digits 0, 1 or 3.
Example
#include <xc.h>
void
main (void)
{
WRITETIMER1(0x4A);
while(1)
continue;
}
Note
This macro can only be used with PIC18 devices.

NOTES:

Appendix B. Error and Warning Messages
B.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter lists the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler error, warning, and advisory messages
with an explanation of each message. This is the complete and historical message set
covering all former HI-TECH C compilers and all compiler versions. Not all messages
shown here will be relevant for the compiler version you are using.
Most messages have been assigned a unique number that appears in brackets before
each message description. It is also printed by the compiler when the message is
issued. The messages shown here are sorted by their number. Unnumbered messages
appear toward the end and are sorted alphabetically.
The name of the application(s) that could have produced the messages are listed in
brackets opposite the error message. In some cases examples of code or options that
could trigger the error are given. The use of * in the error message is used to represent
a string that the compiler will substitute that is specific to that particular error.
Note that one problem in your C or assembler source code can trigger more than one
error message. You should attempt to resolve errors or warnings in the order in which
they are produced.
MESSAGES 1-249
(1) too many errors (*) (all applications)

The executing compiler application has encountered too many errors and will exit
immediately. Other uncompiled source files will be processed, but the compiler appli-
cations that would normally be executed in due course will not be run. The number of
errors that can be accepted is controlled using the -fmax-errors option, See
Section 3.7.4.1 “max-errors”.
(2) error/warning (*) generated but no description available (all applications)

The executing compiler application has emitted a message (advisory/warning/error),
but there is no description available in the message description file (MDF) to print. This
could be because the MDF is out-of-date, or the message issue has not been
translated into the selected language.
(3) malformed error information on line * in file * (all applications)

The compiler has attempted to load the messages for the selected language, but the
message description file (MDF) was corrupted and could not be read correctly.
(100) unterminated #if[n][def] block from line * (Preprocessor)

A #if or similar block was not terminated with a matching #endif, for example:
#if INPUT /* error flagged here */
void main(void)
{
run();
} /* no #endif was found in this module */

(101) #* cannot follow #else (Preprocessor)

A #else or #elif has been used in the same conditional block as a #else. These
can only follow a #if, for example:
#ifdef FOO
result = foo;
#else
result = bar;
#elif defined(NEXT) /* the #else above terminated the #if */
result = next(0);
#endif
(102) #* must be in an #if (Preprocessor)

The #elif, #else or #endif directive must be preceded by a matching #if line. If
there is an apparently corresponding #if line, check for things like extra #endifs, or
improperly terminated comments, for example:
#ifdef FOO
result = foo;
#endif
result = bar;
#elif defined(NEXT) /* the #endif above terminated the #if */
result = next(0);
#endif
(103) #error: * (Preprocessor)

This is a programmer generated error; there is a directive causing a deliberate error.
This is normally used to check compile time defines, etc. Remove the directive to
remove the error, but first determine why the directive is there.
(104) preprocessor #assert failure (Preprocessor)

The argument to a preprocessor #assert directive has evaluated to zero. This is a
programmer induced error.
#assert SIZE == 4 /* size should never be 4 */
(105) no #asm before #endasm (Preprocessor)

A #endasm operator has been encountered, but there was no previous matching
#asm, for example:
void cleardog(void)
{
clrwdt
#endasm /* in-line assembler ends here,
only where did it begin? */
}
(106) nested #asm directives (Preprocessor)

It is not legal to nest #asm directives. Check for a missing or misspelled #endasm
directive, for example:
#asm
MOVE r0, #0aah
#asm ; previous #asm must be closed before opening another
SLEEP
#endasm

Error and Warning Messages
(107) illegal # directive "*" (Preprocessor, Parser)

The compiler does not understand the # directive. It is probably a misspelling of a
directive token, for example:
#indef DEBUG /* oops -- that should be #undef DEBUG */
(108) #if[n][def] without an argument (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor directives #if, #ifdef, and #ifndef must have an argument. The
argument to #if should be an expression, while the argument to #ifdef or #ifndef
should be a single name, for example:
#if /* oops -- no argument to check */
output = 10;
#else
output = 20;
#endif
(109) #include syntax error (Preprocessor)

The syntax of the filename argument to #include is invalid. The argument to
#include must be a valid file name, either enclosed in double quotes "" or angle
brackets < >. Spaces should not be included, and the closing quote or bracket must
be present. There should be nothing else on the line other than comments, for example:
#include stdio.h /* oops -- should be: #include <stdio.h> */
(110) too many file arguments; usage: cpp [input [output]] (Preprocessor)
CPP should be invoked with at most two file arguments. Contact Microchip Technical
Support if the preprocessor is being executed by a compiler driver.
(111) redefining preprocessor macro "*" (Preprocessor)

The macro specified is being redefined to something different than the original defini-
tion. If you want to deliberately redefine a macro, use #undef first to remove the orig-
inal definition, for example:
#define ONE 1
/* elsewhere: */
/* Is this correct? It will overwrite the first definition. */
#define ONE one
(112) #define syntax error (Preprocessor)

A macro definition has a syntax error. This could be due to a macro or formal parameter
name that does not start with a letter or a missing closing parenthesis, ), for example:
#define FOO(a, 2b) bar(a, 2b) /* 2b is not to be! */
(113) unterminated string in preprocessor macro body (Preprocessor, Assembler)

A macro definition contains a string that lacks a closing quote.
(114) illegal #undef argument (Preprocessor)

The argument to #undef must be a valid name. It must start with a letter, for example:
#undef 6YYY /* this isn’t a valid symbol name */

(115) recursive preprocessor macro definition of "*" defined by "*" (Preprocessor)

The named macro has been defined in such a manner that expanding it causes a
recursive expansion of itself.
(116) end of file within preprocessor macro argument from line * (Preprocessor)
A macro argument has not been terminated. This probably means the closing paren-
thesis has been omitted from a macro invocation. The line number given is the line
where the macro argument started, for example:
#define FUNC(a, b) func(a+b)
FUNC(5, 6; /* oops -- where is the closing bracket? */
(117) misplaced constant in #if (Preprocessor)

A constant in a #if expression should only occur in syntactically correct places. This
error is probably caused by omission of an operator, for example:
#if FOO BAR /* oops -- did you mean: #if FOO == BAR ? */
(118) stack overflow processing #if expression (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor filled up its expression evaluation stack in a #if expression. Simplify
the expression – it probably contains too many parenthesized subexpressions.
(119) invalid expression in #if line (Preprocessor)

This is an internal compiler error. Contact Microchip Technical Support with details.
(120) operator "*" in incorrect context (Preprocessor)

An operator has been encountered in a #if expression that is incorrectly placed (two
binary operators are not separated by a value), for example:
#if FOO * % BAR == 4 /* what is "* %" ? */
#define BIG
#endif
(121) expression stack overflow at operator "*" (Preprocessor)

Expressions in #if lines are evaluated using a stack with a size of 128. It is possible
for very complex expressions to overflow this. Simplify the expression.
(122) unbalanced parenthesis at operator "*" (Preprocessor)

The evaluation of a #if expression found mismatched parentheses. Check the expres-
sion for correct parenthesizing, for example:
#if ((A) + (B) /* oops -- a missing ), I think */
#define ADDED
#endif
(123) misplaced "?" or ":"; previous operator is "*" (Preprocessor)

A colon operator has been encountered in a #if expression that does not match up
with a corresponding ? operator, for example:
#if XXX : YYY /* did you mean: #if COND ? XXX : YYY */

(124) illegal character "*" in #if (Preprocessor)

There is a character in a #if expression that should not be there. Valid characters are
the letters, digits, and those comprising the acceptable operators, for example:
#if YYY /* what are these characters doing here? */
int m;
#endif
(125) illegal character (* decimal) in #if (Preprocessor)

There is a non-printable character in a #if expression that should not be there. Valid
characters are the letters, digits, and those comprising the acceptable operators, for
example:
#if ^S YYY /* what is this control characters doing here? */
int m;
#endif
(126) strings can’t be used in #if (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor does not allow the use of strings in #if expressions, for example:
/* no string operations allowed by the preprocessor */
#if MESSAGE > "hello"
#define DEBUG
#endif
(127) bad syntax for defined() in #[el]if (Preprocessor)

The defined() pseudo-function in a preprocessor expression requires its argument
to be a single name. The name must start with a letter and should be enclosed in
parentheses, for example:
/* oops -- defined expects a name, not an expression */
#if defined(a&b)
input = read();
#endif
(128) illegal operator in #if (Preprocessor)

A #if expression has an illegal operator. Check for correct syntax, for example:
#if FOO = 6 /* oops -- should that be: #if FOO == 5 ? */
(129) unexpected "\" in #if (Preprocessor)

The backslash is incorrect in the #if statement, for example:
#if FOO == \34
#define BIG
#endif
(130) unknown type "*" in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor)

An unknown type was used in a preprocessor sizeof(). The preprocessor can only
evaluate sizeof() with basic types, or pointers to basic types, for example:
#if sizeof(unt) == 2 /* should be: #if sizeof(int) == 2 */
i = 0xFFFF;
#endif

(131) illegal type combination in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor found an illegal type combination in the argument to sizeof() in a
#if expression, for example:
/* To sign, or not to sign, that is the error. */
#if sizeof(signed unsigned int) == 2
i = 0xFFFF;
#endif
(132) no type specified in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor)

Sizeof() was used in a preprocessor #if expression, but no type was specified. The
argument to sizeof() in a preprocessor expression must be a valid simple type, or
pointer to a simple type, for example:
#if sizeof() /* oops -- size of what? */
i = 0;
#endif
(133) unknown type code (0x*) in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor has made an internal error in evaluating a sizeof() expression.
Check for a malformed type specifier. This is an internal error. Contact Microchip
Technical Support with details.
(134) syntax error in #[el]if sizeof() (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor found a syntax error in the argument to sizeof in a #if expression.
Probable causes are mismatched parentheses and similar things, for example:
#if sizeof(int == 2) // oops - should be: #if sizeof(int) == 2
i = 0xFFFF;
#endif
(135) unknown operator (*) in #if (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor has tried to evaluate an expression with an operator it does not
understand. This is an internal error. Contact Microchip Technical Support with details.
(137) strange character "*" after ## (Preprocessor)

A character has been seen after the token catenation operator ## that is neither a letter
nor a digit. Because the result of this operator must be a legal token, the operands must
be tokens containing only letters and digits, for example:
/* the ’ character will not lead to a valid token */
#define cc(a, b) a ## ’b
(138) strange character (*) after ## (Preprocessor)

An unprintable character has been seen after the token catenation operator ## that is
neither a letter nor a digit. Because the result of this operator must be a legal token, the
operands must be tokens containing only letters and digits, for example:
/* the ’ character will not lead to a valid token */
#define cc(a, b) a ## ’b

(139) end of file in comment (Preprocessor)

End of file was encountered inside a comment. Check for a missing closing comment
flag, for example:
/* Here the comment begins. I’m not sure where I end, though
}
(140) can’t open * file "*": * (Driver, Preprocessor, Code Generator, Assembler)
The command file specified could not be opened for reading. Confirm the spelling and
path of the file specified on the command line, for example:
xc8 @communds
should that be:
xc8 @commands
(141) can’t open * file "*": * (Any)

An output file could not be created. Confirm the spelling and path of the file specified
on the command line.
(144) too many nested #if blocks (Preprocessor)

#if, #ifdef, etc., blocks can only be nested to a maximum of 32.
(146) #include filename too long (Preprocessor)

A filename constructed while looking for an include file has exceeded the length of an
internal buffer. Because this buffer is 4096 bytes long, this is unlikely to happen.
(147) too many #include directories specified (Preprocessor)

A maximum of 7 directories can be specified for the preprocessor to search for include
files. The number of directories specified with the driver is too many.
(148) too many arguments for preprocessor macro (Preprocessor)

A macro can only have up to 31 parameters, per the C Standard.
(149) preprocessor macro work area overflow (Preprocessor)

The total length of a macro expansion has exceeded the size of an internal table. This
table is normally 32768 bytes long. Thus any macro expansion must not expand to a
total of more than 32K bytes.
(150) illegal "__" preprocessor macro "*" (Preprocessor)

(151) too many arguments in preprocessor macro expansion (Preprocessor)

There were too many arguments supplied in a macro invocation. The maximum
number allowed is 31.
(152) bad dp/nargs in openpar(): c = * (Preprocessor)


(153) out of space in preprocessor macro * argument expansion (Preprocessor)

A macro argument has exceeded the length of an internal buffer. This buffer is normally
4096 bytes long.
(155) work buffer overflow concatenating "*" (Preprocessor)

(156) work buffer "*" overflow (Preprocessor)

(157) can’t allocate * bytes of memory (Code Generator, Assembler)

(158) invalid disable in preprocessor macro "*" (Preprocessor)

(159) too many calls to unget() (Preprocessor)

(161) control line "*" within preprocessor macro expansion

(Preprocessor)
A preprocessor control line (one starting with a #) has been encountered while
expanding a macro. This should not happen.
(162) #warning: * (Preprocessor, Driver)

This warning is either the result of user-defined #warning preprocessor directive, or
the driver encountered a problem reading the map file. If the latter, contact Microchip
Technical Support with details
(163) unexpected text in control line ignored (Preprocessor)

This warning occurs when extra characters appear on the end of a control line. The
extra text will be ignored, but a warning is issued. It is preferable (and in accordance
with Standard C) to enclose the text as a comment, for example:
#if defined(END)
#define NEXT
#endif END /* END would be better in a comment here */
(164) #include filename "*" was converted to lower case (Preprocessor)

The #include file name had to be converted to lowercase before it could be opened,
for example:
#include <STDIO.H> /* oops -- should be: #include <stdio.h> */
(165) #include filename "*" does not match actual name (check upper/lower case)
(Preprocessor)
In Windows versions this means the file to be included actually exists and is spelled the
same way as the #include filename; however, the case of each does not exactly
match. For example, specifying #include "code.c" will include Code.c, if it is
found. In Linux versions this warning could occur if the file wasn’t found.

(166) too few values specified with option "*" (Preprocessor)

The list of values to the preprocessor (CPP) -S option is incomplete. This should not
happen if the preprocessor is being invoked by the compiler driver. The values passed
to this option represent the sizes of char, short, int, long, float and double
types.
(167) too many values specified with -S option; "*" unused Preprocessor)
There were too many values supplied to the -S preprocessor option. See message 166.
(168) unknown option "*" (Any)

The option given to the component which caused the error is not recognized.
(169) strange character (*) after ## (Preprocessor)

There is an unexpected character after #.
(170) symbol "*" in undef was never defined (Preprocessor)

The symbol supplied as argument to #undef was not already defined. This warning
can be disabled with some compilers. This warning can be avoided with code like:
#ifdef SYM
#undef SYM /* only undefine if defined */
#endif
(171) wrong number of preprocessor macro arguments for "*" (* instead of *)

(Preprocessor)
A macro has been invoked with the wrong number of arguments, for example:
#define ADD(a, b) (a+b)
ADD(1, 2, 3) /* oops -- only two arguments required */
(172) formal parameter expected after # (Preprocessor)

The stringization operator # (not to be confused with the leading # used for
preprocessor control lines) must be followed by a formal macro parameter, for
example:
#define str(x) #y /* oops -- did you mean x instead of y? */
If you need to stringize a token, you will need to define a special macro to do it, for
example:
#define __mkstr__(x) #x
then use __mkstr__(token) wherever you need to convert a token into a string.
(173) undefined symbol "*" in #if; 0 used (Preprocessor)

A symbol on a #if expression was not a defined preprocessor macro. For the
purposes of this expression, its value has been taken as zero. This warning can be
disabled with some compilers. Example:
#if FOO+BAR /* e.g. FOO was never #defined */
#define GOOD
#endif

(174) multi-byte constant "*" isn’t portable (Preprocessor)

Multi-byte constants are not portable; and, in fact, will be rejected by later passes of the
compiler, for example:
#if CHAR == ’ab’
#define MULTI
#endif
(175) division by zero in #if; zero result assumed (Preprocessor)

Inside a #if expression, there is a division by zero which has been treated as yielding
zero, for example:
#if foo/0 /* divide by 0: was this what you were intending? */
int a;
#endif
(176) missing newline (Preprocessor)

A new line is missing at the end of the line. Each line, including the last line, must have
a new line at the end. This problem is normally introduced by editors.
(177) symbol "*" in -U option was never defined (Preprocessor)

A macro name specified in a -U option to the preprocessor was not initially defined, and
thus cannot be undefined.
(179) nested comments (Preprocessor)

This warning is issued when nested comments are found. A nested comment can indi-
cate that a previous closing comment marker is missing or malformed, for example:
output = 0; /* a comment that was left unterminated
flag = TRUE; /* next comment:
hey, where did this line go? */
(180) unterminated comment in included file (Preprocessor)

Comments begun inside an included file must end inside the included file.
(181) non-scalar types can’t be converted to other types (Parser)

You cannot convert a structure, union, or array to another type, for example:
struct TEST test;
struct TEST * sp;
sp = test; /* oops -- did you mean: sp = &test; ? */
(182) illegal conversion between types (Parser)

This expression implies a conversion between incompatible types, i.e., a conversion of
a structure type into an integer, for example:
struct LAYOUT layout;
int i;
layout = i; /* int cannot be converted to struct */
Note that even if a structure only contains an int , for example, it cannot be assigned
to an int variable and vice versa.

(183) function or function pointer required (Parser)

Only a function or function pointer can be the subject of a function call, for example:
int a, b, c, d;
a = b(c+d); /* b is not a function --
did you mean a = b*(c+d) ? */
(184) calling an interrupt function is illegal (Parser)

A function-qualified interrupt cannot be called from other functions. It can only be
called by a hardware (or software) interrupt. This is because an interrupt function
has special function entry and exit code that is appropriate only for calling from an inter-
rupt. An interrupt function can call other non-interrupt functions.
(185) function does not take arguments (Parser, Code Generator)

This function has no parameters, but it is called here with one or more arguments, for
example:
int get_value(void);
void main(void)
{
int input;
input = get_value(6); /* oops --
parameter should not be here */
}
(186) too many function arguments (Parser)

This function does not accept as many arguments as there are here.
void add(int a, int b);
add(5, 7, input); /* call has too many arguments */
(187) too few function arguments (Parser)

This function requires more arguments than are provided in this call, for example:
void add(int a, int b);
add(5); /* this call needs more arguments */
(188) constant expression required (Parser)

In this context an expression is required that can be evaluated to a constant at compile
time, for example:
int a;
switch(input) {
case a: /* oops!
cannot use variable as part of a case label */
input++;
}
(189) illegal type for array dimension (Parser)

An array dimension must be either an integral type or an enumerated value.
int array[12.5]; /* oops -- twelve and a half elements, eh? */

(190) illegal type for index expression (Parser)

An index expression must be either integral or an enumerated value, for example:
int i, array[10];
i = array[3.5]; /* oops --
exactly which element do you mean? */
(191) cast type must be scalar or void (Parser)

A typecast (an abstract type declarator enclosed in parentheses) must denote a type
which is either scalar (i.e., not an array or a structure) or the type void, for example:
lip = (long [])input; /* oops -- possibly: lip = (long *)input */
(192) undefined identifier "*" (Parser)

This symbol has been used in the program, but has not been defined or declared.
Check for spelling errors if you think it has been defined.
(193) not a variable identifier "*" (Parser)

This identifier is not a variable; it can be some other kind of object, i.e., a label.
(194) ")" expected (Parser)

A closing parenthesis, ), was expected here. This can indicate you have left out this
character in an expression, or you have some other syntax error. The error is flagged
on the line at which the code first starts to make no sense. This can be a statement
following the incomplete expression, for example:
if(a == b /* the closing parenthesis is missing here */
b = 0; /* the error is flagged here */
(195) expression syntax (Parser)

This expression is badly formed and cannot be parsed by the compiler, for example:
a /=% b; /* oops -- possibly that should be: a /= b; */
(196) struct/union required (Parser)

A structure or union identifier is required before a dot "." , for example:
int a;
a.b = 9; /* oops -- a is not a structure */
(197) struct/union member expected (Parser)

A structure or union member name must follow a dot “.” or an arrow (“->”).
(198) undefined struct/union "*" (Parser)

The specified structure or union tag is undefined, for example:
struct WHAT what; /* a definition for WHAT was never seen */
(199) logical type required (Parser)

The expression used as an operand to if, while statements or to boolean operators
like ! and && must be a scalar integral type, for example:
struct FORMAT format;
if(format) /* this operand must be a scaler type */
format.a = 0;

(200) taking the address of a register variable is illegal (Parser)

A variable declared register cannot have storage allocated for it in memory, and thus it
is illegal to attempt to take the address of it by applying the & operator, for example:
int * proc(register int in)
{
int * ip = &in;
/* oops -- in cannot have an address to take */
return ip;
}
(201) taking the address of this object is illegal (Parser)

The expression which was the operand of the & operator is not one that denotes mem-
ory storage (“an lvalue”) and therefore its address cannot be defined, for example:
ip = &8; /* oops -- you cannot take the address of a literal */
(202) only lvalues can be assigned to or modified (Parser)

Only an lvalue (i.e., an identifier or expression directly denoting addressable storage)
can be assigned to or otherwise modified, for example:
int array[10];
int * ip;
char c;
array = ip; /* array is not a variable,
it cannot be written to */
A typecast does not yield an lvalue, for example:
/* the contents of c cast to int
is only a intermediate value */
(int)c = 1;
However, you can write this using pointers:
*(int *)&c = 1
(203) illegal operation on bit variable (Parser)

Not all operations on bit variables are supported. This operation is one of those, for
example:
bit b;
int * ip;
ip = &b; /* oops --
cannot take the address of a bit object */
(204) void function can’t return a value (Parser)

A void function cannot return a value. Any return statement should not be followed
by an expression, for example:
void run(void)
{
step();
return 1;
/* either run should not be void, or remove the 1 */
}
(205) integral type required (Parser)

This operator requires operands that are of integral type only.

(206) illegal use of void expression (Parser)

A void expression has no value and therefore you cannot use it anywhere an
expression with a value is required, i.e., as an operand to an arithmetic operator.
(207) simple type required for "*" (Parser)

A simple type (i.e., not an array or structure) is required as an operand to this operator.
(208) operands of "*" not same type (Parser)

The operands of this operator are of different pointers, for example:
int * ip;
char * cp, * cp2;
cp = flag ? ip : cp2;
/* result of ? : will be int * or char * */
Possibly, you meant something like:
cp = flag ? (char *)ip : cp2;
(209) type conflict (Parser)

The operands of this operator are of incompatible types.
(210) bad size list (Parser)

(211) taking sizeof bit is illegal (Parser)

It is illegal to use the sizeof operator with the C bit type. When used against a type,
the sizeof operator gives the number of bytes required to store an object that type.
Therefore its usage with the bit type make no sense and it is an illegal operation.
(212) missing number after pragma "pack" (Parser)

The pragma pack requires a decimal number as argument. This specifies the align-
ment of each member within the structure. Use this with caution as some processors
enforce alignment and will not operate correctly if word fetches are made on odd
boundaries, for example:
#pragma pack /* what is the alignment value */
#pragma pack 2
(214) missing number after pragma "interrupt_level" (Parser)

The pragma interrupt_level requires an argument to indicate the interrupt level.
It will be the value 1 for mid-range devices, or 1 or 2 or PIC18 devices.
(215) missing argument to pragma "switch" (Parser)

The pragma switch requires an argument of auto, direct or simple, for example:
#pragma switch /* oops -- this requires a switch mode */
#pragma switch simple

(216) missing argument to pragma "psect" (Parser)

The pragma psect requires an argument of the form oldname = newname where old-
name is an existing psect name known to the compiler and newname is the desired
new name, for example:
#pragma psect /* oops -- this requires an psect to redirect */
#pragma psect text=specialtext
(218) missing name after pragma "inline" (Parser)

The inline pragma expects the name of a function to follow. The function name must
be recognized by the code generator for it to be expanded; other functions are not
altered, for example:
#pragma inline /* what is the function name? */
#pragma inline memcpy
(219) missing name after pragma "printf_check" (Parser)

The printf_check pragma expects the name of a function to follow. This specifies
printf-style format string checking for the function, for example:
#pragma printf_check /* what function is to be checked? */
#pragma printf_check sprintf
Pragmas for all the standard printf-like function are already contained in <stdio.h>.
(220) exponent expected (Parser)

A floating-point constant must have at least one digit after the e or E, for example:
float f;
f = 1.234e; /* oops -- what is the exponent? */
(221) hexadecimal digit expected (Parser)

After 0x should follow at least one of the HEX digits 0-9 and A-F or a-f, for example:
a = 0xg6; /* oops -- was that meant to be a = 0xf6 ? */
(222) binary digit expected (Parser)

A binary digit was expected following the 0b format specifier, for example:
i = 0bf000; /* oops -- f000 is not a base two value */
(223) digit out of range (Parser, Assembler)

A digit in this number is out of range of the radix for the number, i.e., using the digit 8
in an octal number, or HEX digits A-F in a decimal number. An octal number is denoted
by the digit string commencing with a zero, while a HEX number starts with “0X” or “0x”.
For example:
int a = 058;
/* leading 0 implies octal which has digits 0 - 7 */

(224) illegal "#" directive (Parser)

An illegal # preprocessor has been detected. Likely, a directive has been misspelled in
your code somewhere.
(225) missing character in character constant (Parser)

The character inside the single quotes is missing, for example:
char c = "; /* the character value of what? */
(226) char const too long (Parser)

A character constant enclosed in single quotes cannot contain more than one
character, for example:
c = ’12’; /* oops -- only one character can be specified */
(227) "." expected after ".." (Parser)

The only context in which two successive dots can appear is as part of the ellipsis sym-
bol, which must have 3 dots. (An ellipsis is used in function prototypes to indicate a
variable number of parameters.)
Either .. was meant to be an ellipsis symbol which would require you to add an extra
dot, or it was meant to be a structure member operator which would require you to
remove one dot.
(228) illegal character (*) (Parser)

This character is illegal in the C code. Valid characters are the letters, digits and those
comprising the acceptable operators, for example:
c = a; /* oops -- did you mean c = ’a’; ? */
(229) unknown qualifier "*" given to -A (Parser)

(230) missing argument to -A (Parser)

(231) unknown qualifier "*" given to -I (Parser)

(232) missing argument to -I (Parser)

(233) bad -Q option "*" (Parser)

(234) close error (Parser)


(236) simple integer expression required (Parser)

A simple integral expression is required after the operator @, used to associate an
absolute address with a variable, for example:
int address;
char LOCK @ address;
(237) function "*" redefined (Parser)

More than one definition for a function has been encountered in this module. Function
overloading is illegal, for example:
int twice(int a)
{
return a*2;
}
/* only one prototype & definition of rv can exist */
long twice(long a)
{
return a*2;
}
(238) illegal initialization (Parser)

You cannot initialize a typedef declaration, because it does not reserve any storage
that can be initialized, for example:
/* oops -- uint is a type, not a variable */
typedef unsigned int uint = 99;
(239) identifier "*" redefined (from line *) (Parser)

This identifier has already been defined in the same scope. It cannot be defined again,
for example:
int a; /* a filescope variable called "a" */
int a; /* attempting to define another of the same name */
Note that variables with the same name, but defined with different scopes, are legal;
but; not recommended.
(240) too many initializers (Parser)

There are too many initializers for this object. Check the number of initializers against
the object definition (array or structure), for example:
/* three elements, but four initializers */
int ivals[3] = { 2, 4, 6, 8};
(241) initialization syntax (Parser)

The initialization of this object is syntactically incorrect. Check for the correct placement
and number of braces and commas, for example:
int iarray[10] = {{’a’, ’b’, ’c’};
/* oops -- one two many {s */

(242) illegal type for switch expression (Parser)

A switch operation must have an expression that is either an integral type or an
enumerated value, e.g:
double d;
switch(d) { /* oops -- this must be integral */
case ’1.0’:
d = 0;
}
(243) inappropriate break/continue (Parser)

A break or continue statement has been found that is not enclosed in an appropriate
control structure. A continue can only be used inside a while, for, or do while
loop, while break can only be used inside those loops or a switch statement, for
example:
switch(input) {
case 0:
if(output == 0)
input = 0xff;
} /* oops! this should not be here; it closed the switch */
break; /* this should be inside the switch */
(244) "default" case redefined (Parser)

Only one default label is allowed to be in a switch statement. You have more than
one, for example:
switch(a) {
default: /* if this is the default case... */
b = 9;
break;
default: /* then what is this? */
b = 10;
break;
(245) "default" case not in switch (Parser)

A label has been encountered called default, but it is not enclosed by a switch
statement. A default label is only legal inside the body of a switch statement.
If there is a switch statement before this default label, there could be one too many
closing braces in the switch code. That would prematurely terminate the switch
statement. See message 246.

(246) case label not in switch (Parser)

A case label has been encountered, but there is no enclosing switch statement. A
case label can only appear inside the body of a switch statement.
If there is a switch statement before this case label, there might be one too many
closing braces in the switch code. That would prematurely terminate the switch
statement, for example:
switch(input) {
case ’0’:
count++;
break;
case ’1’:
if(count>MAX)
count= 0;
} /* oops -- this shouldn’t be here */
break;
case ’2’: /* error flagged here */
(247) duplicate label "*" (Parser)

The same name is used for a label more than once in this function. Note that the scope
of labels is the entire function, not just the block that encloses a label, for example:
start:
if(a > 256)
goto end;
start: /* error flagged here */
if(a == 0)
goto start; /* which start label do I jump to? */
(248) inappropriate "else" (Parser)

An else keyword has been encountered that cannot be associated with an if
statement. This can mean there is a missing brace or other syntactic error, for example:
/* here is a comment which I have forgotten to close...
if(a > b) {
c = 0;
/* ... that will be closed here, thus removing the "if" */
else /* my "if" has been lost */
c = 0xff;
(249) probable missing "}" in previous block (Parser)

The compiler has encountered what looks like a function or other declaration, but the
preceding function was ended with a closing brace. This probably means that a closing
brace has been omitted from somewhere in the previous function, although it might not
be the last one, for example:
void set(char a)
{
PORTA = a;
/* the closing brace was left out here */
void clear(void) /* error flagged here */
{
PORTA = 0;
}

MESSAGES 250-499
(251) array dimension redeclared (Parser)

An array dimension has been declared as a different non-zero value from its previous
declaration. It is acceptable to redeclare the size of an array that was previously
declared with a zero dimension; but, not otherwise, for example:
extern int array[5];
int array[10]; /* oops -- has it 5 or 10 elements? */
(252) argument * conflicts with prototype (Parser)

The argument specified (argument 0 is the left most argument) of this function definition
does not agree with a previous prototype for this function, for example:
/* this is supposedly calc’s prototype */
extern int calc(int, int);
int calc(int a, long int b) /* hmmm -- which is right? */
{ /* error flagged here */
return sin(b/a);
}
(253) argument list conflicts with prototype (Parser)

The argument list in a function definition is not the same as a previous prototype for
that function. Check that the number and types of the arguments are all the same.
extern int calc(int); /* this is supposedly calc’s prototype */
int calc(int a, int b) /* hmmm -- which is right? */
return a + b;
}
(254) undefined *: "*" (Parser)

(255) not a member of the struct/union "*" (Parser)

This identifier is not a member of the structure or union type with which it used here, for
example:
struct {
int a, b, c;
} data;
if(data.d) /* oops --
there is no member d in this structure */
return;
(256) too much indirection (Parser)

A pointer declaration can only have 16 levels of indirection.
(257) only "register" storage class allowed (Parser)

The only storage class allowed for a function parameter is register, for example:
void process(static int input)

(258) duplicate qualifier (Parser)

There are two occurrences of the same qualifier in this type specification. This can
occur either directly or through the use of a typedef. Remove the redundant qualifier.
For example:
typedef volatile int vint;
/* oops -- this results in two volatile qualifiers */
volatile vint very_vol;
(259) object can’t be qualified both far and near (Parser)

It is illegal to qualify a type as both far and near, for example:
far near int spooky; /* oops -- choose far or near, not both */
(260) undefined enum tag "*" (Parser)

This enum tag has not been defined, for example:
enum WHAT what; /* a definition for WHAT was never seen */
(261) struct/union member "*" redefined (Parser)

This name of this member of the struct or union has already been used in this struct
or union, for example:
struct {
int a;
int b;
int a; /* oops -- a different name is required here */
} input;
(262) struct/union "*" redefined (Parser)

A structure or union has been defined more than once, for example:
struct {
int a;
} ms;
struct {
int a;
} ms; /* was this meant to be the same name as above? */
(263) members can’t be functions (Parser)

A member of a structure or a union cannot be a function. It could be a pointer to a
function, for example:
struct {
int a;
int get(int); /* should be a pointer: int (*get)(int); */
} object;
(264) bad bitfield type (Parser)

A bit-field can only have a type of int (or unsigned), for example:
struct FREG {
char b0:1; /* these must be part of an int, not char */
char :6;
char b7:1;
} freg;

(265) integer constant expected (Parser)

A colon appearing after a member name in a structure declaration indicates that the
member is a bit-field. An integral constant must appear after the colon to define the
number of bits in the bit-field, for example:
struct {
unsigned first: /* oops -- should be: unsigned first; */
unsigned second;
} my_struct;
If this was meant to be a structure with bit-fields, then the following illustrates an
example:
struct {
unsigned first : 4; /* 4 bits wide */
unsigned second: 4; /* another 4 bits */
} my_struct;
(266) storage class illegal (Parser)

A structure or union member cannot be given a storage class. Its storage class is deter-
mined by the storage class of the structure, for example:
struct {
/* no additional qualifiers can be present with members */
static int first;
} ;
(267) bad storage class (Code Generator)

The code generator has encountered a variable definition whose storage class is
invalid, for example:
auto int foo; /* auto not permitted with global variables */
int power(static int a) /* parameters cannot be static */
{
return foo * a;
}
(268) inconsistent storage class (Parser)

A declaration has conflicting storage classes. Only one storage class should appear in
a declaration, for example:
extern static int where; /* so is it static or extern? */
(269) inconsistent type (Parser)

Only one basic type can appear in a declaration, for example:
int float input; /* is it int or float? */
(270) variable can’t have storage class "register" (Parser)

Only function parameters or auto variables can be declared using the register
qualifier, for example:
register int gi; /* this cannot be qualified register */
int process(register int input) /* this is okay */
{
return input + gi;
}

(271) type can’t be long (Parser)

Only int and float can be qualified with long.
long char lc; /* what? */
(272) type can’t be short (Parser)

Only int can be modified with short, for example:
short float sf; /* what? */
(273) type can’t be both signed and unsigned (Parser)

The type modifiers signed and unsigned cannot be used together in the same
declaration, as they have opposite meaning, for example:
signed unsigned int confused; /* which is it? */
(274) type can’t be unsigned (Parser)

A floating-point type cannot be made unsigned, for example:
unsigned float uf; /* what? */
(275) "..." illegal in non-prototype argument list (Parser)

The ellipsis symbol can only appear as the last item in a prototyped argument list. It
cannot appear on its own, nor can it appear after argument names that do not have
types; i.e., K&R-style non-prototype function definitions. For example:
/* K&R-style non-prototyped function definition */
int kandr(a, b, ...)
int a, b;
{
(276) type specifier required for prototyped argument (Parser)

A type specifier is required for a prototyped argument. It is not acceptable to just have
an identifier.
(277) can’t mix prototyped and non-prototyped arguments (Parser)

A function declaration can only have all prototyped arguments (i.e., with types inside
the parentheses) or all K&R style arguments (i.e., only names inside the parentheses
and the argument types in a declaration list before the start of the function body), for
example:
int plus(int a, b) /* oops -- a is prototyped, b is not */
int b;
{
return a + b;
}
(278) argument "*" redeclared (Parser)

The specified argument is declared more than once in the same argument list, for
example:
/* cannot have two parameters called "a" */
int calc(int a, int a)

(279) initialization of function arguments is illegal (Parser)

A function argument cannot have an initializer in a declaration. The initialization of the
argument happens when the function is called and a value is provided for the argument
by the calling function, for example:
/* oops -- a is initialized when proc is called */
extern int proc(int a = 9);
(280) arrays of functions are illegal (Parser)

You cannot define an array of functions. You can, however, define an array of pointers
to functions, for example:
int * farray[](); /* oops -- should be: int (* farray[])(); */
(281) functions can’t return functions (Parser)

A function cannot return a function. It can return a function pointer. A function returning
a pointer to a function could be declared like this: int (* (name()))(). Note the many
parentheses that are necessary to make the parts of the declaration bind correctly.
(282) functions can’t return arrays (Parser)

A function can return only a scalar (simple) type or a structure. It cannot return an array.
(283) dimension required (Parser)

Only the most significant (i.e., the first) dimension in a multi-dimension array cannot be
assigned a value. All succeeding dimensions must be present as a constant
expression, for example:
/* This should be, for example: int arr[][7] */
int get_element(int arr[2][])
{
return array[1][6];
}
(284) invalid dimension (Parser)

The array dimension specified is not valid. It must be larger than 0.
int array[0]; // oops -- you cannot have an array of size 0
(285) no identifier in declaration (Parser)

The identifier is missing in this declaration. This error can also occur when the compiler
has been confused by such things as missing closing braces, for example:
void interrupt(void) /* what is the name of this function? */
{
}
(286) declarator too complex (Parser)

This declarator is too complex for the compiler to handle. Examine the declaration and
find a way to simplify it. If the compiler finds it too complex, so will anybody maintaining
the code.

(287) arrays of bits or pointers to bit are illegal (Parser)

It is not legal to have an array of bits, or a pointer to bit variable, for example:
bit barray[10]; /* wrong -- no bit arrays */
bit * bp; /* wrong -- no pointers to bit variables */
(288) the type 'void' is applicable only to functions (Parser)

A variable cannot be void. Only a function can be void, for example:
int a;
void b; /* this makes no sense */
(289) the specifier 'interrupt' is applicable only to functions (Parser)

The qualifier interrupt cannot be applied to anything except a function, for example:
/* variables cannot be qualified interrupt */
interrupt int input;
(290) illegal function qualifier(s) (Parser)

A qualifier has been applied to a function which makes no sense in this context. Some
qualifier only make sense when used with an lvalue, i.e., const or volatile. This
can indicate that you have forgotten a star * that is indicating that the function should
return a pointer to a qualified object, for example:
const char ccrv(void) /* const * char ccrv(void) perhaps? */
return ccip;
}
(291) K&R identifier "*" not an argument (Parser)

This identifier, that has appeared in a K&R style argument declarator, is not listed inside
the parentheses after the function name, for example:
int process(input)
int unput; /* oops -- that should be int input; */
{
}
(292) a function is not a valid parameter type (Parser)

A function parameter cannot be a function. It can be a pointer to a function, so perhaps
a "*" has been omitted from the declaration.
(293) bad size in index_type() (Parser)

(294) can’t allocate * bytes of memory (Code Generator, Hexmate)

(295) expression too complex (Parser)

This expression has caused overflow of the compiler’s internal stack and should be
rearranged or split into two expressions.

(296) out of memory (Objtohex)

This could be an internal compiler error. Contact Microchip Technical Support with
details.
(297) bad argument (*) to tysize() (Parser)

(298) end of file in #asm (Preprocessor)

An end of file has been encountered inside a #asm block. This probably means the
#endasm is missing or misspelled, for example:
#asm
MOV r0, #55
MOV [r1], r0
} /* oops -- where is the #endasm */
(300) unexpected end of file (Parser)

An end-of-file in a C module was encountered unexpectedly, for example:
void main(void)
{
init();
run(); /* is that it? What about the close brace */
(301) end of file on string file (Parser)

(302) can’t reopen "*": * (Parser)

(303) can’t allocate * bytes of memory (line *) (Parser)

The parser was unable to allocate memory for the longest string encountered, as it
attempts to sort and merge strings. Try reducing the number or length of strings in this
module.
(306) can’t allocate * bytes of memory for * (Code Generator)

(307) too many qualifier names (Parser)

(308) too many case labels in switch (Code Generator)

There are too many case labels in this switch statement. The maximum allowable
number of case labels in any one switch statement is 511.
(309) too many symbols (Assembler, Parser)

There are too many symbols for the assembler’s symbol table. Reduce the number of
symbols in your program.

(310) "]" expected (Parser)

A closing square bracket was expected in an array declaration or an expression using
an array index, for example:
process(carray[idx); /* oops --
should be: process(carray[idx]); */
(311) closing quote expected (Parser)

A closing quote was expected for the indicated string.
(312) "*" expected (Parser)

The indicated token was expected by the parser.
(313) function body expected (Parser)

Where a function declaration is encountered with K&R style arguments (i.e., argument
names; but, no types inside the parentheses) a function body is expected to follow, for
example:
/* the function block must follow, not a semicolon */
int get_value(a, b);
(314) ";" expected (Parser)

A semicolon is missing from a statement. A close brace or keyword was found following
a statement with no terminating semicolon , for example:
while(a) {
b = a-- /* oops -- where is the semicolon? */
} /* error is flagged here */
Note: Omitting a semicolon from statements not preceding a close brace or keyword
typically results in some other error being issued for the following code which the parser
assumes to be part of the original statement.
(315) "{" expected (Parser)

An opening brace was expected here. This error can be the result of a function
definition missing the opening brace, for example:
/* oops! no opening brace after the prototype */
void process(char c)
return max(c, 10) * 2; /* error flagged here */
}
(316) "}" expected (Parser)

A closing brace was expected here. This error can be the result of a initialized array
missing the closing brace, for example:
char carray[4] = { 1, 2, 3, 4; /* oops -- no closing brace */
(317) "(" expected (Parser)

An opening parenthesis , (, was expected here. This must be the first token after a
while , for , if , do or asm keyword, for example:
if a == b /* should be: if(a == b) */
b = 0;

(318) string expected (Parser)

The operand to an asm statement must be a string enclosed in parentheses, for
example:
asm(nop); /* that should be asm("nop");
(319) while expected (Parser)

The keyword while is expected at the end of a do statement, for example:
do {
func(i++);
} /* do the block while what condition is true? */
if(i > 5) /* error flagged here */
end();
(320) ":" expected (Parser)

A colon is missing after a case label, or after the keyword default. This often occurs
when a semicolon is accidentally typed instead of a colon, for example:
switch(input) {
case 0; /* oops -- that should have been: case 0: */
state = NEW;
(321) label identifier expected (Parser)

An identifier denoting a label must appear after goto, for example:
if(a)
goto 20;
/* this is not BASIC -- a valid C label must follow a goto */
(322) enum tag or "{" expected (Parser)

After the keyword enum, must come either an identifier that is, or will be, defined as an
enum tag, or an opening brace, for example:
enum 1, 2; /* should be, for example: enum {one=1, two }; */
(323) struct/union tag or "{" expected (Parser)

An identifier denoting a structure or union or an opening brace must follow a struct
or union keyword, for example:
struct int a; /* this is not how you define a structure */
You might mean something like:
struct {
int a;
} my_struct;
(324) too many arguments for printf-style format string (Parser)

There are too many arguments for this format string. This is harmless, but can
represent an incorrect format string, for example:
/* oops -- missed a placeholder? */
printf("%d - %d", low, high, median);

(325) error in printf-style format string (Parser)

There is an error in the format string here. The string has been interpreted as a
printf() style format string, and it is not syntactically correct. If not corrected, this will
cause unexpected behavior at runtime, for example:
printf("%l", lll); /* oops -- possibly: printf("%ld", lll); */
(326) long int argument required in printf-style format string (Parser)

A long argument is required for this format specifier. Check the number and order of
format specifiers and corresponding arguments, for example:
printf("%lx", 2); // possibly you meant: printf("%lx", 2L);
(327) long long int argument required in printf-style format string (Parser)
A long long argument is required for this format specifier. Check the number and
order of format specifiers and corresponding arguments, for example:
printf("%llx", 2); // possibly you meant: printf("%llx", 2LL);
Note that MPLAB XC8 does not provide direct support for a long long integer type.
(328) int argument required in printf-style format string (Parser)

An integral argument is required for this printf-style format specifier. Check the number
and order of format specifiers and corresponding arguments, for example:
printf("%d", 1.23); /* wrong number or wrong placeholder */
(329) double argument required in printf-style format string (Parser)

The printf format specifier corresponding to this argument is %f or similar, and requires
a floating-point expression. Check for missing or extra format specifiers or arguments
to printf.
printf("%f", 44); /* should be: printf("%f", 44.0); */
(330) pointer to * argument required in printf-style format string (Parser)

A pointer argument is required for this format specifier. Check the number and order of
format specifiers and corresponding arguments.
(331) too few arguments for printf-style format string (Parser)

There are too few arguments for this format string. This would result in a garbage value
being printed or converted at runtime, for example:
printf("%d - %d", low);
/* oops! where is the other value to print? */
(332) "interrupt_level" should be 0 to 7 (Parser)

The pragma interrupt_level must have an argument from 0 to 7; however,
mid-range devices only use level 1. PIC18 devices can use levels 1 or 2. For example:
#pragma interrupt_level 9 /* oops -- the level is too high */
void interrupt isr(void)
{
/* isr code goes here */
}

(333) unrecognized qualifier name after "strings" (Parser)

The pragma strings was passed a qualifier that was not identified, for example:
/* oops -- should that be #pragma strings const ? */
#pragma strings cinst
(334) unrecognized qualifier name after "printf_check" (Parser)

The #pragma printf_check was passed a qualifier that could not be identified, for
example:
/* oops -- should that be const not cinst? */
#pragma printf_check(printf) cinst
(335) unknown pragma "*" (Parser)

An unknown pragma directive was encountered, for example:
#pragma rugsused myFunc w /* I think you meant regsused */
(336) string concatenation across lines (Parser)

Strings on two lines will be concatenated. Check that this is the desired result, for
example:
char * cp = "hi"
"there"; /* this is okay,
but is it what you had intended? */
(337) line does not have a newline on the end (Parser)

The last line in the file is missing the newline (operating system dependent character)
from the end. Some editors will create such files, which can cause problems for include
files. The ANSI C standard requires all source files to consist of complete lines only.
(338) can’t create * file "*" (Any)

The application tried to create or open the named file, but it could not be created. Check
that all file path names are correct.
(339) initializer in extern declaration (Parser)

A declaration containing the keyword extern has an initializer. This overrides the
extern storage class, because to initialize an object it is necessary to define (i.e.,
allocate storage for) it, for example:
extern int other = 99; /* if it’s extern and not allocated
storage, how can it be initialized? */
(340) string not terminated by null character (Parser)

A char array is being initialized with a string literal larger than the array. Hence there is
insufficient space in the array to safely append a null terminating character, for
example:
char foo[5] = "12345"; /* the string stored in foo won’t have
a null terminating, i.e.
foo = [’1’, ’2’, ’3’, ’4’, ’5’] */

(343) implicit return at end of non-void function (Parser)

A function that has been declared to return a value has an execution path that will allow
it to reach the end of the function body, thus returning without a value. Either insert a
return statement with a value, or if the function is not to return a value, declare it
void, for example:
int mydiv(double a, int b)
{
if(b != 0)
return a/b; /* what about when b is 0? */
} /* warning flagged here */
(344) non-void function returns no value (Parser)

A function that is declared as returning a value has a return statement that does not
specify a return value, for example:
int get_value(void)
{
if(flag)
return val++;
return;
/* what is the return value in this instance? */
}
(345) unreachable code (Parser)

This section of code will never be executed, because there is no execution path by
which it could be reached, for example:
while(1) /* how does this loop finish? */
process();
flag = FINISHED; /* how do we get here? */
(346) declaration of "*" hides outer declaration (Parser)

An object has been declared that has the same name as an outer declaration (i.e., one
outside and preceding the current function or block). This is legal, but can lead to
accidental use of one variable when the outer one was intended, for example:
int input; /* input has filescope */
void process(int a)
{
int input; /* local blockscope input */
a = input; /* this will use the local variable.
Is this right? */

(347) external declaration inside function (Parser)

A function contains an extern declaration. This is legal but is invariably not desirable
as it restricts the scope of the function declaration to the function body. This means that
if the compiler encounters another declaration, use, or definition of the extern object
later in the same file, it will no longer have the earlier declaration and thus will be unable
to check that the declarations are consistent. This can lead to strange behavior of your
program or signature errors at link time. It will also hide any previous declarations of
the same thing, again subverting the compiler’s type checking. As a general rule,
always declare extern variables and functions outside any other functions. For
example:
int process(int a)
{
/* this would be better outside the function */
extern int away;
return away + a;
}
(348) auto variable "*" should not be qualified (Parser)

An auto variable should not have qualifiers such as near or far associated with it. Its
storage class is implicitly defined by the stack organization. An auto variable can be
qualified with static, but it is then no longer auto.
(349) non-prototyped function declaration for "*" (Parser)

A function has been declared using old-style (K&R) arguments. It is preferable to use
prototype declarations for all functions, for example:
int process(input)
int input; /* warning flagged here */
{
}
This would be better written:
int process(int input)
{
}
(350) unused * "*" (from line *) (Parser)

The indicated object was never used in the function or module being compiled. Either
this object is redundant, or the code that was meant to use it was excluded from com-
pilation or misspelled the name of the object. Note that the symbols rcsid and
sccsid are never reported as being unused.
(352) float parameter coerced to double (Parser)

Where a non-prototyped function has a parameter declared as float, the compiler
converts this to a double float. This is because the default C type conversion con-
ventions provide that when a floating-point number is passed to a non-prototyped func-
tion, it is converted to double. It is important that the function declaration be consistent
with this convention, for example:
double inc_flt(f) /* f will be converted to double */
float f; /* warning flagged here */
{
return f * 2;
}

(353) sizeof external array "*" is zero (Parser)

The size of an external array evaluates to zero. This is probably due to the array not
having an explicit dimension in the extern declaration.
(354) possible pointer truncation (Parser)

A pointer qualified far has been assigned to a default pointer, or a pointer qualified near,
or a default pointer has been assigned to a pointer qualified near. This can result in
truncation of the pointer and loss of information, depending on the memory model in
use.
(355) implicit signed to unsigned conversion (Parser)

A signed number is being assigned or otherwise converted to a larger unsigned
type. Under the ANSI C “value preserving” rules, this will result in the signed value
being first sign-extended to a signed number the size of the target type, then con-
verted to unsigned (which involves no change in bit pattern). An unexpected sign
extension can occur. To ensure this does not happen, first convert the signed value to
an unsigned equivalent, for example:
signed char sc;
unsigned int ui;
ui = sc; /* if sc contains 0xff,
ui will contain 0xffff for example */
will perform a sign extension of the char variable to the longer type. If you do not want
this to take place, use a cast, for example:
ui = (unsigned char)sc;
(356) implicit conversion of float to integer (Parser)

A floating-point value has been assigned or otherwise converted to an integral type.
This could result in truncation of the floating-point value. A typecast will make this
warning go away.
double dd;
int i;
i = dd; /* is this really what you meant? */
If you do intend to use an expression like this, then indicate that this is so by a cast:
i = (int)dd;
(357) illegal conversion of integer to pointer (Parser)

An integer has been assigned to, or otherwise converted to, a pointer type. This will
usually mean that you have used the wrong variable. But, if this is genuinely what you
want to do, use a typecast to inform the compiler that you want the conversion and the
warning will be suppressed. This can also mean that you have forgotten the & address
operator, for example:
int * ip;
int i;
ip = i; /* oops -- did you mean ip = &i ? */
If you do intend to use an expression like this, then indicate that this is so by a cast:
ip = (int *)i;

(358) illegal conversion of pointer to integer (Parser)

A pointer has been assigned to, or otherwise converted to, a integral type. This will usu-
ally mean that you have used the wrong variable. But, if this is genuinely what you want
to do, use a typecast to inform the compiler that you want the conversion and the warn-
ing will be suppressed. This can also mean that you have forgotten the * dereference
operator, for example:
int * ip;
int i;
i = ip; /* oops -- did you mean i = *ip ? */
If you do intend to use an expression like this, indicate your intention by a cast:
i = (int)ip;
(359) illegal conversion between pointer types (Parser)

A pointer of one type (i.e., pointing to a particular kind of object) has been converted
into a pointer of a different type. This usually means that you have used the wrong vari-
able, but if this is genuinely what you want to do, use a typecast to inform the compiler
that you want the conversion and the warning will be suppressed, for example:
long input;
char * cp;
cp = &input; /* is this correct? */
This is a common way of accessing bytes within a multi-byte variable. To indicate that
this is the intended operation of the program, use a cast:
cp = (char *)&input; /* that’s better */
This warning can also occur when converting between pointers to objects that have the
same type, but which have different qualifiers, for example:
char * cp;
/* yes, but what sort of characters? */
cp = "I am a string of characters";
If the default type for string literals is const char *, then this warning is quite valid.
This should be written:
const char * cp;
cp = "I am a string of characters"; /* that’s better */
Omitting a qualifier from a pointer type is often disastrous and almost certainly not what
you intend.
(360) array index out of bounds (Parser)

An array is being indexed with a constant value that is less than zero, or greater than
or equal to the number of elements in the array. This warning will not be issued when
accessing an array element via a pointer variable, for example:
int i, * ip, input[10];
i = input[-2]; /* oops -- this element doesn’t exist */
ip = &input[5];
i = ip[-2]; /* this is okay */

(361) function declared implicit int (Parser)

When the compiler encounters a function call of a function whose name is presently
undefined, the compiler will automatically declare the function to be of type int, with
unspecified (K&R style) parameters. If a definition of the function is subsequently
encountered, it is possible that its type and arguments will be different from the earlier
implicit declaration, causing a compiler error. The solution is to ensure that all functions
are defined (or at least declared) before use, preferably with prototyped parameters. If
it is necessary to make a forward declaration of a function, it should be preceded with
the keywords extern or static, as appropriate. For example:
/* I can prevent an error arising from calls below */
extern void set(long a, int b);
void main(void)
{
/* at this point, a prototype for set() has already been seen */
set(10L, 6);
}
(362) redundant "&" applied to array (Parser)

The address operator & has been applied to an array. Because using the name of an
array gives its address anyway, this is unnecessary and has been ignored, for example:
int array[5];
int * ip;
/* array is a constant, not a variable; the & is redundant. */
ip = &array;
(363) redundant "&" or "*" applied to function address (Parser)

The address operator “&” has been applied to a function. Because using the name of
a function gives its address anyway, this is unnecessary and has been ignored, for
example:
extern void foo(void);
void main(void)
{
void(*bar)(void);
/* both assignments are equivalent */
bar = &foo;
bar = foo; /* the & is redundant */
}
(364) attempt to modify object qualified * (Parser)

Objects declared const or code cannot be assigned to or modified in any other way
by your program. The effect of attempting to modify such an object is compiler specific.
const int out = 1234; /* "out" is read only */
out = 0; /* oops --
writing to a read-only object */

(365) pointer to non-static object returned (Parser)

This function returns a pointer to a non-static (e.g., auto) variable. This is likely to
be an error, because the storage associated with automatic variables becomes invalid
when the function returns, for example:
char * get_addr(void)
{
char c;
/* returning this is dangerous;
the pointer could be dereferenced */
return &c;
}
(366) operands of "*" not same pointer type (Parser)

The operands of this operator are of different pointer types. This probably means you
have used the wrong pointer, but if the code is actually what you intended, use a
typecast to suppress the error message.
(367) identifier is already extern; can’t be static (Parser)

This function was already declared extern, possibly through an implicit declaration. It
has now been redeclared static, but this redeclaration is invalid.
void main(void)
{
/* at this point the compiler assumes set is extern... */
set(10L, 6);
}
/* now it finds out otherwise */
static void set(long a, int b)
{
PORTA = a + b;
}
(368) array dimension on "*[]" ignored (Preprocessor)

An array dimension on a function parameter has been ignored because the argument
is actually converted to a pointer when passed. Thus arrays of any size can be passed.
Either remove the dimension from the parameter, or define the parameter using pointer
syntax, for example:
/* param should be: "int array[]" or "int *" */
int get_first(int array[10])
{ /* warning flagged here */
return array[0];
}
(369) signed bitfields not supported (Parser)

Only unsigned bit-fields are supported. If a bit-field is declared to be type int, the
compiler still treats it as unsigned, for example:
struct {
signed int sign: 1; /* oops -- this must be unsigned */
signed int value: 7;
} ;

(370) illegal basic type; int assumed (Parser)

The basic type of a cast to a qualified basic type could not be recognized and the basic
type was assumed to be int, for example:
/* here ling is assumed to be int */
unsigned char bar = (unsigned ling) ’a’;
(371) missing basic type; int assumed (Parser)

This declaration does not include a basic type, so int has been assumed. This decla-
ration is not illegal, but it is preferable to include a basic type to make it clear what is
intended, for example:
char c;
i; /* don’t let the compiler make assumptions, use : int i */
func(); /* ditto, use: extern int func(int); */
(372) "," expected (Parser)

A comma was expected here. This could mean you have left out the comma between
two identifiers in a declaration list. It can also mean that the immediately preceding type
name is misspelled, and has been interpreted as an identifier, for example:
unsigned char a;
/* thinks: chat & b are unsigned, but where is the comma? */
unsigned chat b;
(373) implicit signed to unsigned conversion (Parser)

An unsigned type was expected where a signed type was given and was implicitly
cast to unsigned, for example:
unsigned int foo = -1;
/* the above initialization is implicitly treated as:
unsigned int foo = (unsigned) -1; */
(374) missing basic type; int assumed (Parser)

The basic type of a cast to a qualified basic type was missing and assumed to be int.,
for example:
int i = (signed) 2; /* (signed) assumed to be (signed int) */
(375) unknown FNREC type "*" (Linker)

(376) bad non-zero node in call graph (Linker)

The linker has encountered a top level node in the call graph that is referenced from
lower down in the call graph. This probably means the program has indirect recursion,
which is not allowed when using a compiled stack.
(378) can’t create * file "*" (Hexmate)

This type of file could not be created. Is the file, or a file by this name, already in use?
(379) bad record type "*" (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. Ensure that the object file is a valid object file. Contact
Microchip Technical Support with details.

(380) unknown record type (*) (Linker)

(381) record "*" too long (*) (Linker)

(382) incomplete record: type = *, length = * (Dump, Xstrip)

This message is produced by the DUMP or XSTRIP utilities and indicates that the
object file is not a valid object file, or that it has been truncated. Contact Microchip
(383) text record has length (*) too small (Linker)

(384) assertion failed: file *, line *, expression * (Linker, Parser)

(387) illegal or too many -G options (Linker)

There has been more than one linker -g option, or the -g option did not have any
arguments following. The arguments specify how the segment addresses are
calculated.
(388) duplicate -M option (Linker)

The map file name has been specified to the linker for a second time. This should not
occur if you are using a compiler driver. If invoking the linker manually, ensure that only
one instance of this option is present on the command line. See 3.7.12 Mapped Linker
Options for information on the correct syntax for this option.
(389) illegal or too many -O options (Linker)

This linker -o flag is illegal, or another -o option has been encountered. A -o option
to the linker must be immediately followed by a filename with no intervening space.
(390) missing argument to -P (Linker)

There have been too many -p options passed to the linker, or a -p option was not fol-
lowed by any arguments. The arguments of separate -p options can be combined and
separated by commas.
(391) missing argument to -Q (Linker)

The -Q linker option requires the machine type for an argument.
(392) missing argument to -U (Linker)

The -U (undefine) option needs an argument.
(393) missing argument to -W (Linker)

The -W option (listing width) needs a numeric argument.

(394) duplicate -D or -H option (Linker)

The symbol file name has been specified to the linker for a second time. This should
not occur if you are using a compiler driver. If invoking the linker manually, ensure that
only one instance of either of these options is present on the command line.
(395) missing argument to -J (Linker)

The maximum number of errors before aborting must be specified following the -j
linker option.
(397) usage: hlink [-options] files.obj files.lib (Linker)

Improper usage of the command-line linker. If you are invoking the linker directly, refer
to Section Section 6.2 “Operation” for more details. Otherwise, this could be an internal
compiler error and you should contact Microchip Technical Support with details.
(398) output file can’t be also an input file (Linker)

The linker has detected an attempt to write its output file over one of its input files. This
cannot be done, because it needs to simultaneously read and write input and output
files.
(400) bad object code format (Linker)

This is an internal compiler error. The object code format of an object file is invalid.
Ensure it is a valid object file. Contact Microchip Technical Support with details.
(402) bad argument to -F (Objtohex)

The -F option for objtohex has been supplied an invalid argument. If you are not
invoking this tool directly, this is an internal compiler error, and you should contact
(403) bad -E option: "*" (Objtohex)

(404) bad maximum length value to -<digits> (Objtohex)

The first value to the OBJTOHEX -n,m HEX length/rounding option is invalid.
(405) bad record size rounding value to -<digits> (Objtohex)

The second value to the OBJTOHEX -n,m HEX length/rounding option is invalid.
(406) bad argument to -A (Objtohex)

(407) bad argument to -U (Objtohex)

(408) bad argument to -B (Objtohex)

This option requires an integer argument in either base 8, 10, or 16. If you are not invok-
ing this tool directly, this is an internal compiler error, and you should contact Microchip

(409) bad argument to -P (Objtohex)

This option requires an integer argument in either base 8, 10, or 16. If you are not invok-
ing this tool directly, this is an internal compiler error, and you should contact Microchip
(410) bad combination of options (Objtohex)

The combination of options supplied to OBJTOHEX is invalid.
(412) text does not start at 0 (Objtohex)

Code in some things must start at zero. Here it doesn’t.
(413) write error on "*" (Assembler, Linker, Cromwell)

A write error occurred on the named file. This probably means you have run out of disk
space.
(414) read error on "*" (Linker)

The linker encountered an error trying to read this file.
(415) text offset too low in COFF file (Objtohex)

(416) bad character (*) in extended TEKHEX line (Objtohex)

(417) seek error in "*" (Linker)

(418) image too big (Objtohex)

(419) object file is not absolute (Objtohex)

The object file passed to OBJTOHEX has relocation items in it. This can indicate it is the
wrong object file, or that the linker or OBJTOHEX have been given invalid options. The
object output files from the assembler are relocatable, not absolute. The object file
output of the linker is absolute.
(420) too many relocation items (Objtohex)

(421) too many segments (Objtohex)

(422) no end record (Linker)

This object file has no end record. This probably means it is not an object file. Contact
Microchip Technical Support if the object file was generated by the compiler.

(423) illegal record type (Linker)

There is an error in an object file. This is either an invalid object file, or an internal error
in the linker. Contact Microchip Technical Support with details if the object file was
created by the compiler.
(424) record too long (Objtohex)

(425) incomplete record (Objtohex, Libr)

The object file passed to OBJTOHEX or the librarian is corrupted. Contact Microchip
(427) syntax error in list (Objtohex)

There is a syntax error in a list read by OBJTOHEX. The list is read from standard input
in response to an option.
(428) too many segment fixups (Objtohex)

(429) bad segment fixups (Objtohex)

(430) bad specification (Objtohex)

A list supplied to OBJTOHEX is syntactically incorrect.
(431) bad argument to -E (Objtoexe)

This option requires an integer argument in either base 8, 10, or 16. If you are invoking
objtoexe directly then check this argument. Otherwise, this can be an internal
compiler error and you should contact Microchip Technical Support with details.
(432) usage: objtohex [-ssymfile] [object-file [exe-file]] (Objtohex)

Improper usage of the command-line tool objtohex. If you are not invoking this tool
directly, this is an internal compiler error and you should contact Microchip Technical
Support with details.
(434) too many symbols (*) (Linker)

There are too many symbols in the symbol table, which has a limit of * symbols.
Change some global symbols to local symbols to reduce the number of symbols.
(435) bad segment selector "*" (Linker)

The segment specification option (-G) to the linker is invalid, for example:
-GA/f0+10
Did you forget the radix?
-GA/f0h+10
(436) psect "*" re-orged (Linker)

This psect has had its start address specified more than once.

(437) missing "=" in class spec (Linker)

A class spec needs an = sign, e.g., -Ctext=ROM. See Section 6.2.2 “-Cpsect=class” for
more information.
(438) bad size in -S option (Linker)

The address given in a -S specification is invalid, it should be a valid number, in deci-
mal, octal, or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O, for octal, or H for
HEX. A leading 0x can also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for any
number or radix. Decimal is the default, for example:
-SCODE=f000
-SCODE=f000h
(439) bad -D spec: "*" (Linker)

The format of a -D specification, giving a delta value to a class, is invalid, for example:
-DCODE
What is the delta value for this class? Possibly, you meant something like:
-DCODE=2
(440) bad delta value in -D spec (Linker)

The delta value supplied to a -D specification is invalid. This value should an integer of
base 8, 10, or 16.
(441) bad -A spec: "*" (Linker)

The format of a -A specification, giving address ranges to the linker, is invalid, for
example:
-ACODE
What is the range for this class? Possibly, you meant:
-ACODE=0h-1fffh
(442) missing address in -A spec (Linker)

The format of a -A specification, giving address ranges to the linker, is invalid, for
example:
-ACODE=
What is the range for this class? Possibly, you meant:
-ACODE=0h-1fffh
(443) bad low address "*" in -A spec (Linker)

The low address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in
decimal, octal, or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O (for octal) or
H for HEX. A leading 0x can also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for
any number or radix. Decimal is default, for example:
-ACODE=1fff-3fffh
-ACODE=1fffh-3fffh

(444) expected "-" in -A spec (Linker)

There should be a minus sign, -, between the high and low addresses in a -A linker
option, for example:
-AROM=1000h
Possibly, you meant:
-AROM=1000h-1fffh
(445) bad high address "*" in -A spec (Linker)

The high address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in
decimal, octal, or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O, for octal, or
any number or radix. Decimal is the default, for example:
-ACODE=0h-ffff
-ACODE=0h-ffffh
See Section 6.2.1 “-Aclass =low-high,...” for more information.
(446) bad overrun address "*" in -A spec (Linker)

The overrun address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number,
in decimal, octal, or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O (for octal)
or H for HEX. A leading 0x can also be used for hexadecimal. Case in not important for
-AENTRY=0-0FFh-1FF
-AENTRY=0-0FFh-1FFh
(447) bad load address "*" in -A spec (Linker)

The load address given in a -A specification is invalid: it should be a valid number, in
decimal, octal, or hexadecimal radix. The radix is specified by a trailing O (for octal) or
-ACODE=0h-3fffh/a000
-ACODE=0h-3fffh/a000h
(448) bad repeat count "*" in -A spec (Linker)

The repeat count given in a -A specification is invalid, for example:
-AENTRY=0-0FFhxf
-AENTRY=0-0FFhxfh
(449) syntax error in -A spec: * (Linker)

The -A spec is invalid. A valid -A spec should be something like:
-AROM=1000h-1FFFh

(450) psect "*" was never defined, or is local (Linker)

This psect has been listed in a -P option, but is not defined in any module within the
program. Alternatively, the psect is defined using the local psect flag, but with no
class flag; and, so, cannot be linked to an address. Check the assembly list file to
ensure that the psect exists and that it is does not specify the local psect flag.
(451) bad psect origin format in -P option (Linker)

The origin format in a -p option is not a validly formed decimal, octal, or HEX number,
nor is it the name of an existing psect. A HEX number must have a trailing H, for
example:
-pbss=f000
-pbss=f000h
(452) bad "+" (minimum address) format in -P option (Linker)

The minimum address specification in the linker’s -p option is badly formatted, for
example:
-pbss=data+f000
-pbss=data+f000h
(453) missing number after "%" in -P option (Linker)

The % operator in a -p option (for rounding boundaries) must have a number after it.
(454) link and load address can’t both be set to "." in -P option (Linker)
The link and load address of a psect have both been specified with a dot character.
Only one of these addresses can be specified in this manner, for example:
-Pmypsect=1000h/.
-Pmypsect=./1000h
Both of these options are valid and equivalent. However, the following usage is
ambiguous:
-Pmypsect=./.
What is the link or load address of this psect?
(455) psect "*" not relocated on 0x* byte boundary (Linker)

This psect is not relocated on the required boundary. Check the relocatability of the
psect and correct the -p option. if necessary.
(456) psect "*" not loaded on 0x* boundary (Linker)

This psect has a relocatability requirement that is not met by the load address given in
a -p option. For example, if a psect must be on a 4K byte boundary, you could not start
it at 100H.
(459) remove failed; error: *, * (Xstrip)

The creation of the output file failed when removing an intermediate file.

(460) rename failed; error: *, * (Xstrip)

The creation of the output file failed when renaming an intermediate file.
(461) can’t create * file "*" (Assembler, Code Generator)

(464) missing key in avmap file (Linker)

(465) undefined symbol "*" in FNBREAK record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNBREAK record for a non-reentrant
function. Contact Microchip Technical Support if this is not handwritten assembler
code.
(466) undefined symbol "*" in FNINDIR record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNINDIR record for a non-reentrant
code.
(467) undefined symbol "*" in FNADDR record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNADDR record for a non-reentrant
code.
(468) undefined symbol "*" in FNCALL record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNCALL record for a non-reentrant
code.
(469) undefined symbol "*" in FNROOT record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNROOT record for a non-reentrant
code.
(470) undefined symbol "*" in FNSIZE record (Linker)

The linker has found an undefined symbol in the FNSIZE record for a non-reentrant
code.

(471) recursive function calls: (Linker)

These functions (or function) call each other recursively. One or more of these functions
has statically allocated local variables (compiled stack). Either use the reentrant
keyword (if supported with this compiler) or recode to avoid recursion, for example:
int test(int a)
{
if(a == 5) {
/* recursion cannot be supported by some compilers */
return test(a++);
}
return 0;
}
(472) non-reentrant function "*" appears in multiple call graphs: rooted at "*" and "*"
(Linker)
This function can be called from both main-line code and interrupt code. Use the
reentrant keyword, if this compiler supports it, or recode to avoid using local vari-
ables or parameters, or duplicate the function, for example:
void interrupt my_isr(void)
{
scan(6); /* scan is called from an interrupt function */
}
void process(int a)
{
scan(a); /* scan is also called from main-line code */
}
(473) function "*" is not called from specified interrupt_level (Linker)

The indicated function is never called from an interrupt function of the same interrupt
level, for example:
void foo(void)
{
...
}
void interrupt bar(void)
{
// this function never calls foo()
}
(474) no psect specified for function variable/argument allocation (Linker)

The FNCONF assembler directive which specifies to the linker information regarding the
auto/parameter block was never seen. This is supplied in the standard runtime files if
necessary. This error can imply that the correct run-time startup module was not linked.
Ensure you have used the FNCONF directive if the runtime startup module is hand-writ-
ten.
(475) conflicting FNCONF records (Linker)

The linker has seen two conflicting FNCONF directives. This directive should be speci-
fied only once and is included in the standard runtime startup code which is normally
linked into every program.

(476) fixup overflow referencing * * (location 0x* (0x*+*), size *, value 0x*) (Linker)
The linker was asked to relocate (fixup) an item that would not fit back into the space
after relocation. See the following error message (1356) for more information.
(477) fixup overflow in expression (location 0x* (0x*+*), size *, value 0x*) (Linker)
The linker was asked to relocate (fixup) an item that would not fit back into the space
after relocation. See the following error message (1356) for more information.
(478) * range check failed (location 0x* (0x*+*), value 0x* > limit 0x*) (Linker)
(479) circular indirect definition of symbol "*" (Linker)

The specified symbol has been equated to an external symbol which, in turn, has been
equated to the first symbol.
(480) function signatures do not match: * (*): 0x*/0x* (Linker)

The specified function has different signatures in different modules. This means it has
been declared differently; i.e., it can have been prototyped in one module and not
another. Check what declarations for the function are visible in the two modules
specified and make sure they are compatible, for example:
extern int get_value(int in);
/* and in another module: */
/* this is different to the declaration */
int get_value(int in, char type)
{
(481) common symbol "*" psect conflict (Linker)

A common symbol has been defined to be in more than one psect.
(482) symbol "*" is defined more than once in "*" (Assembler)

This symbol has been defined in more than one place. The assembler will issue this
error if a symbol is defined more than once in the same module, for example:
_next:
MOVE r0, #55
MOVE [r1], r0
_next: ; oops -- choose a different name
The linker will issue this warning if the symbol (C or assembler) was defined multiple
times in different modules. The names of the modules are given in the error message.
Note that C identifiers often have an underscore prepended to their name after
compilation.
(483) symbol "*" can’t be global (Linker)


(484) psect "*" can’t be in classes "*" and "*" (Linker)

A psect cannot be in more than one class. This is either due to assembler modules with
conflicting class= options to the PSECT directive, or use of the -C option to the linker,
for example:
psect final,class=CODE
finish:
/* elsewhere: */
psect final,class=ENTRY
(485) unknown "with" psect referenced by psect "*" (Linker)

The specified psect has been placed with a psect using the psect with flag. The psect
it has been placed with does not exist, for example:
psect starttext,class=CODE,with=rext
; was that meant to be with text?
(486) psect "*" selector value redefined (Linker)

The selector value for this psect has been defined more than once.
(487) psect "*" type redefined: */* (Linker)

This psect has had its type defined differently by different modules. This probably
means you are trying to link incompatible object modules, i.e., linking 386 flat model
code with 8086 real mode code.
(488) psect "*" memory space redefined: */* (Linker)

A global psect has been defined in two different memory spaces. Either rename one of
the psects or, if they are the same psect, place them in the same memory space using
the space psect flag, for example:
psect spdata,class=RAM,space=0
ds 6
; elsewhere:
(489) psect "*" memory delta redefined: */* (Linker)

A global psect has been defined with two different delta values, for example:
psect final,class=CODE,delta=2
finish:
; elsewhere:
psect final,class=CODE,delta=1
(490) class "*" memory space redefined: */* (Linker)

A class has been defined in two different memory spaces. Either rename one of the
classes or, if they are the same class, place them in the same memory space.
(491) can’t find 0x* words for psect "*" in segment "*" (Linker)
One of the main tasks the linker performs is positioning the blocks (or psects) of code
and data that is generated from the program into the memory available for the target
device. This error indicates that the linker was unable to find an area of free memory
large enough to accommodate one of the psects. The error message indicates the
name of the psect that the linker was attempting to position and the segment name
which is typically the name of a class which is defined with a linker -A option.

Section 4.15.1 “Compiler-Generated Psects” lists each compiler-generated psect and
what it contains. Typically psect names which are, or include, text relate to program
code. Names such as bss or data refer to variable blocks. This error can be due to
two reasons.
First, the size of the program or the program’s data has exceeded the total amount of
space on the selected device. In other words, some part of your device’s memory has
completely filled. If this is the case, then the size of the specified psect must be
reduced.
The second cause of this message is when the total amount of memory needed by the
psect being positioned is sufficient, but that this memory is fragmented in such a way
that the largest contiguous block is too small to accommodate the psect. The linker is
unable to split psects in this situation. That is, the linker cannot place part of a psect at
one location and part somewhere else. Thus, the linker must be able to find a contigu-
ous block of memory large enough for every psect. If this is the cause of the error, then
the psect must be split into smaller psects if possible.
To find out what memory is still available, generate and look in the map file, see
3.7.12 Mapped Linker Options for information on how to generate a map file. Search
for the string UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES. Under this heading, look for the name of the
segment specified in the error message. If the name is not present, then all the memory
available for this psect has been allocated. If it is present, there will be one address
range specified under this segment for each free block of memory. Determine the size
of each block and compare this with the number of words specified in the error mes-
sage.
Psects containing code can be reduced by using all the compiler’s optimizations, or
restructuring the program. If a code psect must be split into two or more small psects,
this requires splitting a function into two or more smaller functions (which can call each
other). These functions can need to be placed in new modules.
Psects containing data can be reduced when invoking the compiler optimizations, but
the effect is less dramatic. The program can need to be rewritten so that it needs less
variables. If the default linker options must be changed, this can be done indirectly
through the driver using the driver -L- option (see 3.7.12 Mapped Linker Options).
3.7.12 Mapped Linker Options has information on interpreting the map file’s call graph
if the compiler you are using uses a compiled stack. (If the string Call graph: is not
present in the map file, then the compiled code uses a hardware stack.) If a data psect
needs to be split into smaller psects, the definitions for variables will need to be moved
to new modules or more evenly spread in the existing modules. Memory allocation for
auto variables is entirely handled by the compiler. Other than reducing the number of
these variables used, the programmer has little control over their operation. This
applies whether the compiled code uses a hardware or compiled stack.
For example, after receiving the message:
Can’t find 0x34 words (0x34 withtotal) for psect text
in segment CODE (error)
look in the map file for the ranges of unused memory.
UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES
CODE 00000244-0000025F
00001000-0000102f
RAM 00300014-00301FFB
In the CODE segment, there is 0x1c (0x25f-0x244+1) bytes of space available in one
block and 0x30 available in another block. Neither of these are large enough to accom-
modate the psect text which is 0x34 bytes long. Notice that the total amount of mem-
ory available is larger than 0x34 bytes.

(492) attempt to position absolute psect "*" is illegal (Linker)

This psect is absolute and should not have an address specified in a -P option. Either
remove the abs psect flag, or remove the -P linker option.
(493) origin of psect "*" is defined more than once (Linker)

The origin of this psect is defined more than once. There is most likely more than one
-p linker option specifying this psect.
(494) bad -P format "*/*" (Linker)

The -P option given to the linker is malformed. This option specifies placement of a
psect, for example:
-Ptext=10g0h
Possibly, you meant:
-Ptext=10f0h
(495) use of both "with=" and "INCLASS/INCLASS" allocation is illegal (Linker)

It is not legal to specify both the link and location of a psect as within a class, when that
psect was also defined using a with psect flag.
(497) psect "*" exceeds max size: *h > *h (Linker)

The psect has more bytes in it than the maximum allowed as specified using the size
psect flag.
(498) psect "*" exceeds address limit: *h > *h (Linker)

The maximum address of the psect exceeds the limit placed on it using the limit
psect flag. Either the psect needs to be linked at a different location or there is too much
code/data in the psect.
(499) undefined symbol: (Assembler, Linker)

The symbol following is undefined at link time. This could be due to spelling error, or
failure to link an appropriate module.

MESSAGES 500-749
(500) undefined symbols: (Linker)

A list of symbols follows that were undefined at link time. These errors could be due to
spelling error, or failure to link an appropriate module.
(501) program entry point is defined more than once (Linker)

There is more than one entry point defined in the object files given the linker. End entry
point is specified after the END directive. The runtime startup code defines the entry
point, for example:
powerup:
goto start
END powerup ; end of file and define entry point
; other files that use END should not define another entry point
(502) incomplete * record body: length = * (Linker)

An object file contained a record with an illegal size. This probably means the file is
truncated or not an object file. Contact Microchip Technical Support with details.
(503) ident records do not match (Linker)

The object files passed to the linker do not have matching ident records. This means
they are for different device types.
(504) object code version is greater than *.* (Linker)

The object code version of an object module is higher than the highest version the
linker is known to work with. Check that you are using the correct linker. Contact
Microchip Technical Support if you have not patched the linker.
(505) no end record found inobject file (Linker)

An object file did not contain an end record. This probably means the file is corrupted
or not an object file. Contact Microchip Technical Support if the object file was
generated by the compiler.
(506) object file record too long: *+* (Linker)

(507) unexpected end of file in object file (Linker)

(508) relocation offset (*) out of range 0..*-*-1 (Linker)

(509) illegal relocation size: * (Linker)

There is an error in the object code format read by the linker. This either means you are
using a linker that is out of date, or that there is an internal error in the assembler or
linker. Contact Microchip Technical Support with details if the object file was created by
the compiler.

(510) complex relocation not supported for -R or -L options (Linker)

The linker was given a -R or -L option with file that contain complex relocation.
(511) bad complex range check (Linker)

(512) unknown complex operator 0x* (Linker)

(513) bad complex relocation (Linker)

The linker has been asked to perform complex relocation that is not syntactically
correct. Probably means an object file is corrupted.
(514) illegal relocation type: * (Linker)

An object file contained a relocation record with an illegal relocation type. This probably
means the file is corrupted or not an object file. Contact Microchip Technical Support
with details if the object file was created by the compiler.
(515) unknown symbol type * (Linker)

(516) text record has bad length: *-*-(*+1) < 0 (Linker)

(520) function "*" is never called (Linker)

This function is never called. This cannot represent a problem, but space could be
saved by removing it. If you believe this function should be called, check your source
code. Some assembler library routines are never called, although they are actually exe-
cute. In this case, the routines are linked in a special sequence so that program
execution falls through from one routine to the next.
(521) call depth exceeded by function "*" (Linker)

The call graph shows that functions are nested to a depth greater than specified.
(522) library "*" is badly ordered (Linker)

This library is badly ordered. It will still link correctly, but it will link faster if better
ordered.
(523) argument to -W option (*) illegal and ignored (Linker)

The argument to the linker option -w is out of range. This option controls two features.
For warning levels, the range is -9 to 9. For the map file width, the range is greater than
or equal to 10.
(524) unable to open list file "*": * (Linker)

The named list file could not be opened. The linker would be trying to fixup the list file
so that it will contain absolute addresses. Ensure that an assembler list file was gener-
ated during the compilation stage. Alternatively, remove the assembler list file
generation option from the link step.

(525) too many address (memory) spaces; space (*) ignored (Linker)
The limit to the number of address spaces (specified with the PSECT assembler
directive) is currently 16.
(526) psect "*" not specified in -P option (first appears in "*") (Linker)
This psect was not specified in a -P or -A option to the linker. It has been linked at the
end of the program, which is probably not where you wanted it.
(528) no start record; entry point defaults to zero (Linker)

None of the object files passed to the linker contained a start record. The start address
of the program has been set to zero. This can be harmless, but it is recommended that
you define a start address in your startup module by using the END directive.
(529) usage: objtohex [-Ssymfile] [object-file [HEX-file]] (Objtohex)

Improper usage of the command-line tool objtohex. If you are not invoking this tool
directly, this is an internal compiler error, and you should contact Microchip Technical
(593) can’t find 0x* words (0x* withtotal) for psect "*" in segment "*" (Linker)
See message (491).
(594) undefined symbol: (Linker)

The symbol following is undefined at link time. This could be due to spelling error, or
failure to link an appropriate module.
(595) undefined symbols: (Linker)

A list of symbols follows that were undefined at link time. These errors could be due to
spelling error, or failure to link an appropriate module.
(596) segment "*" (*-*) overlaps segment "*" (*-*) (Linker)

The named segments have overlapping code or data. Check the addresses being
assigned by the -P linker option.
(599) No psect classes given for COFF write (Cromwell)

CROMWELL requires that the program memory psect classes be specified to produce a
COFF file. Ensure that you are using the -N option.
(600) No chip arch given for COFF write (Cromwell)

CROMWELL requires that the chip architecture be specified to produce a COFF file.
Ensure that you are using the -P option.
(601) Unknown chip arch "*" for COFF write (Cromwell)

The chip architecture specified for producing a COFF file isn’t recognized by
CROMWELL. Ensure that you are using the -P option, and that the architecture is
correctly specified.
(602) null file format name (Cromwell)

The -I or -O option to CROMWELL must specify a file format.

(603) ambiguous file format name "*" (Cromwell)

The input or output format specified to CROMWELL is ambiguous. These formats are
specified with the -i key and -o key options respectively.
(604) unknown file format name "*" (Cromwell)

The output format specified to CROMWELL is unknown, for example:
cromwell -m -P16F877 main.HEX main.sym -ocot
and output file type of cot, did you mean cof?
(605) did not recognize format of input file (Cromwell)

The input file to CROMWELL is required to have a Cromwell map file (CMF), COD, Intel
HEX, Motorola HEX, COFF, OMF51, ELF, UBROF or HI-TECH format.
(606) inconsistent symbol tables (Cromwell)

(607) inconsistent line number tables (Cromwell)

(608) bad path specification (Cromwell)

(609) missing device spec after -P (Cromwell)

The -p option to CROMWELL must specify a device name.
(610) missing psect classes after -N (Cromwell)

CROMWELL requires that the -N option be given a list of the names of psect classes.
(611) too many input files (Cromwell)

To many input files have been specified to be converted by CROMWELL.
(612) too many output files (Cromwell)

To many output file formats have been specified to CROMWELL.
(613) no output file format specified (Cromwell)

The output format must be specified to CROMWELL.
(614) no input files specified (Cromwell)

CROMWELL must have an input file to convert.
(616) option -Cbaseaddr is illegal with options -R or -L (Linker)

The linker option -Cbaseaddr cannot be used in conjunction with either the -R or -L
linker options.

(618) error reading COD file data (Cromwell)

An error occurred reading the input COD file. Confirm the spelling and path of the file
specified on the command line.
(619) I/O error reading symbol table (Cromwell)

The COD file has an invalid format in the specified record.
(620) filename index out of range in line number record (Cromwell)

The COD file has an invalid value in the specified record.
(621) error writing ELF/DWARF section "*" on "*" (Cromwell)

An error occurred writing the indicated section to the given file. Confirm the spelling and
path of the file specified on the command line.
(622) too many type entries (Cromwell)

(623) bad class in type hashing (Cromwell)

(624) bad class in type compare (Cromwell)

(625) too many files in COFF file (Cromwell)

(626) string lookup failed in COFF: get_string() (Cromwell)

(627) missing "*" in SDB file "*" line * column * (Cromwell)

(629) bad storage class "*" in SDB file "*" line * column * (Cromwell)
(630) invalid syntax for prefix list in SDB file "*" (Cromwell)
(631) syntax error at token "*" in SDB file "*" line * column * (Cromwell)
(632) can’t handle address size (*) (Cromwell)


(633) unknown symbol class (*) (Cromwell)

CROMWELL has encountered a symbol class in the symbol table of a COFF, Microchip
COFF, or ICOFF file which it cannot identify.
(634) error dumping "*" (Cromwell)

Either the input file to CROMWELL is of an unsupported type or that file cannot be
dumped to the screen.
(635) invalid HEX file "*" on line * (Cromwell)

The specified HEX file contains an invalid line. Contact Microchip Technical Support if
the HEX file was generated by the compiler.
(636) error in Intel HEX file "*" on line * (Cromwell, Hexmate)

An error was found at the specified line in the specified Intel HEX file. The HEX file may
be corrupt.
(637) unknown prefix "*" in SDB file "*" (Cromwell)

This is an internal compiler warning. Contact Microchip Technical Support with details.
(638) version mismatch: 0x* expected (Cromwell)

The input Microchip COFF file wasn’t produced using CROMWELL.
(639) zero bit width in Microchip optional header (Cromwell)

The optional header in the input Microchip COFF file indicates that the program or data
memory spaces are zero bits wide.
(668) prefix list did not match any SDB types (Cromwell)
(669) prefix list matched more than one SDB type (Cromwell)
(670) bad argument to -T (Clist)

The argument to the -T option to specify tab size was not present or correctly formed.
The option expects a decimal integer argument.
(671) argument to -T should be in range 1 to 64 (Clist)

The argument to the -T option to specify tab size was not in the expected range. The
option expects a decimal integer argument ranging from 1 to 64 inclusive.
(673) missing filename after * option (Objtohex)

The indicated option requires a valid file name. Ensure that the filename argument sup-
plied to this option exists and is spelled correctly.
(674) too many references to "*" (Cref)


(677) set_fact_bit on pic17! (Code Generator)

(678) case 55 on pic17! (Code Generator)

(679) unknown extraspecial: * (Code Generator)

(680) bad format for -P option (Code Generator)

(681) bad common spec in -P option (Code Generator)

(682) this architecture is not supported by the PICC™ Lite compiler (Code Generator)
A target device other than baseline, mid-range or highend was specified. This compiler
only supports devices from these architecture families.
(683) bank 1 variables are not supported by the PICC Lite compiler (Code Generator)
A variable with an absolute address located in bank 1 was detected. This compiler does
not support code generation of variables in this bank.
(684) bank 2 and 3 variables are not supported by the PICC Lite compiler
(Code Generator)
A variable with an absolute address located in bank 2 or 3 was detected. This compiler
does not support code generation of variables in these banks.
(685) bad putwsize() (Code Generator)

(686) bad switch size (*) (Code Generator)

(687) bad pushreg "*" (Code Generator)

(688) bad popreg "*" (Code Generator)

(689) unknown predicate "*" (Code Generator)


(690) interrupt function requires address (Code Generator)

The high end PIC devices support multiple interrupts. An @ address is required with the
interrupt definition to indicate with which vector this routine is associated, for example:
void interrupt isr(void) @ 0x10
{
}
This construct is not required for mid-range PIC devices.
(691) interrupt functions not implemented for 12 bit PIC MCU (Code Generator)
The 12-bit range of PIC MCU processors do not support interrupts.
(692) more than one interrupt level is associated with the interrupt function "*"
(Code Generator)
Only one interrupt level can be associated with an interrupt function. Check to
ensure that only one interrupt_level pragma has been used with the function
specified. This pragma can be used more than once on main-line functions that are
called from interrupt functions. For example:
#pragma interrupt_level 1 /* oops -- which is it to be: 0 or 1? */
{
(693) 0 (default) or 1 are the only acceptable interrupt levels for this function
(Code Generator)
The only possible interrupt levels are 0 or 1. Check to ensure that all
interrupt_level pragmas use these levels.
#pragma interrupt_level 2 /* oops -- only 0 or 1 */
{
}
(694) no interrupt strategy available (Code Generator)

The device does not support saving and subsequent restoring of registers during an
interrupt service routine.
(695) duplicate case label (*) (Code Generator)

There are two case labels with the same value in this switch statement, for example:
switch(in) {
case ’0’: /* if this is case ’0’... */
b++;
break;
case ’0’: /* then what is this case? */
b--;
break;
}
(696) out-of-range case label (*) (Code Generator)

This case label is not a value that the controlling expression can yield, and thus this
label will never be selected.

(697) non-constant case label (Code Generator)

A case label in this switch statement has a value which is not a constant.
(698) bit variables must be global or static (Code Generator)

A bit variable cannot be of type auto. If you require a bit variable with scope local
to a block of code or function, qualify it static, for example:
bit proc(int a)
{
bit bb; /* oops -- this should be: static bit bb; */
bb = (a > 66);
return bb;
}
(699) no case labels in switch (Code Generator)

There are no case labels in this switch statement, for example:
switch(input) {
} /* there is nothing to match the value of input */
(700) truncation of enumerated value (Code Generator)

An enumerated value larger than the maximum value supported by this compiler was
detected and has been truncated, for example:
enum { ZERO, ONE, BIG=0x99999999 } test_case;
(701) unreasonable matching depth (Code Generator)

(702) regused(): bad arg to G (Code Generator)

(703) bad GN (Code Generator)

(704) bad RET_MASK (Code Generator)

(705) bad which (*) after I (Code Generator)

(706) bad which in expand() (Code Generator)

(707) bad SX (Code Generator)

(708) bad mod "+" for how = "*" (Code Generator)


(709) metaregister "*" can’t be used directly (Code Generator)

(710) bad U usage (Code Generator)

(711) bad how in expand() (Code Generator)

(712) can’t generate code for this expression (Code Generator)

This error indicates that a C expression is too difficult for the code generator to actually
compile. For successful code generation, the code generator must know how to com-
pile an expression and there must be enough resources (i.e., registers or temporary
memory locations) available. Simplifying the expression, i.e., using a temporary
variable to hold an intermediate result, can often bypass this situation.
This error can also be issued if the code being compiled is unusual. For example, code
which writes to a const-qualified object is illegal and will result in warning messages,
but the code generator can unsuccessfully try to produce code to perform the write.
This error can also result from an attempt to redefine a function that uses the
intrinsic pragma.
(713) bad initialization list (Code Generator)

(714) bad intermediate code (Code Generator)

(715) bad pragma "*" (Code Generator)

The code generator has been passed a pragma directive that it does not understand.
This implies that the pragma you have used is not implemented for the target device.
(716) bad argument to -M option "*" (Code Generator)

The code generator has been passed a -M option that it does not understand. This
should not happen if it is being invoked by a standard compiler driver.
(718) incompatible intermediate code version; should be *.* (Code Generator)

The intermediate code file produced by P1 is not the correct version for use with this
code generator. This is either that incompatible versions of one or more compilers have
been installed in the same directory, or a temporary file error has occurred leading to
corruption of a temporary file. Check the setting of the TEMP environment variable. If
it refers to a long path name, change it to something shorter. Contact Microchip
Technical Support with details if required.
(720) multiple free: * (Code Generator)


(721) element count must be constant expression (Code Generator)

The expression that determines the number of elements in an array must be a constant
expression. Variables qualified as const do not form such an expression.
const unsigned char mCount = 5;
int mDeadtimeArr[mCount]; // oops -- the size cannot be a variable
(722) bad variable syntax in intermediate code (Code Generator)

(723) function definitions nested too deep (Code Generator)

This error is unlikely to happen with C code, because C cannot have nested functions!
Contact Microchip Technical Support with details.
(724) bad op (*) in revlog() (Code Generator)

(726) bad op "*" in uconval() (Code Generator)

(727) bad op "*" in bconfloat() (Code Generator)

This is an internal code generator error. Contact Microchip Technical Support with
details.
(728) bad op "*" in confloat() (Code Generator)

(729) bad op "*" in conval() (Code Generator)

(730) bad op "*" (Code Generator)

(731) expression error with reserved word (Code Generator)

(732) initialization of bit types is illegal (Code Generator)

Variables of type bit cannot be initialized, for example:
bit b1 = 1; /* oops! b1 must be assigned after its definition */
(733) bad string "*" in pragma "psect" (Code Generator)

The code generator has been passed a pragma psect directive that has a badly
formed string, for example:
#pragma psect text /* redirect text psect into what? */
#pragma psect text=special_text

(734) too many "psect" pragmas (Code Generator)

Too many #pragma psect directives have been used.
(735) bad string "*" in pragma "stack_size" (Code Generator)

The argument to the stack_size pragma is malformed. This pragma must be followed
by a number representing the maximum allowed stack size.
(737) unknown argument "*" to pragma "switch" (Code Generator)

The #pragma switch directive has been used with an invalid switch code generation
method. Possible arguments are: auto , simple and direct.
(739) error closing output file (Code Generator)

The compiler detected an error when closing a file. Contact Microchip Technical
(740) zero dimension array is illegal (Code Generator)

The code generator has been passed a declaration that results in an array having a
zero dimension.
(741) bitfield too large (* bits) (Code Generator)

The maximum number of bits in a bit-field is 8, the same size as the storage unit width.
struct {
unsigned flag : 1;
unsigned value : 12; /* oops -- that’s larger than 8 bits wide */
unsigned cont : 6;
} object;
(742) function "*" argument evaluation overlapped (Linker)

A function call involves arguments which overlap between two functions. This could
occur with a call like:
void fn1(void)
{
fn3( 7, fn2(3), fn2(9)); /* Offending call */
}
char fn2(char fred)
{
return fred + fn3(5,1,0);
}
char fn3(char one, char two, char three)
{
return one+two+three;
}
where fn1 is calling fn3 , and two arguments are evaluated by calling fn2 , which in
turn calls fn3. The program structure should be modified to prevent this type of call
sequence.
(743) divide by zero (Code Generator)

An expression involving a division by zero has been detected in your code.

(744) static object "*" has zero size (Code Generator)

A static object has been declared, but has a size of zero.
(745) nodecount = * (Code Generator)

(746) object "*" qualified const but not initialized (Code Generator)
An object has been qualified as const, but there is no initial value supplied at the defi-
nition. As this object cannot be written by the C program, this can imply the initial value
was accidentally omitted.
(747) unrecognized option "*" to -Z (Code Generator)

(748) variable "*" possibly used before being assigned a value (Code Generator)
This variable has possibly been used before it was assigned a value. Because it is an
auto variable, this will result in it having an unpredictable value, for example:
void main(void)
{
int a;
if(a) /* oops -- ’a’ has never been assigned a value */
process();
}
(749) unknown register name "*" used with pragma (Linker)


MESSAGES 750-999
(750) constant operand to || or && (Code Generator)

One operand to the logical operators || or && is a constant. Check the expression for
missing or badly placed parentheses. This message can also occur if the global opti-
mizer is enabled and one of the operands is an auto or static local variable whose
value has been tracked by the code generator, for example:
{
int a;
a = 6;
if(a || b) /* a is 6, therefore this is always true */
b++;
(751) arithmetic overflow in constant expression (Code Generator)

A constant expression has been evaluated by the code generator that has resulted in
a value that is too big for the type of the expression. The most common code to trigger
this warning is assignments to signed data types. For example:
signed char c;
c = 0xFF;
As a signed 8-bit quantity, c can only be assigned values -128 to 127. The constant
is equal to 255 and is outside this range. If you mean to set all bits in this variable, then
use either of:
c = ~0x0;
c = -1;
which sets all the bits in the variable, regardless of variable size, and without warning.
This warning can also be triggered by intermediate values overflowing. For example:
unsigned int i; /* assume ints are 16 bits wide */
i = 240 * 137; /* this should be okay, right? */
A quick check with your calculator reveals that 240 * 137 is 32880 which can easily be
stored in an unsigned int, but a warning is produced. Why? Because 240 and 137
and both signed int values. Therefore the result of the multiplication must also be
a signed int value, but a signed int cannot hold the value 32880. (Both operands
are constant values so the code generator can evaluate this expression at compile
time, but it must do so following all the ANSI C rules.) The following code forces the
multiplication to be performed with an unsigned result:
i = 240u * 137; /* force at least one operand
to be unsigned */
(752) conversion to shorter data type (Code Generator)

Truncation can occur in this expression as the lvalue is of shorter type than the
rvalue, for example:
char a;
int b, c;
a = b + c; /* int to char conversion
can result in truncation */

(753) undefined shift (* bits) (Code Generator)

An attempt has been made to shift a value by a number of bits equal to or greater than
the number of bits in the data type. This will produce an undefined result on many pro-
cessors. This is non-portable code and is flagged as having undefined results by the C
Standard, for example:
int input;
input <<= 33; /* oops -- that shifts the entire value out */
(754) bitfield comparison out of range (Code Generator)

This is the result of comparing a bit-field with a value when the value is out of range of
the bit-field. That is, comparing a 2-bit bit-field to the value 5 will never be true as a 2-bit
bit-field has a range from 0 to 3. For example:
struct {
unsigned mask : 2; /* mask can hold values 0 to 3 */
} value;
int compare(void)
{
return (value.mask == 6); /* test can
}
(755) divide by zero (Code Generator)

A constant expression that was being evaluated involved a division by zero, for exam-
ple:
a /= 0; /* divide by 0: was this what you were intending */

(757) constant conditional branch (Code Generator)

A conditional branch (generated by an if, for, while statement etc.) always follows
the same path. This will be some sort of comparison involving a variable and a constant
expression. For the code generator to issue this message, the variable must have local
scope (either auto or static local) and the global optimizer must be enabled, possi-
bly at higher level than 1, and the warning level threshold can need to be lower than
the default level of 0.
The global optimizer keeps track of the contents of local variables for as long as is pos-
sible during a function. For C code that compares these variables to constants, the
result of the comparison can be deduced at compile time and the output code hard
coded to avoid the comparison, for example:
{
int a, b;
a = 5;
/* this can never be false;
always perform the true statement */
if(a == 5)
b = 6;
will produce code that sets a to 5, then immediately sets b to 6.
No code will be produced for the comparison if(a == 5). If a was a global variable,
it can be that other functions (particularly interrupt functions) can modify it and so
tracking the variable cannot be performed.
This warning can indicate more than an optimization made by the compiler. It can indi-
cate an expression with missing or badly placed parentheses, causing the evaluation
to yield a value different to what you expected.
This warning can also be issued because you have written something like while(1).
To produce an infinite loop, use for(;;).
A similar situation arises with for loops, for example:
{
int a, b;
/* this loop must iterate at least once */
for(a=0; a!=10; a++)
b = func(a);
In this case the code generator can again pick up that a is assigned the value 0, then
immediately checked to see if it is equal to 10. Because a is modified during the for
loop, the comparison code cannot be removed, but the code generator will adjust the
code so that the comparison is not performed on the first pass of the loop; only on the
subsequent passes. This cannot reduce code size, but it will speed program execution.

(758) constant conditional branch: possible use of "=" instead of "==" (Code Generator)
There is an expression inside an if or other conditional construct, where a constant is
being assigned to a variable. This can mean you have inadvertently used an assign-
ment = instead of a compare ==, for example:
int a, b;
if(a = 4)
b = 6;
will assign the value 4 to a, then , as the value of the assignment is always true, the
comparison can be omitted and the assignment to b always made. Did you mean:
if(a == 4)
b = 6;
which checks to see if a is equal to 4.
(759) expression generates no code (Code Generator)

This expression generates no output code. Check for things like leaving off the
parentheses in a function call, for example:
int fred;
fred; /* this is valid, but has no effect at all */
Some devices require that special function register need to be read to clear hardware
flags. To accommodate this, in some instances the code generator does produce code
for a statement which only consists of a variable ID. This can happen for variables
which are qualified as volatile. Typically the output code will read the variable, but
not do anything with the value read.
(760) portion of expression has no effect (Code Generator)

Part of this expression has no side effects and no effect on the value of the expression,
for example:
int a, b, c;
a = b,c; /* "b" has no effect,
was that meant to be a comma? */
(761) sizeof yields 0 (Code Generator)

The code generator has taken the size of an object and found it to be zero. This almost
certainly indicates an error in your declaration of a pointer; i.e., you can have declared
a pointer to a zero length array. In general, pointers to arrays are of little use. If you
require a pointer to an array of objects of unknown length, you only need a pointer to a
single object that can then be indexed or incremented.
(762) constant truncated when assigned to bitfield (Code Generator)

A constant value is too large for a bitfield structure member to which it is being
assigned, for example:
struct INPUT {
unsigned a : 3;
unsigned b : 5;
} input_grp;
input_grp.a = 0x12; /* oops -- 0x12 cannot fit into a 3-bit wide
object */

(763) constant left operand to "? :" operator (Code Generator)

The left operand to a conditional operator ? is constant, thus the result of the tertiary
operator ?: will always be the same, for example:
a = 8 ? b : c; /* this is the same as saying a = b; */
(764) mismatched comparison (Code Generator)

A comparison is being made between a variable or expression and a constant value
which is not in the range of possible values for that expression, for example:
unsigned char c;
if(c > 300) /* oops -- how can this be true? */
close();
(765) degenerate unsigned comparison (Code Generator)

There is a comparison of an unsigned value with zero, which will always be true or
false, for example:
unsigned char c;
if(c >= 0)
will always be true, because an unsigned value can never be less than zero.
(766) degenerate signed comparison (Code Generator)

There is a comparison of a signed value with the most negative value possible for this
type, such that the comparison will always be true or false, for example:
char c;
if(c >= -128)
will always be true, because an 8 bit signed char has a maximum negative value of
-128.
(767) constant truncated to bitfield width (Code Generator)

A constant value is too large for a bit-field structure member on which it is operating,
for example:
struct INPUT {
unsigned a : 3;
unsigned b : 5;
} input_grp;
input_grp.a |= 0x13; /* oops -- 0x13 to large for 3-bit wide object
*/
(768) constant relational expression (Code Generator)

There is a relational expression that will always be true or false. This, for example, can
be the result of comparing an unsigned number with a negative value; or comparing
a variable with a value greater than the largest number it can represent, for example:
unsigned int a;
if(a == -10) /* if a is unsigned, how can it be -10? */
b = 9;
(769) no space for macro definition (Assembler)

The assembler has run out of memory.

(772) include files nested too deep (Assembler)

Macro expansions and include file handling have filled up the assembler’s internal
stack. The maximum number of open macros and include files is 30.
(773) macro expansions nested too deep (Assembler)

Macro expansions in the assembler are nested too deep. The limit is 30 macros and
include files nested at one time.
(774) too many macro parameters (Assembler)

There are too many macro parameters on this macro definition.
(776) can’t allocate space for object "*" (offs: *) (Assembler)

(777) can’t allocate space for opnd structure within object "*" (offs: *) (Assembler)
(780) too many psects defined (Assembler)

There are too many psects defined! Boy, what a program!
(781) can’t enter abs psect (Assembler)

(782) REMSYM error (Assembler)

(783) "with" psects are cyclic (Assembler)

If Psect A is to be placed “with” Psect B, and Psect B is to be placed “with” Psect A,
there is no hierarchy. The with flag is an attribute of a psect and indicates that this
psect must be placed in the same memory page as the specified psect.
Remove a with flag from one of the psect declarations. Such an assembler
declaration can look like:
psect my_text,local,class=CODE,with=basecode
which will define a psect called my_text and place this in the same page as the psect
basecode.
(784) overfreed (Assembler)

(785) too many temporary labels (Assembler)

There are too many temporary labels in this assembler file. The assembler allows a
maximum of 2000 temporary labels.
(787) can’t handle "v_rtype" of * in copyexpr (Assembler)


(788) invalid character "*" in number (Assembler)

A number contained a character that was not part of the range 0-9 or 0-F.
(790) end of file inside conditional (Assembler)

END-of-FILE was encountered while scanning for an “endif” to match a previous “if”.
(793) unterminated macro argument (Assembler)

An argument to a macro is not terminated. Note that angle brackets (“< >”) are used to
quote macro arguments.
(794) invalid number syntax (Assembler)

The syntax of a number is invalid. This, for example, can be use of 8 or 9 in an octal
number, or other malformed numbers.
(796) use of LOCAL outside macros is illegal (Assembler)

The LOCAL directive is only legal inside macros. It defines local labels that will be
unique for each invocation of the macro.
(797) syntax error in LOCAL argument (Assembler)

A symbol defined using the LOCAL assembler directive in an assembler macro is syn-
tactically incorrect. Ensure that all symbols and all other assembler identifiers conform
with the assembly language of the target device.
(798) use of macro arguments in a LOCAL directive is illegal (Assembler)

The list of labels after the directive LOCAL cannot include any of the formal parameters
to an enclosing macro, for example:
mmm MACRO a1
MOVE r0, #a1
LOCAL a1 ; oops -- the parameter cannot be used with LOCAL
ENDM
(799) REPT argument must be >= 0 (Assembler)

The argument to a REPT directive must be greater than zero, for example:
REPT -2 ; -2 copies of this code? */
MOVE r0, [r1]++
ENDM
(800) undefined symbol "*" (Assembler)

The named symbol is not defined in this module, and has not been specified GLOBAL.
(801) range check too complex (Assembler)

(802) invalid address after END directive (Assembler)

The start address of the program which is specified after the assembler END directive
must be a label in the current file.

(803) undefined temporary label (Assembler)

A temporary label has been referenced that is not defined. Note that a temporary label
must have a number >= 0.
(804) write error on object file (Assembler)

The assembler failed to write to an object file. This can be an internal compiler error.
(806) attempted to get an undefined object (*) (Assembler)

(807) attempted to set an undefined object (*) (Assembler)

(808) bad size in add_reloc() (Assembler)

(809) unknown addressing mode (*) (Assembler)

An unknown addressing mode was used in the assembly file.
(811) "cnt" too large (*) in display() (Assembler)

(814) device type not defined (Assembler)

The device must be defined either from the command line (e.g., -16c84), via the device
assembler directive, or via the LIST assembler directive.
(815) syntax error in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file contains non-standard syntax at the specified line.
(816) duplicate ARCH specification in chipinfo file "*" at line *

(Assembler, Driver)
The chipinfo file has a device section with multiple ARCH values. Only one ARCH value
is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact Microchip Technical
(817) unknown architecture in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver)

An chip architecture (family) that is unknown was encountered when reading the chip
INI file.
(818) duplicate BANKS for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a device section with multiple BANKS values. Only one BANKS
value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact Microchip

(819) duplicate ZEROREG for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a device section with multiple ZEROREG values. Only one
ZEROREG value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact
(820) duplicate SPAREBIT for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a device section with multiple SPAREBIT values. Only one
SPAREBIT value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact
(821) duplicate INTSAVE for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a device section with multiple INTSAVE values. Only one
INTSAVE value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact
(822) duplicate ROMSIZE for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a device section with multiple ROMSIZE values. Only one
ROMSIZE value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact
(823) duplicate START for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a device section with multiple START values. Only one START
value is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact Microchip
(824) duplicate LIB for "*" in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a device section with multiple LIB values. Only one LIB value is
allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact Microchip Technical
(825) too many RAMBANK lines in chipinfo file for "*" (Assembler)
The chipinfo file contains a device section with too many RAMBANK fields. Reduce the
number of values.
(826) inverted ram bank in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver)

The second HEX number specified in the RAM field in the chipinfo file must be greater
in value than the first.
(827) too many COMMON lines in chipinfo file for "*" (Assembler)
There are too many lines specifying common (access bank) memory in the chip
configuration file.
(828) inverted common bank in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver)

The second HEX number specified in the COMMON field in the chipinfo file must be
greater in value than the first. Contact Microchip Technical Support if you have not
modified the chipinfo INI file.

(829) unrecognized line in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file contains a device section with an unrecognized line. Contact Microchip
Technical Support if the INI has not been edited.
(830) missing ARCH specification for "*" in chipinfo file (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a device section without an ARCH values. The architecture of the
device must be specified. Contact Microchip Technical Support if the chipinfo file has
not been modified.
(832) empty chip info file "*" (Assembler)

The chipinfo file contains no data. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, con-
tact Microchip Technical Support with details.
(833) no valid entries in chipinfo file (Assembler)

The chipinfo file contains no valid device descriptions.
(834) page width must be >= 60 (Assembler)

The listing page width must be at least 60 characters. Any less will not allow a properly
formatted listing to be produced, for example:
LIST C=10 ; the page width will need to be wider than this
(835) form length must be >= 15 (Assembler)

The form length specified using the -F length option must be at least 15 lines. Setting
this length to zero is allowed and turns off paging altogether. The default value is zero
(pageless).
(836) no file arguments (Assembler)

The assembler has been invoked without any file arguments. It cannot assemble
anything.
(839) relocation too complex (Assembler)

The complex relocation in this expression is too big to be inserted into the object file.
(840) phase error (Assembler)

The assembler has calculated a different value for a symbol on two different passes.
This is commonly due to the redefinition of a psect with conflicting delta values (see
Section 5.2.9.3.4 “Delta”).
(841) bad source/destination for movfp/movpf instruction (Assembler)

The absolute address specified with the MOVFP/MOVPF instruction is too large.
(842) bad bit number (Assembler)

A bit number must be an absolute expression in the range 0-7.

(843) a macro name can’t also be an EQU/SET symbol (Assembler)

An EQU or SET symbol has been found with the same name as a macro. This is not
allowed. For example:
getval MACRO
MOV r0, r1
ENDM
getval EQU 55h ; oops -- choose a different name to the macro
(844) lexical error (Assembler)

An unrecognized character or token has been seen in the input.
(845) symbol "*" defined more than once (Assembler)

This symbol has been defined in more than one place. The assembler will issue this
error if a symbol is defined more than once in the same module, for example:
_next:
MOVE r0, #55
MOVE [r1], r0
_next: ; oops -- choose a different name
The linker will issue this warning if the symbol (C or assembler) was defined multiple
times in different modules. The names of the modules are given in the error message.
Note that C identifiers often have an underscore prepended to their name after
compilation.
(846) relocation error (Assembler)

It is not possible to add together two relocatable quantities. A constant can be added
to a relocatable value, and two relocatable addresses in the same psect can be sub-
tracted. An absolute value must be used in various places where the assembler must
know a value at assembly time.
(847) operand error (Assembler)

The operand to this opcode is invalid. Check your assembler reference manual for the
proper form of operands for this instruction.
(848) label defined in this module has also been declared EXTRN (Assembler)
The definition for an assembly label, and an EXTRN declaration for the same symbol,
appear in the same module. Use GLOBAL instead of EXTRN if you want this symbol to
be accessible from other modules.
(849) illegal instruction for this device (Assembler)

The instruction is not supported by this device.
(850) PAGESEL not usable with this device (Assembler)

The PAGESEL pseudo-instruction is not usable with the device selected.
(851) illegal destination (Assembler)

The destination (either ,f or ,w ) is not correct for this instruction.

(852) radix must be from 2 - 16 (Assembler)

The radix specified using the RADIX assembler directive must be in the range from 2
(binary) to 16 (hexadecimal).
(853) invalid size for FNSIZE directive (Assembler)

The assembler FNSIZE assembler directive arguments must be positive constants.
(855) ORG argument must be a positive constant (Assembler)

An argument to the ORG assembler directive must be a positive constant or a symbol
which has been equated to a positive constant, for example:
ORG -10 /* this must a positive offset to the current psect */
(856) ALIGN argument must be a positive constant (Assembler)

The align assembler directive requires a non-zero positive integer argument.
(857) use of both local and global psect flags is illegal with same psect (Linker)
A local psect cannot have the same name as a global psect, for example:
psect text,class=CODE ; the text psect is implicitly global
MOVE r0, r1
; elsewhere:
psect text,local,class=CODE
MOVE r2, r4
The global flag is the default for a psect if its scope is not explicitly stated.
(859) argument to C option must specify a positive constant (Assembler)

The parameter to the LIST assembler control’s C= option (which sets the column width
of the listing output) must be a positive decimal constant number, for example:
LIST C=a0h ; constant must be decimal and positive,
try: LIST C=80
(860) page width must be >= 49 (Assembler)

The page width suboption to the LIST assembler directive must specify a width of at
least 49.
(861) argument to N option must specify a positive constant (Assembler)

The parameter to the LIST assembler control’s N option (which sets the page length
for the listing output) must be a positive constant number, for example:
LIST N=-3 ; page length must be positive
(862) symbol is not external (Assembler)

A symbol has been declared as EXTRN but is also defined in the current module.
(863) symbol can’t be both extern and public (Assembler)

If the symbol is declared as extern, it is to be imported. If it is declared as public, it is to
be exported from the current module. It is not possible for a symbol to be both.

(864) argument to "size" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler)
The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive’s size option must be a positive con-
stant number, for example:
PSECT text,class=CODE,size=-200 ; a negative size?
(865) psect flag "size" redefined (Assembler)

The size flag to the PSECT assembler directive is different from a previous PSECT
psect spdata,class=RAM,size=400
; elsewhere:
psect spdata,class=RAM,size=500
(866) argument to "reloc" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler)
The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive’s reloc option must be a positive
constant number, for example:
psect test,class=CODE,reloc=-4 ; the reloc must be positive
(867) psect flag "reloc" redefined (Assembler)

The reloc flag to the PSECT assembler directive is different from a previous PSECT
psect spdata,class=RAM,reloc=4
; elsewhere:
psect spdata,class=RAM,reloc=8
(868) argument to "delta" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler)
The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive’s DELTA option must be a positive
PSECT text,class=CODE,delta=-2 ; negative delta value doesn’t make
sense
(869) psect flag "delta" redefined (Assembler)

The ’DELTA’ option of a psect has been redefined more than once in the same module.
(870) argument to "pad" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler)
The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive’s ’PAD’ option must be a non-zero
positive integer.
(871) argument to "space" psect flag must specify a positive constant (Assembler)
The parameter to the PSECT assembler directive’s space option must be a positive
PSECT text,class=CODE,space=-1 ; space values start at zero
(872) psect flag "space" redefined (Assembler)

The space flag to the PSECT assembler directive is different from a previous PSECT
; elsewhere:

(873) a psect can only be in one class (Assembler)

You cannot assign a psect to more than one class. The psect was defined differently at
this point than when it was defined elsewhere. A psect’s class is specified via a flag as
in the following:
psect text,class=CODE
Look for other psect definitions that specify a different class name.
(874) a psect can only have one "with" option (Assembler)

A psect can only be placed with one other psect. Look for other psect definitions that
specify a different with psect name. A psect’s with option is specified via a flag, as
shown in the following:
psect bss,with=data
; elsewhere
psect bss,with=lktab ; oops -- bss is to be linked with two psects
(875) bad character constant in expression (Assembler)

The character constant was expected to consist of only one character, but was found
to be greater than one character or none at all. An assembler specific example:
MOV r0, #’12’ ; ’12’ specifies two characters
(876) syntax error (Assembler)

A syntax error has been detected. This could be caused a number of things.
(877) yacc stack overflow (Assembler)

(878) -S option used: "*" ignored (Driver)

The indicated assembly file has been supplied to the driver in conjunction with the -S
option. The driver really has nothing to do because the file is already an assembly file.
(880) invalid number of parameters. Use "* –HELP" for help (Driver)
Improper command-line usage of the of the compiler’s driver.
(881) setup succeeded (Driver)

The compiler has been successfully setup using the --setup driver option.
(883) setup failed (Driver)

The compiler was not successfully setup using the --setup driver option. Ensure that
the directory argument to this option is spelled correctly, is syntactically correct for your
host operating system and it exists.

(884) please ensure you have write permissions to the configuration file (Driver)
The compiler was not successfully setup using the --setup driver option because the
driver was unable to access the XML configuration file. Ensure that you have write per-
mission to this file. The driver will search the following configuration files in order:
• the file specified by the environment variable XC_XML
• the file /etc/xc.xml if the directory ’/etc ’ is writable and there is no .xc.xml
file in your home directory
• the file .xc.xml file in your home directory
If none of the files can be located, then the above error will occur.
(889) this * compiler has expired (Driver)

The demo period for this compiler has concluded.
(890) contact Microchip to purchase and re-activate this compiler (Driver)

The evaluation period of this demo installation of the compiler has expired. You will
need to purchase the compiler to re-activate it. If you sincerely believe the evaluation
period has ended prematurely, contact Microchip technical support.
(891) can’t open psect usage map file "*": * (Driver)

The driver was unable to open the indicated file. The psect usage map file is generated
by the driver when the driver option --summary=file is used. Ensure that the file is
not open in another application.
(892) can’t open memory usage map file "*": * (Driver)

The driver was unable to open the indicated file. The memory usage map file is gener-
ated by the driver when the driver option --summary=file is used. Ensure that the
file is not open in another application.
(893) can’t open HEX usage map file "*": * (Driver)

The driver was unable to open the indicated file. The HEX usage map file is generated
by the driver when the driver option --summary=file is used. Ensure that the file is
not open in another application.
(894) unknown source file type "*" (Driver)

The extension of the indicated input file could not be determined. Only files with the
extensions as, c, obj, usb, p1, lib or HEX are identified by the driver.
(895) can’t request and specify options in the one command (Driver)
The usage of the driver options --getoption and --setoption is mutually
exclusive.
(896) no memory ranges specified for data space (Driver)

No on-chip or external memory ranges have been specified for the data space memory
for the device specified.
(897) no memory ranges specified for program space (Driver)

No on-chip or external memory ranges have been specified for the program space
memory for the device specified.

(899) can’t open option file "*" for application "*": * (Driver)
An option file specified by a --getoption or --setoption driver option could not
be opened. If you are using the --setoption option, ensure that the name of the file
is spelled correctly and that it exists. If you are using the --getoption option ensure
that this file can be created at the given location or that it is not in use by any other
application.
(900) exec failed: * (Driver)

The subcomponent listed failed to execute. Does the file exist? Try re-installing the
compiler.
(902) no chip name specified; use "* –CHIPINFO" to see available chip names (Driver)
The driver was invoked without selecting what chip to build for. Running the driver with
the –CHIPINFO option will display a list of all chips that could be selected to build for.
(904) illegal format specified in "*" option (Driver)

The usage of this option was incorrect. Confirm correct usage with –HELP or refer to
the part of the manual that discusses this option.
(905) illegal application specified in "*" option (Driver)

The application given to this option is not understood or does not belong to the
compiler.
(907) unknown memory space tag "*" in "*" option specification (Driver)
A parameter to this memory option was a string but did not match any valid tags. Refer
to the section of this manual that describes this option to see what tags (if any) are valid
for this device.
(908) exit status = * (Driver)

One of the subcomponents being executed encountered a problem and returned an
error code. Other messages should have been reported by the subcomponent to
explain the problem that was encountered.
(913) "*" option can cause compiler errors in some standard header files (Driver)
Using this option will invalidate some of the qualifiers used in the standard header files,
resulting in errors. This issue and its solution are detailed in the section of this manual
that specifically discusses this option.
(915) no room for arguments (Preprocessor, Parser, Code Generator, Linker, Objtohex)
The code generator could not allocate any more memory.
(917) argument too long (Preprocessor, Parser)

(918) *: no match (Preprocessor, Parser)


(919) * in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

The specified parameter in the chip configuration file is illegal.
(920) empty chipinfo file (Driver, Assembler)

The chip configuration file was able to be opened but it was empty. Try re-installing the
compiler.
(922) chip "*" not present in chipinfo file "*" (Driver)

The chip selected does not appear in the compiler’s chip configuration file. Contact
Microchip to see whether support for this device is available or it is necessary to
upgrade the version of your compiler.
(923) unknown suboption "*" (Driver)

This option can take suboptions, but this suboption is not understood. This can just be
a simple spelling error. If not, –HELP to look up what suboptions are permitted here.
(924) missing argument to "*" option (Driver)

This option expects more data but none was given. Check the usage of this option.
(925) extraneous argument to "*" option (Driver)

This option does not accept additional data, yet additional data was given. Check the
usage of this option.
(926) duplicate "*" option (Driver)

This option can only appear once, but appeared more than once.
(928) bad "*" option value (Driver, Assembler)

The indicated option was expecting a valid hexadecimal integer argument.
(929) bad "*" option ranges (Driver)

This option was expecting a parameter in a range format
(start_of_range-end_of_range), but the parameter did not conform to this syntax.
(930) bad "*" option specification (Driver)

The parameters to this option were not specified correctly. Run the driver with –HELP
or refer to the driver’s chapter in this manual to verify the correct usage of this option.
(931) command file not specified (Driver)

Command file to this application, expected to be found after ’@’ or ’<’ on the com-
mand line was not found.
(939) no file arguments (Driver)

The driver has been invoked with no input files listed on its command line. If you are
getting this message while building through a third party IDE, perhaps the IDE could
not verify the source files to compile or object files to link and withheld them from the
command line.

(940) *-bit * placed at * (Objtohex)

Presenting the result of the requested calculation.
(941) bad "*" assignment; USAGE: ** (Hexmate)

An option to HEXMATE was incorrectly used or incomplete. Follow the usage supplied
by the message and ensure that the option has been formed correctly and completely.
(942) unexpected character on line * of file "*" (Hexmate)

File contains a character that was not valid for this type of file, the file can be corrupt.
For example, an Intel HEX file is expected to contain only ASCII representations of
hexadecimal digits, colons (:) and line formatting. The presence of any other characters
will result in this error.
(944) data conflict at address *h between * and * (Hexmate)

Sources to Hexmate request differing data to be stored to the same address. To force
one data source to override the other, use the ‘+’ specifier. If the two named sources of
conflict are the same source, then the source can contain an error.
(945) range (*h to *h) contained an indeterminate value (Hexmate)

The range for this calculation contained a value that could not be resolved. This can
happen if the result was to be stored within the address range of the calculation.
(948) result width must be between 1 and 4 bytes (Hexmate)

The requested byte size is illegal. Checksum results must be within 1 to 4 bytes wide.
Check the parameters to the -CKSUM option.
(949) start of range must be less than end of range (Hexmate)

The -CKSUM option has been given a range where the start is greater than the end.
The parameters can be incomplete or entered in the wrong order.
(951) start of fill range must be less than end of range (Hexmate)
The -FILL option has been given a range where the start is greater than the end. The
parameters can be incomplete or entered in the wrong order.
(953) unknown -HELP sub-option: * (Hexmate)

Invalid sub-option passed to -HELP. Check the spelling of the sub-option or use -HELP
with no sub-option to list all options.
(956) -SERIAL value must be between 1 and * bytes long (Hexmate)

The serial number being stored was out of range. Ensure that the serial number can be
stored in the number of bytes permissible by this option.
(958) too many input files specified; * file maximum (Hexmate)

Too many file arguments have been used. Try merging these files in several stages
rather than in one command.

(960) unexpected record type (*) on line * of "*" (Hexmate)

Intel HEX file contained an invalid record type. Consult the Intel HEX format
specification for valid record types.
(962) forced data conflict at address *h between * and * (Hexmate)

Sources to HEXMATE force differing data to be stored to the same address. More than
one source using the ‘+’ specifier store data at the same address. The actual data
stored there cannot be what you expect.
(963) range includes voids or unspecified memory locations (Hexmate)

The hash (checksum) range had gaps in data content. The runtime hash calculated is
likely to differ from the compile-time hash due to gaps/unused byes within the address
range that the hash is calculated over. Filling unused locations with a known value will
correct this.
(964) unpaired nibble in -FILL value will be truncated (Hexmate)

The hexadecimal code given to the FILL option contained an incomplete byte. The
incomplete byte (nibble) will be disregarded.
(965) -STRPACK option not yet implemented; option will be ignored (Hexmate)
This option currently is not available and will be ignored.
(966) no END record for HEX file "*" (Hexmate)

Intel HEX file did not contain a record of type END. The HEX file can be incomplete.
(967) unused function definition "*" (from line *) (Parser)

The indicated static function was never called in the module being compiled. Being
static, the function cannot be called from other modules so this warning implies the
function is never used. Either the function is redundant, or the code that was meant to
call it was excluded from compilation or misspelled the name of the function.
(968) unterminated string (Assembler)

A string constant appears not to have a closing quote.
(969) end of string in format specifier (Parser)

The format specifier for the printf() style function is malformed.
(970) character not valid at this point in format specifier (Parser)

The printf() style format specifier has an illegal character.
(971) type modifiers not valid with this format (Parser)

Type modifiers cannot be used with this format.
(972) only modifiers "h" and "l" valid with this format (Parser)
Only modifiers h (short ) and l (long ) are legal with this printf format specifier.
(973) only modifier "l" valid with this format (Parser)

The only modifier that is legal with this format is l (for long).

(974) type modifier already specified (Parser)

This type modifier has already be specified in this type.
(975) invalid format specifier or type modifier (Parser)

The format specifier or modifier in the printf-style string is illegal for this particular
format.
(976) field width not valid at this point (Parser)

A field width cannot appear at this point in a printf() type format specifier.
(978) this identifier is already an enum tag (Parser)

This identifier following a struct or union keyword is already the tag for an
enumerated type, and thus should only follow the keyword enum, for example:
enum IN {ONE=1, TWO};
struct IN { /* oops -- IN is already defined */
int a, b;
};
(979) this identifier is already a struct tag (Parser)

This identifier following a union or enum keyword is already the tag for a structure, and
thus should only follow the keyword struct, for example:
struct IN {
int a, b;
};
enum IN {ONE=1, TWO}; /* oops -- IN is already defined */
(980) this identifier is already a union tag (Parser)

This identifier following a struct or enum keyword is already the tag for a union, and
thus should only follow the keyword union, for example:
union IN {
int a, b;
};
enum IN {ONE=1, TWO}; /* oops -- IN is already defined */
(981) pointer required (Parser)

A pointer is required here, for example:
struct DATA data;
data->a = 9; /* data is a structure,
not a pointer to a structure */
(982) unknown op "*" in nxtuse() (Assembler)

(983) storage class redeclared (Parser)

A variable previously declared as being static , has now be redeclared as extern.

(984) type redeclared (Parser)

The type of this function or object has been redeclared. This can occur because of two
incompatible declarations, or because an implicit declaration is followed by an incom-
patible declaration, for example:
int a;
char a; /* oops -- what is the correct type? */
(985) qualifiers redeclared (Parser)

This function or variable has different qualifiers in different declarations.
(986) enum member redeclared (Parser)

A member of an enumeration is defined twice or more with differing values. Does the
member appear twice in the same list or does the name of the member appear in more
than one enum list?
(987) arguments redeclared (Parser)

The data types of the parameters passed to this function do not match its prototype.
(988) number of arguments redeclared (Parser)

The number of arguments in this function declaration does not agree with a previous
declaration of the same function.
(989) module has code below file base of *h (Linker)

This module has code below the address given, but the -C option has been used to
specify that a binary output file is to be created that is mapped to this address. This
would mean code from this module would have to be placed before the beginning of
the file! Check for missing psect directives in assembler files.
(990) modulus by zero in #if; zero result assumed (Preprocessor)

A modulus operation in a #if expression has a zero divisor. The result has been
assumed to be zero, for example:
#define ZERO 0
#if FOO%ZERO /* this will have an assumed result of 0 */
#define INTERESTING
#endif
(991) integer expression required (Parser)

In an enum declaration, values can be assigned to the members, but the expression
must evaluate to a constant of type int, for example:
enum {one = 1, two, about_three = 3.12};
/* no non-int values allowed */
(992) can’t find op (Assembler)

(993) some command-line options are disabled (Driver)

The compiler is operating in demo mode. Some command-line options are disabled.

(994) some command-line options are disabled and compilation is delayed (Driver)
The compiler is operating in demo mode. Some command-line options are disabled,
the compilation speed will be slower.
(995) some command-line options are disabled; code size is limited to 16kB, compilation
is delayed (Driver)
The compiler is operating in demo mode. Some command-line options are disabled;
the compilation speed will be slower, and the maximum allowed code size is limited to
16 KB.

MESSAGES 1000-1249
(1015) missing "*" specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

This attribute was expected to appear at least once but was not defined for this chip.
(1016) missing argument* to "*" specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)
This value of this attribute is blank in the chip configuration file.
(1017) extraneous argument* to "*" specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)
There are too many attributes for the listed specification in the chip configuration file.
(1018) illegal number of "*" specification* (* found; * expected) in chipinfo file "*" at line *
(Driver)
This attribute was expected to appear a certain number of times; but, it did not appear
for this chip.
(1019) duplicate "*" specification in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

This attribute can only be defined once but has been defined more than once for this
chip.
(1020) unknown attribute "*" in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

The chip configuration file contains an attribute that is not understood by this version of
the compiler. Has the chip configuration file or the driver been replaced with an equiv-
alent component from another version of this compiler?
(1021) syntax error reading "*" value in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)
The chip configuration file incorrectly defines the specified value for this device. If you
are modifying this file yourself, take care and refer to the comments at the beginning of
this file for a description on what type of values are expected here.
(1022) syntax error reading "*" range in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)
The chip configuration file incorrectly defines the specified range for this device. If you
are modifying this file yourself, take care and refer to the comments at the beginning of
this file for a description on what type of values are expected here.
(1024) syntax error in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

The chip configuration file contains a syntax error at the line specified.
(1025) unknown architecture in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Driver)

The attribute at the line indicated defines an architecture that is unknown to this
compiler.
(1026) missing architecture in chipinfo file "*" at line * (Assembler)

The chipinfo file has a device section without an ARCH values. The architecture of the
device must be specified. Contact Microchip Technical Support if the chipinfo file has
not been modified.

(1027) activation was successful (Driver)

The compiler was successfully activated.
(1028) activation was not successful - error code (*) (Driver)

The compiler did not activated successfully.
(1029) compiler not installed correctly - error code (*) (Driver)

This compiler has failed to find any activation information and cannot proceed to exe-
cute. The compiler can have been installed incorrectly or incompletely. The error code
quoted can help diagnose the reason for this failure. You can be asked for this failure
code if contacting Microchip for assistance with this problem.
(1030) Hexmate - Intel HEX editing utility (Build 1.%i) (Hexmate)

Indicating the version number of the HEXMATE being executed.
(1031) USAGE: * [input1.HEX] [input2.HEX]... [inputN.HEX] [options] (Hexmate)

The suggested usage of HEXMATE.
(1032) use –HELP=<option> for usage of these command line options (Hexmate)
More detailed information is available for a specific option by passing that option to the
HELP option.
(1033) available command-line options: (Hexmate)

This is a simple heading that appears before the list of available options for this
application.
(1034) type "*" for available options (Hexmate)

It looks like you need help. This advisory suggests how to get more information about
the options available to this application or the usage of these options.
(1035) bad argument count (*) (Parser)

The number of arguments to a function is unreasonable. This is an internal compiler
error. Contact Microchip Technical Support with details.
(1036) bad "*" optional header length (0x* expected) (Cromwell)

The length of the optional header in this COFF file was of an incorrect length.
(1037) short read on * (Cromwell)

When reading the type of data indicated in this message, it terminated before reaching
its specified length.
(1038) string table length too short (Cromwell)

The specified length of the COFF string table is less than the minimum.
(1039) inconsistent symbol count (Cromwell)

The number of symbols in the symbol table has exceeded the number indicated in the
COFF header.

(1040) bad : record 0x*, 0x* (Cromwell)

A record of the type specified failed to match its own value.
(1041) short record (Cromwell)

While reading a file, one of the file’s records ended short of its specified length.
(1042) unknown * record type 0x* (Cromwell)

The type indicator of this record did not match any valid types for this file format.
(1043) unknown optional header (Cromwell)

When reading this Microchip COFF file, the optional header within the file header was
of an incorrect length.
(1044) end of file encountered (Cromwell, Linker)

The end of the file was found while more data was expected. Has this input file been
truncated?
(1045) short read on block of * bytes (Cromwell)

A while reading a block of byte data from a UBROF record, the block ended before the
expected length.
(1046) short string read (Cromwell)

A while reading a string from a UBROF record, the string ended before the specified
length.
(1047) bad type byte for UBROF file (Cromwell)

This UBROF file did not begin with the correct record.
(1048) bad time/date stamp (Cromwell)

This UBROF file has a bad time/date stamp.
(1049) wrong CRC on 0x* bytes; should be * (Cromwell)

An end record has a mismatching CRC value in this UBROF file.
(1050) bad date in 0x52 record (Cromwell)

A debug record has a bad date component in this UBROF file.
(1051) bad date in 0x01 record (Cromwell)

A start of program record or segment record has a bad date component in this UBROF
file.
(1052) unknown record type (Cromwell)

A record type could not be determined when reading this UBROF file.
(1053) additional RAM ranges larger than bank size (Driver)

A block of additional RAM being requested exceeds the size of a bank. Try breaking
the block into multiple ranges that do not cross bank boundaries.

(1054) additional RAM range out of bounds (Driver)

The RAM memory range as defined through custom RAM configuration is out of range.
(1055) RAM range out of bounds (*) (Driver)

The RAM memory range as defined in the chip configuration file or through custom
configuration is out of range.
(1056) unknown chip architecture (Driver)

The compiler is attempting to compile for a device of an architecture that is either
unsupported or disabled.
(1057) fast double option only available on 17 series processors (Driver)

The fast double library cannot be selected for this device. These routines are only avail-
able for PIC17 devices.
(1058) assertion (Code Generator)

(1059) rewrite loop (Code Generator)

(1081) static initialization of persistent variable "*" (Parser, Code Generator)

A persistent variable has been assigned an initial value. This is somewhat contradictory
as the initial value will be assigned to the variable during execution of the compiler’s
startup code; however, the persistent qualifier requests that this variable shall be
unchanged by the compiler’s startup code.
(1082) size of initialized array element is zero (Code Generator)

(1088) function pointer "*" is used but never assigned a value (Code Generator)
A function call involving a function pointer was made, but the pointer was never
assigned a target address, for example:
void (*fp)(int);
fp(23); /* oops -- what function does fp point to? */
(1089) recursive function call to "*" (Code Generator)

A recursive call to the specified function has been found. The call can be direct or indi-
rect (using function pointers) and can be either a function calling itself, or calling
another function whose call graph includes the function under consideration.
(1090) variable "*" is not used (Code Generator)

This variable is declared but has not been used by the program. Consider removing it
from the program.
(1091) main function "*" not defined (Code Generator)

The main function has not been defined. Every C program must have a function called
main.

(1094) bad derived type (Code Generator)

(1095) bad call to typeSub() (Code Generator)

(1096) type should be unqualified (Code Generator)

(1097) unknown type string "*" (Code Generator)

(1098) conflicting declarations for variable "*" (*:*) (Parser, Code Generator)
Differing type information has been detected in the declarations for a variable, or
between a declaration and the definition of a variable, for example:
extern long int test;
int test; /* oops -- which is right? int or long int ? */
(1104) unqualified error (Code Generator)

(1118) bad string "*" in getexpr(J) (Code Generator)

(1119) bad string "*" in getexpr(LRN) (Code Generator)

(1121) expression error (Code Generator)

(1137) match() error: * (Code Generator)

(1157) W register must be W9 (Assembler)

The working register required here has to be W9, but an other working register was
selected.
(1159) W register must be W11 (Assembler)

The working register required here has to be W11, but an other working register was
selected.
(1178) the "*" option has been removed and has no effect (Driver)
This option no longer exists in this version of the compiler and has been ignored. Use
the compiler’s –help option or refer to the manual to find a replacement option.

(1179) interrupt level for function "*" cannot exceed * (Code Generator)
The interrupt level for the function specified is too high. Each interrupt function is
assigned a unique interrupt level. This level is considered when analyzing the call
graph and reentrantly called functions. If using the interrupt_level pragma, check
the value specified.
(1180) directory "*" does not exist (Driver)

The directory specified in the setup option does not exist. Create the directory and try
again.
(1182) near variables must be global or static (Code Generator)

A variable qualified as near must also be qualified with static or made global. An auto
variable cannot be qualified as near.
(1183) invalid version number (Activation)

During activation, no matching version number was found on the Microchip activation
server database for the serial number specified.
(1184) activation limit reached (Activation)

The number of activations of the serial number specified has exceeded the maximum
number allowed for the license.
(1185) invalid serial number (Activation)

During activation, no matching serial number was found on the Microchip activation
server database.
(1186) license has expired (Driver)

The time-limited license for this compiler has expired.
(1187) invalid activation request (Driver)

The compiler has not been correctly activated.
(1188) network error * (Activation)

The compiler activation software was unable to connect to the Microchip activation
server via the network.
(1190) FAE license only - not for use in commercial applications (Driver)
Indicates that this compiler has been activated with an FAE license. This license does
not permit the product to be used for the development of commercial applications.
(1191) licensed for educational use only (Driver)

Indicates that this compiler has been activated with an education license. The educa-
tional license is only available to educational facilities and does not permit the product
to be used for the development of commercial applications.
(1192) licensed for evaluation purposes only (Driver)

Indicates that this compiler has been activated with an evaluation license.

(1193) this license will expire on * (Driver)

The compiler has been installed as a time-limited trial. This trial will end on the date
specified.
(1195) invalid syntax for "*" option (Driver)

A command line option that accepts additional parameters was given inappropriate
data or insufficient data. For example, an option can expect two parameters with both
being integers. Passing a string as one of these parameters or supplying only one
parameter could result in this error.
(1198) too many "*" specifications; * maximum (Hexmate)

This option has been specified too many times. If possible, try performing these oper-
ations over several command lines.
(1199) compiler has not been activated (Driver)

The trial period for this compiler has expired. The compiler is now inoperable until acti-
vated with a valid serial number. Contact Microchip to purchase this software and
obtain a serial number.
(1200) Found %0*lXh at address *h (Hexmate)

The code sequence specified in a -FIND option has been found at this address.
(1201) all FIND/REPLACE code specifications must be of equal width (Hexmate)

All find, replace and mask attributes in this option must be of the same byte width.
Check the parameters supplied to this option. For example, finding 1234h (2 bytes)
masked with FFh (1 byte) results in an error; but, masking with 00FFh (2 bytes) works.
(1202) unknown format requested in -FORMAT: * (Hexmate)

An unknown or unsupported INHX format has been requested. Refer to documentation
for supported INHX formats.
(1203) unpaired nibble in * value will be truncated (Hexmate)

Data to this option was not entered as whole bytes. Perhaps the data was incomplete
or a leading zero was omitted. For example, the value Fh contains only four bits of sig-
nificant data and is not a whole byte. The value 0Fh contains eight bits of significant
data and is a whole byte.
(1204) * value must be between 1 and * bytes long (Hexmate)

An illegal length of data was given to this option. The value provided to this option
exceeds the maximum or minimum bounds required by this option.

(1205) using the configuration file *; you can override this with the environment variable
HTC_XML (Driver)
This is the compiler configuration file selected during compiler setup. This can be
changed via the HTC_XML environment variable. This file is used to determine where
the compiler has been installed.
(1207) some of the command line options you are using are now obsolete (Driver)
Some of the command line options passed to the driver have now been discontinued
in this version of the compiler; however, during a grace period these old options will still
be processed by the driver.
(1208) use –help option or refer to the user manual for option details (Driver)
An obsolete option was detected. Use –help or refer to the manual to find a replace-
ment option that will not result in this advisory message.
(1209) An old MPLAB tool suite plug-in was detected. (Driver)

The options passed to the driver resemble those that the Microchip MPLAB 8 IDE
would pass to a previous version of this compiler. Some of these options are now obso-
lete – however, they were still interpreted. It is recommended that you install an
updated Microchip options plug-in for the IDE.
(1210) Visit the Microchip website (www.microchip.com) for a possible upgrade (Driver)
Visit our website to see if an upgrade is available to address the issue(s) listed in the
previous compiler message. Navigate to the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler page and look
for a version upgrade downloadable file. If your version is current, contact Microchip
Technical Support for further information.
(1212) Found * (%0*lXh) at address *h (Hexmate)

The code sequence specified in a -FIND option has been found at this address.
(1213) duplicate ARCH for * in chipinfo file at line * (Assembler, Driver)

The chipinfo file has a device section with multiple ARCH values. Only one ARCH value
is allowed. If you have not manually edited the chip info file, contact Microchip Technical
(1218) can’t create cross reference file * (Assembler)

The assembler attempted to create a cross reference file; but, it could not be created.
Check that the file’s path name is correct.
(1228) unable to locate installation directory (Driver)

The compiler cannot determine the directory where it has been installed.
(1230) dereferencing uninitialized pointer "*" (Code Generator)

A pointer that has not yet been assigned a value has been dereferenced. This can
result in erroneous behavior at runtime.
(1235) unknown keyword * (Driver)

The token contained in the USB descriptor file was not recognized.

(1236) invalid argument to *: * (Driver)

An option that can take additional parameters was given an invalid parameter value.
Check the usage of the option or the syntax or range of the expected parameter.
(1237) endpoint 0 is pre-defined (Driver)

An attempt has been made to define endpoint 0 in a USB file.
(1238) FNALIGN failure on * (Linker)

Two functions have their auto/parameter blocks aligned using the FNALIGN directive,
but one function calls the other, which implies that must not be aligned. This will occur
if a function pointer is assigned the address of each function, but one function calls the
other. For example:
int one(int a) { return a; }
int two(int a) { return two(a)+2; } /* ! */
int (*ip)(int);
ip = one;
ip(23);
ip = two; /* ip references one and two; two calls one */
ip(67);
(1239) pointer * has no valid targets (Code Generator)

A function call involving a function pointer was made, but the pointer was never
assigned a target address, for example:
void (*fp)(int);
fp(23); /* oops -- what function does fp point to? */
(1240) unknown algorithm type (%i) (Driver)

The error file specified after the -Efile or -E+file options could not be opened.
Check to ensure that the file or directory is valid and that has read only access.
(1241) bad start address in * (Driver)

The start of range address for the --CHECKSUM option could not be read. This value
must be a hexadecimal number.
(1242) bad end address in * (Driver)

The end of range address for the --CHECKSUM option could not be read. This value
must be a hexadecimal number.
(1243) bad destination address in * (Driver)

The destination address for the --CHECKSUM option could not be read. This value must
be a hexadecimal number.
(1245) value greater than zero required for * (Hexmate)

The align operand to the HEXMATE -FIND option must be positive.
(1246) no RAM defined for variable placement (Code Generator)

No memory has been specified to cover the banked RAM memory.

(1247) no access RAM defined for variable placement (Code Generator)

No memory has been specified to cover the access bank memory.
(1248) symbol (*) encountered with undefined type size (Code Generator)
The code generator was asked to position a variable, but the size of the variable is not
known. This is an internal compiler error. Contact Microchip Technical Support with
details.

MESSAGES 1250-1499
(1250) could not find space (* byte*) for variable * (Code Generator)
The code generator could not find space in the banked RAM for the variable specified.
(1253) could not find space (* byte*) for auto/param block

(Code Generator)
The code generator could not find space in RAM for the psect that holds auto and
parameter variables.
(1254) could not find space (* byte*) for data block (Code Generator)
The code generator could not find space in RAM for the data psect that holds initialized
variables.
(1255) conflicting paths for output directory (Driver)

The compiler has been given contradictory paths for the output directory via any of the
-O or --OUTDIR options, for example:
--outdir=../../ -o../main.HEX
(1256) undefined symbol "*" treated as HEX constant (Assembler)

A token which could either be interpreted as a symbol or a hexadecimal value does not
match any previously defined symbol and so will be interpreted as the latter. Use a
leading zero to avoid the ambiguity, or use an alternate radix specifier such as 0x. For
example:
MOV a, F7h ; is this the symbol F7h, or the HEX number 0xF7?
(1257) local variable "*" is used but never given a value (Code Generator)
An auto variable has been defined and used in an expression, but it has not been
assigned a value in the C code before its first use. Auto variables are not cleared on
startup and their initial value is undefined. For example:
void main(void) {
double src, out;
out = sin(src); /* oops -- what value was in src? */
(1258) possible stack overflow when calling function "*" (Code Generator)
The call tree analysis by the code generator indicates that the hardware stack can over-
flow. This should be treated as a guide only. Interrupts, the assembler optimizer and the
program structure can affect the stack usage. The stack usage is based on the C pro-
gram and does not include any call tree derived from assembly code.
(1259) can’t optimize for both speed and space (Driver)

The driver has been given contradictory options of compile for speed and compile for
space, for example:
--opt=speed,space

(1260) macro "*" redefined (Assembler)

More than one definition for a macro with the same name has been encountered, for
example:
MACRO fin
ret
ENDM
MACRO fin ; oops -- was this meant to be a different macro?
reti
ENDM
(1261) string constant required (Assembler)

A string argument is required with the DS or DSU directive, for example:
DS ONE ; oops -- did you mean DS "ONE"?
(1262) object "*" lies outside available * space (Code Generator)

An absolute variable was positioned at a memory location which is not within the mem-
ory defined for the target device, for example:
int data @ 0x800 /* oops -- is this the correct address? */
(1264) unsafe pointer conversion (Code Generator)

A pointer to one kind of structure has been converted to another kind of structure and
the structures do not have a similar definition, for example:
struct ONE {
unsigned a;
long b; /* ! */
} one;
struct TWO {
unsigned a;
unsigned b; /* ! */
} two;
struct ONE * oneptr;
oneptr = & two; /* oops --
was ONE meant to be same struct as TWO? */
(1267) fixup overflow referencing * into * bytes at 0x* (Linker)

See error message 1356 for more information.
(1268) fixup overflow storing 0x* in * bytes at * (Linker)

See error message 1356 for more information.
(1273) Omniscient Code Generation not available in Free mode (Driver)

This message advises that advanced features of the compiler are not be enabled in this
Free mode compiler.
(1275) the qualifier "*" is only applicable to functions (Parser)

A qualifier which only makes sense when used in a function definition has been used
with a variable definition.
interrupt int dacResult; /* oops --
the interrupt qualifier can only be used with functions */

(1276) buffer overflow in DWARF location list (Cromwell)

A buffer associated with the ELF/DWARF debug file has overflowed. Contact Microchip
(1278) omitting "*" which does not have a location (Cromwell)

A variable has no storage location listed and will be omitted from the debug output.
(1284) malformed mapfile while generating summary: CLASS expected but not found
(Driver)
The map file being read to produce a memory summary is malformed. Either the file
has been edited or corrupted, or this is a compiler error – contact Microchip Technical
(1285) malformed mapfile while generating summary: no name at position * (Driver)

(1286) malformed mapfile while generating summary: no link address at position * (Driver)
(1287) malformed mapfile while generating summary: no load address at position *

(Driver)
(1288) malformed mapfile while generating summary: no length at position * (Driver)

(1289) line range limit exceeded, possibly affecting ability to debug code (Cromwell)
A C statement has produced assembly code output whose length exceeds a preset
limit. This means that debug information produced by CROMWELL may not be accurate.
This warning does not indicate any potential code failure.
(1290) buffer overflow in DWARF debugging information entry (Cromwell)

A buffer associated with the ELF/DWARF debug file has overflowed. Contact Microchip
(1291) bad ELF string table index (Cromwell)

An ELF file passed to CROMWELL is malformed and cannot be used.
(1292) malformed define in .SDB file * (Cromwell)

The named SDB file passed to CROMWELL is malformed and cannot be used.

(1293) couldn’t find type for "*" in DWARF debugging information entry (Cromwell)
The type of symbol could not be determined from the SDB file passed to CROMWELL.
Either the file has been edited or corrupted, or this is a compiler error – contact
(1294) there is only one day left until this license expires (Driver)
The compiler is running as a demo and will be unable to run in PRO mode after the
evaluation license has expired in less than one day’s time. After expiration, the compiler
can be operated in Free mode indefinitely, but will produce a larger output binary.
(1295) there are * days left until this license will expire (Driver)
The compiler is running as a demo and will be unable to run in PRO mode after the
evaluation license has expired in the indicated time. After expiration, the compiler can
be operated in Free mode indefinitely, but will produce a larger output binary.
(1296) source file "*" conflicts with "*" (Driver)

The compiler has encountered more than one source file with the same base name.
This can only be the case if the files are contained in different directories. As the com-
piler and IDEs based the names of intermediate files on the base names of source files,
and intermediate files are always stored in the same location, this situation is illegal.
Ensure the base name of all source files are unique.
(1297) option * not available in Free mode (Driver)

Some options are not available when the compiler operates in Free mode. The options
disabled are typically related to how the compiler is executed, e.g., --GETOPTION and
--SETOPTION, and do not control compiler features related to code generation.
(1298) use of * outside macros is illegal (Assembler)

Some assembler directives, e.g., EXITM, can only be used inside macro definitions.
(1299) non-standard modifier "*" - use "*" instead (Parser)

A printf placeholder modifier has been used which is non-standard. Use the indi-
cated modifier instead. For example, the standard hh modifier should be used in
preference to b to indicate that the value should be printed as a char type.
(1300) maximum number of program classes reached; some classes may be excluded
from debugging information (Cromwell)
CROMWELL is passed a list of class names on the command line. If the number of class
names passed in is too large, not all will be used and there is the possibility that debug-
ging information will be inaccurate.
(1301) invalid ELF section header; skipping (Cromwell)

CROMWELL found an invalid section in an ELF section header. This section will be
skipped.
(1302) could not find valid ELF output extension for this device (Cromwell)
The extension could not be for the target device family.

(1303) invalid variable location detected: * - * (Cromwell)

A symbol location could not be determined from the SDB file.
(1304) unknown register name: "*" (Cromwell)

The location for the indicated symbol in the SDB file was a register, but the register
name was not recognized.
(1305) inconsistent storage class for variable: "*" (Cromwell)

The storage class for the indicated symbol in the SDB file was not recognized.
(1306) inconsistent size (* vs *) for variable: "*" (Cromwell)

The size of the symbol indicated in the SDB file does not match the size of its type.
(1307) psect * truncated to * bytes (Driver)

The psect representing either the stack or heap could not be made as large as
requested and will be truncated to fit the available memory space.
(1308) missing/conflicting interrupts sub-option; defaulting to "*" (Driver)

The suboptions to the --INTERRUPT option are missing or malformed, for example:
--INTERRUPTS=single,multi
Oops, did you mean single-vector or multi-vector interrupts?
(1309) ignoring invalid runtime * sub-option (*) using default (Driver)

The indicated suboption to the --RUNTIME option is malformed, for example:
--RUNTIME=default,speed:0y1234
Oops, that should be 0x1234.
(1310) specified speed (*Hz) exceeds max operating frequency (*Hz); defaulting to *Hz
(Driver)
The frequency specified to the perform suboption to --RUNTIME option is too large
for the selected device.
--RUNTIME=default,speed:0xffffffff
Oops, that value is too large.
(1311) missing configuration setting for config word *; using default (Driver)
The configuration settings for the indicated word have not be supplied in the source
code and a default value will be used.
(1312) conflicting runtime perform sub-option and configuration word settings; assuming
*Hz (Driver)
The configuration settings and the value specified with the perform suboption of the
--RUNTIME options conflict and a default frequency has been selected.

(1313) * sub-options ("*") ignored (Driver)

The argument to a suboption is not required and will be ignored.
--OUTPUT=intel:8
Oops, the :8 is not required
(1314) illegal action in memory allocation (Code Generator)

This is an internal error. Contact Microchip Technical Support with details.
(1315) undefined or empty class used to link psect * (Linker)

The linker was asked to place a psect within the range of addresses specified by a
class, but the class was either never defined, or contains no memory ranges.
(1316) attribute "*" ignored (Parser)

An attribute has been encountered that is valid, but which is not implemented by the
parser. It will be ignored by the parser and the attribute will have no effect. Contact
(1317) missing argument to attribute "*" (Parser)

An attribute has been encountered that requires an argument, but this is not present.
(1318) invalid argument to attribute "*" (Parser)

An argument to an attribute has been encountered, but it is malformed. Contact Micro-
chip Technical Support with details.
(1319) invalid type "*" for attribute "*" (Parser)

This indicated a bad option passed to the parser. Contact Microchip Technical Support
with details.
(1320) attribute "*" already exists (Parser)

This indicated the same attribute option being passed to the parser more than once.
(1321) bad attribute -T option "%s" (Parser)

The attribute option passed to the parser is malformed. Contact Microchip Technical
(1322) unknown qualifier "%s" given to -T (Parser)

The qualifier specified in an attribute option is not known. Contact Microchip Technical
(1323) attribute expected (Parser)

The __attribute__ directive was used but did not specify an attribute type.
int rv (int a) __attribute__(()) /* oops -- what is the attribute? */

(1324) qualifier "*" ignored (Parser)

Some qualifiers are valid, but cannot be implemented on some compilers or target
devices. This warning indicates that the qualifier will be ignored.
(1325) no such CP* register: ($*), select (*) (Code Generator)

A variable has been qualifier as cp0, but no corresponding co-device register exists at
the address specified with the variable.
cp0 volatile unsigned int mycpvar @ 0x7000; /* oops --
did you mean 0x700, try... */
cp0 volatile unsigned int mycpvar @ __REGADDR(7, 0);
(1326) "*" qualified variable (*) missing address (Code Generator)

A variable has been qualifier as cp0, but the co-device register address was not spec-
ified.
cp0 volatile unsigned int mycpvar; /* oops -- what address ? */
(1327) interrupt function "*" redefined by "*" (Code Generator)

An interrupt function has been written that is linked to a vector location that already has
an interrupt function linked to it.
void interrupt timer1_isr(void) @ TIMER_1_VCTR { ... }
void interrupt timer2_isr(void) @ TIMER_1_VCTR { ... } /* oops --
did you mean that to be TIMER_2_VCTR */
(1328) coprocessor * registers can’t be accessed from * code (Code Generator)

Code in the indicated instruction set has illegally attempted to access the coprocessor
registers. Ensure the correct instruction set is used to encode the enclosing function.
(1329) can only modify RAM type interrupt vectors (Code Generator)
The SETVECTOR() macro has been used to attempt to change the interrupt vector
table, but this table is in ROM and cannot be changed at runtime.
(1330) instruction set architecture qualifiers are only applicable to functions or function
pointers (Code Generator)
An instruction set qualifier has been used with something that does not represent exe-
cutable code.
mips16e int input; /* oops -- you cannot qualify a variable with an
instruction set type */
(1331) "*" qualifier is not applicable to interrupt functions (Code Generator)

A illegal function qualifier has been used with an interrupt function.
mips16e void interrupt tisr(void) @ CORE_TIMER_VCTR; /* oops --
you cannot use mips16e with interrupt functions */
(1332) invalid qualifier (*) and type combination on "*" (Code Generator)
Some qualified variables must have a specific type or size. A combination has been
detected that is not allowed.
volatile cp0 int mycpvar @ __REGADDR(7,0); /* oops --
you must use unsigned types with the cp0 qualifier */

(1333) can’t extend instruction (Assembler)

An attempt was made to extend a MIPS16E instruction where the instruction is
non-extensible. This is an internal error. Contact Microchip Technical Support with
details.
(1334) invalid * register operand (Assembler)

An illegal register was used with an assembly instruction. Either this is an internal error
or caused by hand-written assembly code.
psect my_text,isa=mips16e,reloc=4
move t0,t1 /* oops -- these registers cannot be used in the
16-bit instruction set */
(1335) instruction "*" is deprecated (Assembler)

An assembly instruction was used that is deprecated.
beql t0,t1,12 /* oops -- this instruction is no longer supported */
(1336) a psect must belong to only one ISA (Assembler)

Psects that have a flag that defines the allowed instruction set architecture. A psect has
been defined whose ISA flag conflicts with that of another definition for the same psect.
mytext,global,isa=mips32r2,reloc=4,delta=1
mytext,global,isa=mips16e,reloc=4,delta=1 /* oops --
is this the right psect name or the wrong ISA value */
(1337) instruction/macro "*" is not part of psect ISA (Assembler)

An instruction from one instruction set architecture has been found in a psect whose
ISA flag specifies a different architecture type.
psect my_text,isa=mips16e,reloc=4
mtc0 t0,t1 /* oops -- this is a 32-bit instruction */
(1338) operand must be a * bit value (Assembler)

The constant operand to an instruction is too large to fit in the instruction field width.
psect my_text,isa=mips32r2,reloc=4
li t0,0x123456789 /* oops -- this constant is too large */
(1339) operand must be a * bit * value (Assembler)

The constant operand to an instruction is too large to fit in the instruction field width and
must have the indicated type.
addiu a3, a3, 0x123456 /* oops --
the constant operand to this MIPS16E instruction is too large */
(1340) operand must be >= * and <= * (Assembler)

The operand must be within the specified range.
ext t0,t1,50,3 /* oops -- third operand is too large */
(1341) pos+size must be > 0 and <= 32 (Assembler)

The size and position operands to bit-field instruction must total a value within the spec-
ified range.
ext t0,t1,50,3 /* oops -- 50 + 3 is too large */

(1342) whitespace after "\" (Preprocessor)

Whitespace characters have been found between a backslash and newline characters
and will be ignored.
(1343) hexfile data at address 0x* (0x*) overwritten with 0x* (Objtohex)
The indicated address is about to be overwritten by additional data. This would indicate
more than one section of code contributing to the same address.
(1346) can’t find 0x* words for psect "*" in segment "*" (largest unused contiguous range
0x%lX) (Linker)
See also message (491). The new form of message also indicates the largest free
block that the linker could find. Unless there is a single space large enough to accom-
modate the psect, the linker will issue this message. Often when there is banking or
paging involved the largest free space is much smaller than the total amount of space
remaining,
(1347) can’t find 0x* words (0x* withtotal) for psect "*" in segment "*" (largest unused
contiguous range 0x%lX) (Linker)
See also message (593). The new form of message also indicates the largest free
block that the linker could find. Unless there is a single space large enough to accom-
modate the psect, the linker will issue this message. Often when there is banking or
paging involved the largest free space is much smaller than the total amount of space
remaining,
(1348) enum tag "*" redefined (from *:*) (Parser)

More than one enum tag with the same name has been defined, The previous definition
is indicated in the message.
enum VALS { ONE=1, TWO, THREE };
enum VALS { NINE=9, TEN }; /* oops -- is VALS the right tag name? */
(1350) pointer operands to "-" must reference the same array (Code Generator)
If two addresses are subtracted, the addresses must be of the same object to be ANSI
compliant.
int * ip;
int fred, buf[20];
ip = &buf[0] - &fred; /* oops --
second operand must be an address of a "buf" element */
(1352) truncation of operand value (0x*) to * bits (Assembler)

The operand to an assembler instruction was too large and was truncated.
movlw 0x321 ; oops -- is this the right value?
(1354) ignoring configuration setting for unimplemented word * (Driver)

A Configuration Word setting was specified for a Word that does not exist on the target
device.
__CONFIG(3, 0x1234); /* config word 3 does not exist on an 18C801 */

(1355) in-line delay argument too large (Code Generator)

The in-line delay sequence _delay has been used, but the number of instruction
cycles requested is too large. Use this routine multiple times to achieve the desired
delay length.
#include <xc.h>
void main(void) {
delay(0x400000); /* oops -- cannot delay by this number of cycles */
}
(1356) fixup overflow referencing * * (0x*) into * byte* at 0x*/0x* -> 0x* (*** */0x*) (Linker)
’Fixup’ is the process conducted by the linker of replacing symbolic references to oper-
ands with an absolute value. This takes place after positioning the psects (program
sections or blocks) into the available memory. ‘Fixup overflow’ is when a symbol’s value
is too large to fit within the assembler instruction. For example, if an assembler instruc-
tion has an 8-bit field to hold an address and the linker determines that the symbol used
to represent this address has the value 0x110, then clearly this value cannot be
encoded into the instruction.
Fixup errors are often caused by hand-written assembly code. Common mistakes that
trigger these errors include failing to mask a full, banked data address in file register
instructions, or failing to mask the destination address in jump or call instructions. If this
error is triggered by assembly code generated from C source, then it is often that con-
structs like switch() statements have generated a block of assembly too large for jump
instructions to span. Adjusting the default linker options can also causes such errors.
To identify these errors, follow these steps.
• Perform a debug build (in MPLAB X IDE select Debug > Discrete Debugger
Operation > Build for Debugging; alternatively, on the command line use the
-D__DEBUG option)
• Open the relevant assembler list file (ensure the MPLAB X IDE project properties
has XC8 Compiler > Preprocessing and Messaging > Generate the ASM listing
file enabled; alternatively, on the command line, use the --ASMLIST option)
• Find the instruction at the address quoted in the error message
Consider the following error message.
main.c: 4: (1356)(linker) fixup overflow referencing psect bssBANK1
(0x100) into 1 byte at 0x7FF0/0x1 -> 0x7FF0 (main.obj 23/0x0)
The file being linked was main.obj. This tells you the assembly list file in which you
should be looking is main.lst. The location of the instruction at fault is 0x7FF0. (You
can also tell from this message that the instruction is expecting a 1 byte quantity—this
size is rounded to the nearest byte—but the value was determined to be 0x100.)
In the assembly list file, search for the address specified in the error message.
61 007FF0 6F00 movwf _foobar,b ;#
and to confirm, look for the symbol referenced in the assembler instruction at this
address in the symbol table at the bottom of the same file.
Symbol Table Tue Oct 28 11:06:37 2014
_foobar 0100

In this example, the hand-written PIC18 MOVWF instruction causing the problem takes
an 8-bit offset into a bank of memory, but clearly the address 0x100 exceeds this size.
The instruction should have been written as:
MOVWF BANKMASK(_foo)
which masks out the top bits of the address containing the bank information (see
Section 5.2.1.3 “Address Masking”).
If the assembler instruction that caused this error was generated by the compiler, in the
assembler list file look back up the file from the instruction at fault to determine which
C statement has generated this instruction. You will then need to examine the C code
for possible errors.
(1357) fixup overflow storing 0x* in * byte* at 0x*/0x* -> 0x* (*** */0x*) (Linker)
See message (1356).
(1358) no space for * temps (*) (Code Generator)

The code generator was unable to find a space large enough to hold the temporary
variables (scratch variables) for this program.
(1359) no space for * parameters (Code Generator)

The code generator was unable to find a space large enough to hold the parameter
variables for a particular function.
(1360) no space for auto/param * (Code Generator)

The code generator was unable to find a space large enough to hold the auto variables
for a particular function. Some parameters passed in registers can need to be allocated
space in this auto area as well.
(1361) syntax error in configuration argument (Parser)

The argument to #pragma config was malformed.
#pragma config WDT /* oops -- is WDT on or off? */
(1362) configuration setting *=* redefined (Code Generator)

The same config pragma setting have been issued more than once with different val-
ues.
#pragma config WDT=OFF
#pragma config WDT=ON /* oops -- is WDT on or off? */
(1363) unknown configuration setting (* = *) used (Driver)

The configuration value and setting is not known for the target device. The use of an
unknown configuration register number may also trigger this message.
#pragma config WDR=ON /* oops -- did you mean WDT? */
#pragma config CONFIG1L=0x46 /* oops -- no 1L register on a 18F4520 */
(1364) can’t open configuration registers data file * (Driver)

The file containing value configuration settings could not be found.

(1365) missing argument to pragma "varlocate" (Parser)

The argument to #pragma varlocate was malformed.
#pragma varlocate /* oops -- what do you want to locate & where? */
(1366) syntax error in pragma "varlocate" (Parser)

The argument to #pragma varlocate was malformed.
#pragma varlocate fred /* oops -- which bank for fred? */
(1367) end of file in _asm (Parser)

An end-of-file marker was encountered inside a _asm _endasm block.
(1368) assembler message: * (Assembler)

Displayed is an assembler advisory message produced by the MESSG directive con-
tained in the assembler source.
(1369) can’t open proc file * (Driver)

The proc file for the selected device could not be opened.
(1370) peripheral library support is not available for the * (Driver)

The peripheral library is not available for the selected device.
(1371) float type can’t be bigger than double type; double has been changed to * bits
(Driver)
Use of the --float and --double options has result in the size of the double type
being smaller than that of the float type. This is not permitted by the C Standard. The
double type size has been increased to be that indicated.
(1372) interrupt level cannot be greater than * (Code Generator)

The specific interrupt_level is too high for the device selected.
// oops - there aren't that many interrupts on this device
(1374) the compiler feature "*" is no longer supported; * (Driver)

The feature indicated is no longer supported by the compiler.
(1375) multiple interrupt functions (* and *) defined for device with only one interrupt
vector (Code Generator)
The named functions have both been qualified interrupt, but the target device only sup-
ports one interrupt vector and hence one interrupt function.
interrupt void isr_lo(void) {
// ...
}
interrupt void isr_hi(void) { // oops, cannot define two ISRs
// ...
}

(1376) initial value (*) too large for bitfield width (*) (Code Generator)
A structure with bit-fields has been defined an initialized with values. The value indi-
cated it too large to fit in the corresponding bit-field width.
struct {
unsigned flag :1;
unsigned mode :3;
} foobar = { 1, 100 }; // oops, 100 is too large for a 3 bit object
(1377) no suitable strategy for this switch (Code Generator)

The compiler was unable to determine the switch strategy to use to encode a C switch
statement based on the code and your selection using the #pragma switch directive.
You can need to choose a different strategy.
(1378) syntax error in pragma "*" (Parser)

The arguments to the indicated pragma are not valid.
#pragma addrqual ingore // oops -- did you mean ignore?
(1379) no suitable strategy for this switch (Code Generator)

The compiler encodes switch() statements according to one of a number of strate-
gies. The specific number and values of the case values, and the switch expression,
as well as the switch pragma determine the strategy chosen. This error indicates that
no strategy was available to encode the switch() statement. Contact Microchip sup-
port with program details.
(1380) unable to use switch strategy "*" (Code Generator)

The compiler encodes switch() statements according to one of a number of strate-
gies. The specific number and values of the case values, and the switch expression,
as well as the switch pragma, determine the strategy chosen. This error indicates that
the strategy that was requested cannot be used to encode the switch() statement.
Contact Microchip support with program details.
(1381) invalid case label range (Parser)

The values supplied for the case range are not correct. They must form an ascending
range and be integer constants.
case 0 ... -2: // oops -- do you mean -2 ... 0 ?
(1385) * "*" is deprecated (declared at *:*) (Parser)

Code is using a variable or function that was marked as being deprecated using an
attribute.
char __attribute__((deprecated)) foobar;
foobar = 9; // oops -- this variable is near end-of-life
(1386) unable to determine the semantics of the configuration setting "*" for register "*"
(Parser, Code Generator)
The numerical value supplied to a configuration bit setting has no direct association
setting specified in the data sheet. The compiler will attempt to honor your request, but
check your device data sheet.
#pragma config OSC=11
// oops -- there is no direct association for that value on an 18F2520
// either use OSC=3 or OSC=RC

(1387) in-line delay argument must be constant (Code Generator)

The __delay in-line function can only take a constant expression as its argument.
int delay_val = 99;
__delay(delay_val); // oops, argument must be a constant expression
(1388) configuration setting/register of "*" with 0x* will be truncated by 0x*

(Parser, Code Generator)
A Configuration bit has been programmed with a value that is either too large for the
setting, or is not one of the prescribed values.
#pragma config WDTPS=138 // oops -- do you mean 128?
(1389) attempt to reprogram configuration * "*" with * (is *) (Parser, Code Generator)
A Configuration bit that was already programmed has been programmed again with a
conflicting setting to the original.
#pragma config WDT=ON
#pragma config WDT=OFF // oops -- watchdog on or off?
(1390) identifier specifies insignificant characters beyond maximum identifier length

(Parser)
An identifier that has been used is so long that it exceeds the set identifier length. This
can mean that long identifiers cannot be correctly identified and the code will fail. The
maximum identifier length can be adjusted using the -N option.
int theValueOfThePortAfterTheModeBitsHaveBeenSet;
// oops, make your symbol shorter or increase the maximum
// identifier length
(1391) constant object size of * exceeds the maximum of * for this chip (Code Generator)
The const object defined is too large for the target device.
const int array[200] = { ... }; // oops -- not on a Baseline part!
(1392) function "*" is called indirectly from both mainline and interrupt code
(Code Generator)
A function has been called by main-line (non-interrupt) and interrupt code. If this warn-
ing is issued, it highlights that such code currently violates a compiler limitation for the
selected device.
(1393) possible hardware stack overflow detected; estimated stack depth: *

(Code Generator)
The compiler has detected that the call graph for a program could be using more stack
space that allocated on the target device. If this is the case, the code can fail. The com-
piler can only make assumption regarding the stack usage, when interrupts are
involved and these lead to a worst-case estimate of stack usage. Confirm the function
call nesting if this warning is issued.

(1394) attempting to create memory range ( * - * ) larger than page size * (Driver)
The compiler driver has detected that the memory settings include a program memory
“page” that is larger than the page size for the device. This would mostly likely be the
case if the --ROM option is used to change the default memory settings. Consult your
device data sheet to determine the page size of the device you are using and to ensure
that any contiguous memory range you specify using the --ROM option has a boundary
that corresponds to the device page boundaries.
--ROM=100-1fff
The above might need to be paged. If the page size is 800h, the above could specified
as
--ROM=100-7ff,800-fff,1000-17ff,1800-1fff
(1395) notable code sequence candidate suitable for compiler validation suite detected (*)
(Code Generator)
The compiler has in-built checks that can determine if combinations of internal code
templates have been encountered. Where unique combinations are uncovered when
compiling code, this message is issued. This message is not an error or warning and
its presence does not indicate possible code failure, but if you are willing to participate,
the code you are compiling can be sent to Support to assist with the compiler testing
process.
(1396) "*" positioned in the * memory region (0x* - 0x*) reserved by the compiler
(Code Generator)
Some memory regions are reserved for use by the compiler. These regions are not nor-
mally used to allocate variables defined in your code. However, by making variables
absolute, it is possible to place variables in these regions and avoid errors that would
normally be issued by the linker. (Absolute variables can be placed at any location,
even on top of other objects.) This warning from the code generator indicates that an
absolute has been detected that will be located at memory that the compiler will be
reserving. You must locate the absolute variable at a different location. This message
will commonly be issued when placing variables in the common memory space.
char shared @ 0x7; // oops, this memory is required by the compiler
(1397) unable to implement non-stack call to "*"; possible hardware stack overflow
(Code Generator)
The compiler must encode a C function call without using a call assembly instruction
and the hardware stack (i.e., use a lookup table), but is unable to. A call instruction
might be required if the function is called indirectly via a pointer, but if the hardware
stack is already full, an additional call will cause a stack overflow.
(1401) eeprom qualified variables can’t be accessed from both interrupt and mainline
code (Code Generator)
All eeprom variables are accessed via routines that are not reentrant. Code might fail
if an attempt is made to access eeprom-qualified variables from interrupt and main-line
code. Avoid accessing eeprom variables in interrupt functions.
(1402) a pointer to eeprom can’t also point to other data types (Code Generator)
A pointer cannot have targets in both the EEPROM space and ordinary data space.

(1403) pragma "*" ignored (Parser)

The pragma you have specified has no effect and will be ignored by the compiler. This
message can only be issued in C18 compatibility mode.
#pragma varlocate "mySection" fred // oops -- not accepted
(1404) unsupported: * (Parser)

The unsupported __attribute__ has been used to indicate that some code
feature is not supported.
The message printed will indicate the feature that is not supported and which should
be avoided.
(1405) storage class specifier "*" ignored (Parser)

The storage class you have specified is not required and will be ignored by the
compiler. This message can only be issued in C18 compatibility mode.
int procInput(auto int inValue) // oops -- no need for auto
{ ...
(1406) auto eeprom variables are not supported (Code Generator)

Variables qualified as eeprom cannot be auto. You can define static local objects
qualified as eeprom, if required.
void main(void) {
eeprom int mode; // oops -- make this static or global
(1407) bit eeprom variables are not supported (Code Generator)

Variables qualified as eeprom cannot have type bit.
eeprom bit myEEbit; // oops -- you cannot define bits in EEPROM
(1408) ignoring initialization of far variables (Code Generator)

Variables qualified as far cannot be assigned an initial value. Assign the value later in
the code.
far int chan = 0x1234; // oops -- you cannot assign a value here
(1409) warning number used with pragma "warning" is invalid (Parser)

The message number used with the warning pragma is below zero or larger than the
highest message number available.
#pragma warning disable 1316 13350 // oops -- possibly number 1335?
(1410) can’t assign the result of an invalid function pointer (Code Generator)
The compiler will allow some functions to be called via a constant cast to be a function
pointer, but not all. The address specified is not valid for this device.
foobar += ((int (*)(int))0x0)(77);
// oops -- you cannot call a function with a NULL pointer
(1411) Additional ROM range out of bounds (Driver)

Program memory specified with the --ROM option is outside of the on-chip, or external,
memory range supported by this device.
--ROM=default,+2000-2ffff
Oops -- memory too high, should that be 2fff?

(1412) missing argument to pragma "warning disable" (Parser)

Following the #pragma warning disable should be a comma-separated list of
message numbers to disable.
#pragma warning disable // oops -- what messages are to be disabled?
Try something like the following.
(1413) pointer comparisons involving address of "*", positioned at address 0x0, may be
invalid (Code Generator)
An absolute object placed at address 0 has had its address taken. By definition, this is
a NULL pointer and code which checks for NULL (i.e., checks to see if the address is
valid) can fail.
int foobar @ 0x00;
int * ip;
void
main(void)
{
ip = &foobar; // oops -- 0 is not a valid address
(1414) option * is defunct and has no effect (Driver)

The option used is now longer supported. It will be ignored.
xc8 --chip=18f452 --cp=24 main.c
Oops -- the --cp option is no longer required.
(1415) argument to "merge" psect flag must be 0 or 1 (Assembler)

This psect flag must be assigned a 0 or 1.
PSECT myTxt,class=CODE,merge=true ; oops -- I think you mean merge=1
(1416) psect flag "merge" redefined (Assembler)

A psect with a name seen before specifies a different merge flag value to that
previously seen.
psect mytext,class=CODE,merge=1
; and later
psect mytext,class=CODE,merge=0
Oops, can mytext be merged or not?
(1417) argument to "split" psect flag must be 0 or 1 (Assembler)

This psect flag must be assigned a 0 or 1.
psect mytext,class=CODE,split=5
Oops, the split flag argument must be 0 or 1.
(1418) Attempt to read "control" qualified object which is Write-Only (Code Generator)
An attempt was made to read a write-only register.
state = OPTION; // oops -- you cannot read this register

(1419) using the configuration file *; you can override this with the environment variable
XC_XML (Driver)
This is the compiler configuration file that is selected during compiler setup. This can
be changed via the XC_XML environment variable. This file is used to determine where
the compiler has been installed. See message 1205.
(1420) ignoring suboption "*" (Driver)

The suboption you have specified is not valid in this implementation and will be ignored.
--RUNTIME=default,+ramtest
oops -- what is ramtest?
(1421) the qualifier __xdata is not supported by this architecture (Parser)

The qualifier you have specified is not valid in this implementation and will be ignored.
__xdata int coeff[2]; // that has no meaning for this target
(1422) the qualifier __ydata is not supported by this architecture (Parser)

The qualifier you have specified is not valid in this implementation and will be ignored.
__ydata int coeff[2]; // that has no meaning for this target
(1423) case ranges are not supported (Driver)

The use of GCC-style numerical ranges in case values does not conform to the CCI
Standard. Use individual case labels and values to conform.
switch(input) {
case 0 ... 5: // oops -- ranges of values are not supported
low();
(1424) short long integer types are not supported (Parser)

The use of the short long type does not conform to the CCI Standard. Use the
corresponding long type instead.
short long typeMod; // oops -- not a valid type for CCI
(1425) __pack qualifier only applies to structures and structure members (Parser)
The qualifier you have specified only makes sense when used with structures or
structure members. It will be ignored.
__pack int c; // oops -- there aren’t inter-member spaces to pack in
an int
(1426) 24-bit floating point types are not supported; * have been changed to 32-bits
(Driver)
Floating-point types must be 32-bits wide to conform to the CCI Standard. These types
will be compiled as 32-bit wide quantities.
--DOUBLE=24
oops -- you cannot set this double size

(1427) machine-dependent path specified in name of included file; use -I instead

(Preprocessor)
To conform to the CCI Standard, header file specifications must not contain directory
separators.
#inlcude <inc\lcd.h> // oops -- do not indicate directories here
Remove the path information and use the -I option to indicate this, for example:
#include <lcd.h>
and issue the -Ilcd option.
(1429) attribute "*" is not understood by the compiler; this attribute will be ignored
(Parser)
The indicated attribute you have used is not valid with this implementation. It will be
ignored.
int x __attribute__ ((deprecate)) = 0;
oops -- did you mean deprecated?
(1430) section redefined from "*" to "*" (Parser)

You have attempted to place an object in more than one section.
int __section("foo") __section("bar") myvar; // oops -- which section
should it be in?
(1431) the __section specifier is applicable only to variable and function definitions at
file-scope (Parser)
You cannot attempt to locate local objects using the __section() specifier.
int main(void) {
int __section("myData") counter; // oops -- you cannot specify a
section for autos
(1432) "*" is not a valid section name (Parser)

The section name specified with __section() is not a valid section name. The section
name must conform to normal C identifier rules.
int __section("28data") counter; // oops -- name cannot start
with digits
(1433) function "*" could not be inlined (Assembler)

The specified function could not be made in-line. The function will called in the usual
way.
int inline getData(int port) // sorry -- no luck inlining this
{ //...
(1434) missing name after pragma "intrinsic" (Parser)

The intrinsic pragma needs a function name. This pragma is not needed in most
situations. If you mean to in-line a function, see the inline keyword or pragma.
#pragma intrinsic // oops -- what function is intrinsically called?

(1435) variable "*" is incompatible with other objects in section "*" (Code Generator)
You cannot place variables that have differing startup initializations into the same psect.
That is, variables that are cleared at startup and variables that are assigned an initial
non-zero value must be in different psects. Similarly, bit objects cannot be mixed with
byte objects, like char or int.
int __section("myData") input; // okay
int __section("myData") output; // okay
int __section("myData") lvl = 0x12; // oops -- not with uninitialized
bit __section("myData") mode; // oops again -- no bits with bytes
// each different object to their own new section
(1436) "*" is not a valid nibble; use hexadecimal digits only (Parser)
When using __IDLOC(), the argument must only consist of hexadecimal digits with
no radix specifiers or other characters. Any character which is not a hexadecimal digit
will be programmed as a 0 in the corresponding location.
__IDLOC(0x51); // oops -- you cannot use the 0x radix modifier
(1437) CMF error * (Cromwell, Linker)

The CMF file being read by Cromwell or the linker is invalid. Unless you have modified
or manually generated this file, this is an internal error. Contact Microchip Technical
(1438) pragma "*" options ignored (Parser)

You have used unsupported options with a pragma. The options will be ignored.
#pragma inline=forced // oops -- no options allowed with this pragma
(1439) message: * (Parser)

This is a programmer generated message; there is a pragma directive causing this
advisory to be printed. This is only printed when using IAR C extensions.
#pragma message "this is a message from your programmer"
(1440) big-endian storage is not supported by this compiler (Parser)

You have specified the __big_endian IAR extension for a variable. The big-endian
storage format is not supported by this compiler. Remove the specification and ensure
that other code does not rely on this endianism.
__big_endian int volume; // oops -- this won’t be big endian
(1441) use __at() instead of '@' and ensure the address is applicable (Parser)
You have used the @ address specifier when using the IAR C extensions. Any
address specified is unlikely to be correct on a new architecture. Review the address
in conjunction with your device data sheet. To prevent this warning from appearing
again, use the reviewed address with the __at() specifier instead.

(1442) type used in definition is incomplete (Parser)

When defining objects, the type must be complete. If you attempt to define an object
using an incomplete type, this message is issued.
typedef struct foo foo_t;
foo_t x; // oops -- you cannot use foo_t until it is fully defined
struct foo {
int i;
};
(1443) unknown --EXT sub-option "*" (Driver)

The suboption to the --EXT option is not valid.
xc8 --chip=18f8585 x.c --ext=arm --ext=cci
Oops -- valid choices are iar, cci and xc8
(1444) respecified C extension from "*" to "*" (Driver)

The --EXT option has been used more than once, with conflicting arguments. The last
use of the option will dictate the C extensions accepted by the compiler.
xc8 --chip=18f8585 x.c --ext=iar --ext=cci
Oops -- which C extension do you mean?
(1445) #advisory: * (Preprocessor)

This is a programmer generated message; there is a directive causing this advisory to
be printed.
#advisory "please listen to this good advice"
(1446) #info: * (Preprocessor)

This is a programmer generated message; there is a directive causing this advisory to
be printed. It is identical to #advisory messages (1445).
#info "the following is for your information only"
(1447) extra -L option (-L*) ignored (Preprocessor)

This error relates to a duplicate -L option being passed to the preprocessor. Unless
you are explicitly running this application, consider this an internal error. Contact
(1448) no dependency file type specified with -L option (Preprocessor)

This error relates to a malformed -L option being passed to the preprocessor. Unless
you are explicitly running this application, consider this an internal error. Contact
(1449) unknown dependency file type (*) (Preprocessor)

This error relates to a unknown dependency file format being passed to the preproces-
sor. Unless you are explicitly running this application, consider this an internal error.

(1450) invalid --*-spaces argument (*) (Cromwell)

The option passed to Cromwell does not relate to a valid memory space. The space
arguments must be a valid number that represents the space.
--data-spaces=a
Oops — a is not a valid data space number.
(1451) no * spaces have been defined (Cromwell)

Cromwell must be passed information that indicates the type for each numbered mem-
ory space. This is down via the --code-spaces and --data-spaces options.
Unless you are explicitly running this application, consider this an internal error.
(1452) one or more spaces are defined as data and code (Cromwell)
The options passed to Cromwell indicate memory space is both in the code and data
space. Unless you are explicitly running this application, consider this an internal error.
--code-space=1,2 --data-space=1
Oops — is space 1 code or data?
(1453) stack size specified for non-existent * interrupt (Driver)

The --STACK option has been used to specify the maximum sizes for each stack. A
size has been used for each interrupt, but the compiler cannot see the corresponding
interrupt function definition, which means the stack space can never be used. Ensure
that you create the interrupt function for each interrupt the device supports.
--STACK=reentrant:20:20:auto
Oops, you have asked for two interrupt stacks, but the compiler cannot see both
interrupt function definitions.
(1454) stack size specified (*) is greater than available (*) (Driver)
The --STACK option has been used to specify the maximum sizes for each stack, but
the total amount of memory requested exceeds the amount of memory available.
--STACK=software:1000:1000:20000
Oops, that is too much stack space for a small device.
(1455) unrecognized stack size "*" in "*" (Driver)

The --STACK option has been used to specify the maximum sizes for each stack, but
one or more of the sizes are not a valid value. Use only decimal values in this option,
or the token auto, for a default size.
--STACK=software:30:all:default
Oops, only use decimal numbers or auto.
(1456) too many stack size specifiers (Driver)

Too many software stack maximum sizes have been specified in the --STACK option.
The maximum stack sizes are optional. If used, specify one size for each interrupt and
one for main-line code.
--STACK=reentrant:20:20:auto
Oops, too many sizes for a device with only one interrupt.

(1457) local variable "*" cannot be made absolute (Code Generator)

You cannot specify the address of any local variable, whether it be an auto, parameter,
or static local object.
int pushState(int a) {
int cnt __at(0x100); // oops -- you cannot specify an address ...
(1458) Omniscient Code Generation not available in Standard mode (Driver)

This message warns you that not all optimizations are enabled in the Standard
operating mode.
(1459) peripheral library support is missing for the * (Driver)

The peripheral libraries do not have code present for the device you have selected.
Disable the option that links in the peripheral library.
(1460) function-level profiling is not available for the selected chip (Driver)
Function profiling is only available for PIC18 or enhanced mid-range devices. If you are
not using such a device, do not attempt to use function profiling.
(1461) insufficient h/w stack to profile function "*" (Code Generator)

Function profiling requires a level of hardware stack. The entire stack has been used
by this program so not all functions can be profiled. The indicated function will not have
profiling code embedded into it, and it will not contribute to the profiling information
displayed by MPLAB X IDE.
(1462) reentrant data stack model option conflicts with stack management option and will
be ignored (Code Generator)
The managed stack option allows conversion of function calls that would exceed the
hardware stack depth to calls that will use a lookup table. This option cannot be
enabled if the reentrant function model is also enabled. If you attempt to use both the
managed stack and reentrant function model options, this message will be generated.
Code will be compiled with the stack management option disabled. Either disable the
reentrant function model or the managed stack option.
(1463) reentrant data stack model not supported on this device; using compiled stack for
data (Code Generator)
The target device does not support reentrant functions. The program will be compiled
so that stack-based data is placed on a compiled stack.
(1464) number of arguments passed to function "*" does not match function's prototype
(Code Generator)
A function was called with arguments, but the definition of the function had an empty
parameter list (as opposed to a parameter list of void).
int test(); // oops--this should define the parameters
...
test(12, input);

(1465) the stack frame size for function "*" (* bytes) has exceeded the maximum allowable
(* bytes) (Code Generator)
The compiler has been able to determine that the software stack requirements for the
named function’s auto, parameter, and temporary variables exceed the maximum
allowable. The limits are 31 for enhanced mid-range devices and 127 for PIC18
devices. Reduce the size or number of these variables. Consider static local objects
instead of auto objects.
reentrant int addOffset(int offset) {
int report[400]; // oops--this will never fit on the software stack
(1466) registers * unavailable for code generation of this expression (Code Generator)
The compiler has been unable to generate code for this statement. This is essentially
a “can’t generate code” error message (message 712), but the reason for this inability
to compile relates to there not being enough registers available. See message 712 for
suggested workarounds.
(1467) pointer used for writes includes read-only target "*" (Code Generator)
A pointer to a non-const qualified type is being used to write a value, but the compiler
knows that this pointer has targets (the first of which is indicated) that have been
qualified const. This could lead to code failure or other error messages being
generated.
void keepTotal(char * cp) {
*cp += total;
}
char c;
const char name[] = "blender";
keepTotal(&c);
keepTotal(&name[2]); // oops--will write a read-only object
(1468) unknown ELF/DWARF specification (*) in --output option (Driver)

The ELF suboption uses flags that are unknown.
—output=elf:3
Oops, there is no elf flag of 3.
This ELF suboption and its flags are usually issued by the MPLAB X IDE plugin.
Contact Microchip Technical Support with details of the compiler and IDE if this error is
issued.
(1469) function specifier "reentrant/software" used with "*" ignored (Code Generator)
The reentrant (or software) specifier was used with a function (indicated) that can-
not be encoded to use the software stack. The specifier will be ignored and the function
will use the compiled stack.
reentrant int main(void) // oops--main cannot be reentrant
...
(1470) trigraph sequence "??*" replaced (Preprocessor)

The preprocessor has replaced a trigraph sequence in the source code. Ensure you
intended to use a trigraph sequence.
char label[] = “What??!”; // you do know that’s a trigraph
// sequence, right?

(1471) indirect function call via a NULL pointer ignored (Code Generator)
The compiler has detected a function pointer with no valid target other than NULL. That
pointer has been used to call a function. The call will not be made.
int (*fp)(int, int);
result = fp(8,10); // oops--this pointer has not been initialized
(1472) --CODEOFFSET option ignored: * (Driver)

The compiler is ignoring an invocation of the --CODEOFFSET option. The printed
description will indicate whether the option is being ignored because the compiler has
seen this option previously or the compilation mode does not support its use.
(1474) read-only target "*" may be indirectly written via pointer (Code Generator)
This is the same as message 1467, but for situations where an error is required. The
compiler has encountered a pointer that is used to write, and one or more of the
pointer’s targets are read-only.
const char c = ‘x’;
char * cp = &c; // will produce warning 359 about address assignment
*cp = 0x44; // oops--you ignored the warning above, now you are
// actually going to write using the pointer?
(1478) initial value for "*" differs to that in *:* (Code Generator)
The named object has been defined more than once and its initial values do not agree.
Remember that uninitialized objects of static storage duration are implicitly initialized
with the value zero (for all object elements or members, where appropriate).
char myArray[5] = { 0 };
// elsewhere
char myArray[5] = {0,2,4,6,8}; // oops--previously initialized
// with zeros, now with different values
(1479) EEPROM data not supported by this device (Parser)

The eeprom qualifier was used but there is no EEPROM on the target device. Any
instances of this qualifier will be ignored.
eeprom int serialNo; // oops--no EEPROM on this device
(1480) initial value(s) not supplied in braces; zero assumed (Code Generator)
The assignment operator was used to indicate that the object was to be initialized, but
no values were found in the braces. The object will be initialized with the value(s) 0.
int xy_map[3][3] = { }; // oops--did you mean to supply values?
(1481) call from non-reentrant function, "*", to "*" might corrupt parameters
(Code Generator)
If several functions can be called indirectly by the same function pointer, they are called
‘buddy’ functions, and the parameters to buddy functions are aligned in memory. This
allows the parameters to be loaded without knowing exactly which function was called
by the pointer (as is often the case). However, this means that the buddy functions
cannot directly or indirectly call each other.
// fpa can call any of these, so they are all buddies
int (*fpa[])(int) = { one, two, three };
int one(int x) {
return three(x+1); // oops--one() cannot call buddy three()
}

(1482) absolute object * overlaps * (Linker)

The reservation for an absolute object has been found to overlap with the memory
reserved by another absolute object.
unsigned char nfo[6] @ 0x80;
unsigned char nfo2[6] @ 0x7b; //oops--this overlaps nfo
(1483) __pack qualifier ignored (Parser)

The __pack qualifier has no affect on auto or static local structures and has been
ignored.
int setInput(void) {
__pack struct { //oops--this will not be packed
unsigned x, y;
} inputData;
(1484) the branch errata option is turned on and a BRW instruction was detected
(Assembler)
The use of this instruction may cause code failure with the selected device. Check the
published errata for your device to see if this restriction is applicable for your device
revision. If so, remove this instruction from hand-written assembly code.
btfsc status,2
brw next ;oops--this instruction cannot be safely used
call update
(1485) * mode is not available with the current license and other modes are not permitted
by the NOFALLBACK option (Driver)
This compiler’s license does not allow the requested compiler operating mode. Since
the --NOFALLBACK option is enabled, the compiler has produced this error and will not
fall back to a lower operating mode. If you believe that you are entitled to use the com-
piler in the requested mode, this error indicates that your compiler might not be
activated correctly.
(1486) size of pointer cannot be determined during preprocessing. Using default size *
(Preprocessor)
The preprocessor cannot determine the size of pointer type. Do not use the sizeof
operator in expressions that need to be evaluated by the preprocessor.
#if sizeof(int *) == 3 // oops - you can't take the size of a
pointer type
#define MAX 40
#endif
(1488) the stack frame size for function "*" may have exceeded the maximum allowable (*
bytes) (Code Generator)
This message is emitted in the situation where the indicated function's software-stack
data has exceeded the theoretical maximum allowable size. Data outside this stack
space will only be accessible by some instructions that could attempt to access it. In
some situations the excess data can be retrieved, your code will work as expected, and
you can ignore this warning. This is likely if the function calls a reentrant function that
returns a large object, like a structure, on the stack. At other times, instructions that are
unable to access this data will, in addition to this warning, trigger an error message at
the assembly stage of the build process, and you will need to look at reducing the
amount of stack data defined by the function.

(1489) unterminated IF directive at end of psect * (Assembler)

The assembler has reached the end of the named psect and not seen the terminating
ENDIF directive associated with the last IF or ELSIF directive previously encountered.
psect mytext,class=CODE,reloc=2
movlw 20h
IF TEST_ONLY
movlw 00h
movwf _mode,c ; oops--where does the IF end?
psect nexttext,class=CODE,reloc=2
(1490) ENDIF not inside an IF directive (Assembler)

The assembler has encountered an ENDIF directive that does not have any corre-
sponding IF or ELSIF directive.
psect mytext,class=CODE,reloc=2
movlw 20h
IF TEST_ONLY
movlw 00h
ENDIF
ENDIF; oops--what does this terminate?
(1491) runtime sub-option "*" is not available for this device (Driver)
A specified suboption to the --RUNTIME option is not available for the selected device.
xc8 --CHIP=MCP19114 --RUNTIME=+osccal main.c
Oops, the osccal suboption is not available for this device.
(1492) using updated 32-bit floating-point libraries; improved accuracy might increase
code size (Code Generator)
This advisory message ensures you are aware of the changes in 32-bit floating-point
library code operation that might lead to an increase in code size.
(1493) updated 32-bit floating-point routines might trigger "can't find space" messages
appearing after updating to this release; consider using the smaller 24-bit
floating-point types (Linker)
This advisory message ensures you are aware of the changes in 32-bit floating-point
library code operation which might lead to the Can’t Find Space error message that has
been issued.
(1494) invalid argument to normalize32 (Assembler)

The NORMALIZE32 operator has been used on an operand that is not a literal constant.
NORMALIZE(_foobar) ; oops--that must be a literal constant operand
(1495) ADDFSR/SUBFSR instruction argument must be 0-3 (Assembler)

The operand to this instruction must be a literal constant and in the range 0 to 3, inclu-
sive.
addfsr 1, 6 ; oops--the offset must be between 0 to 3

(1496) arithmetic on pointer to void yields Undefined Behavior (Code Generator)

Performing operations on pointers requires the size of the pointed-to object, which is
not known in the case of generic (void *) pointers.
void * vp;
vp++; // oops—how can this be incremented without knowing what it

points to?
(1497) more than one *interrupt function defined (Code Generator)

Only one interrupt function of the same priority can be defined.
void interrupt lo_isr(void) { // oops — was this meant to be a
low_priority interrupt?
…
}
void interrupt hi_isr(void) {

…
}
(1498) pointer (*) in expression may have no targets (Code Generator)

A pointer that contains NULL has been dereferenced. Assign the pointer a valid
address before doing so.
char * cp, c;
c = *cp;// oops —what is cp pointing to?
(1499) only decimal floating-point constants can be suffixed "f" or “F”

The floating-point constant suffix has been used with an integer value.
float myFloat = 100f*3.2; // oops — is ‘100f’ mean to be a hex or
floating-point value?

MESSAGES 1500-1749
(1500) invalid token in #if expression (Preprocessor)

There is a malformed preprocessor expression.
#define LABEL
#define TEST 0
#if (LABEL == TEST) // oops--LABEL has no replacement text
(1504) the PIC18 extended instruction set was enabled but is not supported by this
compiler (Parser)
The MPLAB XC8 compiler does not support generation of code using the PIC18
extended instruction set. The extended instruction set configuration bit must always be
disabled.
#pragma config XINST=ON // oops--this must be disabled at all times
(1505) interrupts not supported by this device (Code Generator)

You have attempted to define an interrupt function for a device that does not support
interrupts.
void interrupt myIsr(void) // oops--nothing will trigger this
{ ... }
(1506) multiple interrupt functions (* and *) defined at interrupt level * (Code Generator)
More than one interrupt function has been defined for the same priority.
void interrupt low_priority
isr(void)
{ ... }
void interrupt low_priority// oops--you can have two ISRs

loisr(void) // with the same priority
{ ... }
(1507) asmopt state popped when there was no pushed state (Assembler)
The state of the assembler optimizers was popped in assembly code but there was no
corresponding push.
movlw 20h
movwf LATB
opt asmopt_pop; oops--there was never a state pushed
(1508) specifier "__ram" ignored (Parser)

This pointer-target specifier cannot be used with an ordinary variable, and it will be
ignored. Confirm that this definition was not meant to indicate a pointer type.
__ram int ip; // oops -- was this meant to be a pointer?
(1509) specifier "__rom" ignored (Parser)

This pointer-target specifier cannot be used with an ordinary variable, and it will be
ignored. Confirm that this definition was not meant to indicate a pointer type.
const __rom int cip; // oops -- was this meant to be a pointer?

(1510) non-reentrant function "*" appears in multiple call graphs and has been duplicated
by the compiler (Code Generator)
This message indicates that the generated output for a function has been duplicated
since it has been called from both main-line and interrupt code. It does not indicate a
potential code failure. If you do not want function output duplicated, consider using the
hybrid stack model, if possible, or restructure your source code.
(1511) stable/invariant mode optimizations no longer implemented; option will be ignored

(Driver)
This option is no longer available and has been ignored.
(1512) stable/invariant mode optimizations no longer implemented; specifier will be

ignored (Code Generator)
This specifier is no longer available and has been ignored.
(1513) target "*" of pointer "*" not in the memory space specified by * (Code Generator)
The pointer assigned an address by this statement was defined using a pointer-target
specifier. This assignment might be assigning addresses to the pointer that conflict with
that memory space specifier.
__rom int * ip;
int foobar;
ip = &foobar; // oops -- foobar is in data memory, not program memory
(1514) "__ram" and "__rom" specifiers are mutually exclusive (Parser)

Use of both the __ram and __rom pointer-target specifiers with the same pointer does
not make sense. If a pointer should be able to represent targets in any memory space,
do not use either of these specifiers.
// oops -- you can’t limit ip to only point to objects in ram and
// also only point to objects in rom
__ram __rom int * ip;
(1515) disabling OCG optimizations for this device is not permitted (Driver)
Due to memory limits, projects targeting some devices cannot be built. Ensure that the
OCG category of optimization is enabled.
(1516) compiler does not support 64-bit integers on the target architecture
Due to memory restrictions, the current device cannot support 64-bit integers, and a
smaller integer will be used instead. Choose a type smaller than long long to sup-
press this warning.
long long int result; // oops - this will not be 64-bits wide
(1517) peripheral library support only available for C90 (Driver)

The legacy peripheral library was build for the C90 standard and cannot reliably be
used for other C standards.

(1518) * function call made with an incomplete prototype (*) (Code Generator)
A function has been called with the compiler not having seen a complete prototype for
that function. Check for an empty parameter list in the declaration.
void foo(); // oops -- how will this call be encoded?
void main(void)
{
foo();
}

MESSAGES 2000-2249
(2000) * attribute/specifier has a misplaced keyword (*) (Parser)

An attribute token has been used in a context where it was not expected.
// oops -- ’base’ is a token which has specific meaning
void __interrupt(irq(base)) isr(void)
(2001) * attribute/specifier has a misplaced parenthesis (Parser)

The parentheses used in this attribute construct are not correctly formed. Check to
ensure that you do not have extra brackets and that they are in the correct position.
void __interrupt(irq((TMR0)) isr(void) // oops -- one too many ’(’s
(2002) __interrupt attribute/specifier has conflicting priority-levels (Parser)

More than one priority has been assigned to an interrupt function definition.
//oops -- is it meant to be low or high priority?
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0), high_priority, low_priority) tc0Int(void)
(2003) * attribute/specifier has a duplicate keyword (*) (Parser)

The same token has been used more than once in this attribute. Check to ensure that
one of these was not meant to be something else.
//oops -- using high_priority twice has no special meaning
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0), high_priority, high_priority) tc0Int(void)
(2004) __interrupt attribute/specifier has an empty "irq" list (Parser)

The irq() argument to the __interrupt() specifier takes a comma-separated list
of interrupt vector numbers or symbols. At least one value or symbol must be present
to link this function to the interrupt source.
//oops -- irq() does not indicate the interrupt source
void __interrupt(irq(),high_priority) tc0Int(void)
(2005) __interrupt attribute/specifier has an empty "base" list (Parser)

The base() argument to the __interrupt() specifier is optional, but when used it
must take a comma-separated list of interrupt vector table addresses. At least one
address must be present to position the vector table. If you do not specify the base
address with an ISR, its vector will be located in an interrupt vector table located at an
address equal to the reset value of the IVTBASE register.
//oops -- base() was used but did not indicate a vector table address
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0), base()) tc0Int(void)
(2006) __interrupt attribute/specifier has a duplicate "irq" (*) (Parser)

An irq() argument to the __interrupt() specifier has been used more than once.
//oops -- is one of those sources wrong?
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0,TMR0)) tc0Int(void)
(2007) __interrupt attribute/specifier has a duplicate "base" (*) (Parser)

The same base() argument to the __interrupt() specifier has been used more
than once.
//oops -- is one of those base addresses wrong?
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0), base(0x100,0x100)) tc0Int(void)

(2008) unknown "irq" (*) in __interrupt attribute/specifier (Parser)

The interrupt symbol or number used with the irq() argument to the __interrupt() spec-
ifier does not correspond with an interrupt source on this device.
//oops -- what interrupt source is TODO?
void __interrupt(irq(TODO),high_priority) tc0Int(void)
(2009) * attribute/specifier has a misplaced number (*) (Parser)

A numerical value appears in an attribute where it is not expected.
//oops -- this specifier requires specific argument, not a number
void __interrupt(0) isr(void)
(2010) __interrupt attribute/specifier contains a misplaced interrupt source name (*)

(Parser)
An interrupt source name can only be used as an argument to irq().
//oops -- base() needs a vector table address
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0), base(TMR0)) tc0Int(void)
(2011) __interrupt attribute/specifier has a base (*) not supported by this device (Parser)
The address specified with the base() argument to the __interrupt() specifier is
not valid for the target device. It cannot, for example, be lower than the reset value of
the IVTBASE register.
//oops -- the base() address is too low
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0), base(0x00)) tc0Int(void)
(2012) * attribute/specifier is only applicable to functions (Parser)

The __interrupt() specifier has been used with something that is not a function.
// oops -- foobar is an int, not an ISR
__interrupt(irq(TMR0)) int foobar;
(2013) argument "*" used by "*" attribute/specifier not supported by this device (Parser)
The argument of the indicated specifier is not valid for the target device.
// oops -- base() can’t be used with a device that does not
// support vectored interrupts
void __interrupt(base(0x100)) myMidrangeISR(void)
(2014) interrupt vector table @ 0x* already has a default ISR "*" (Code Generator)
You can indicate only one default interrupt function for any vector location not specified
in a vector table. If you have specified this twice, check to make sure that you have
specified the correct base() address for each default.
void __interrupt(irq(default), base(0x100)) tc0Int(void) { ...
void __interrupt(irq(default), base(0x100)) tc1Int(void) { ...
// oops -- did you mean to use different different base() addresses?
(2015) interrupt vector table @ 0x* already has an ISR (*) to service IRQ * (*)
(Parser or Code Generator)
You have specified more than one interrupt function to handle a particular interrupt
source in the same vector table.
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0), base(0x100)) tc0Int(void) { ...
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0), base(0x100)) tc1Int(void) { ...

// oops -- did you mean to use different different base() addresses?
(2016) interrupt function "*" does not service any interrupt sources (Code Generator)
You have defined an interrupt function but did not indicate which interrupt source this
function should service. Use the irq() argument to indicate the source or sources.
//oops -- what interrupt does this service?
void __interrupt(low_priority, base(0x100)) tc0Int(void)
(2017) config programming has disabled multi-vectors, "irq" in __interrupt

attribute/specifier is ignored (Code Generator)
An interrupt function has used the irq() argument to specify an interrupt source, but
the vector table has been disabled via the configuration bits. Either re-enable vectored
interrupts or use the priority keyword in the __interrupt() specifier to indicate the
interrupt source.
#pragma config MVECEN=0
void __interrupt(irq(TMR0), base(0x100)) tc0Int(void)
// oops -- you cannot disable the vector table then allocate interrupt
// functions a vector source using irq()
(2018) interrupt vector table @ 0x* has multiple functions (* and *) defined at interrupt level
* (Code Generator)
The program for a device operating in legacy mode has specified a vector table that
contains more than one function at the same interrupt priority-level in the same table.
In this mode, there can be at most one interrupt function for each priority level in each
vector table.
#pragma config MVECEN=0
void __interrupt(high_priority) tc0Int(void) {...
void __interrupt(high_priority) tc1Int(void) {...
(2019) * interrupt vector in table @ 0x* is unassigned, will be programmed with a *

(Code Generator)
In a program for a device operating in legacy mode, an interrupt vector in the indicated
vector table has not been programmed with an address. The compiler will program this
vector with an address as specified by the --UNDEFINTS option.
(2020) IRQ * (*) in vector table @ 0x* is unassigned, will be programmed with the address
of a * (Code Generator)
The interrupt vector in the indicated vector table has not been programmed with an
address. The compiler will program this vector with an address as specified by the
--UNDEFINTS option.
(2021) invalid runtime "*" sub-option argument (*) (Driver)

The argument to a sub-option specified with the --RUNTIME option is not valid.
--RUNTIME=default,+ivt:reset
Oops, the ivt suboption requires a numeric address as its argument.
(2022) runtime sub-option "ivt" specifies a base address (0x*) not supported by this
device (Driver)
The address specified with the ivt sub-option is not valid for the selected target
device. It cannot, for example, be lower than the reset value of the IVTBASE register.

(2023) IVT @ 0x* will be selected at startup (Code Generator)

The source code defines more than one IVT and no address was specified with the ivt
sub-option to the --RUNTIME option to indicate which table should be selected at
startup. The IVT with the lowest address will be selected by the compiler. It is recom-
mended that you always specify the table address when using this option.
(2024) runtime sub-option "ivt" specifies an interrupt table (@ 0x*) that has not been
defined (Driver)
The ivt sub-option to the --RUNTIME option was used to specify a IVT address, but
this address has not been specified in the source code with any ISR. Check that the
address in the option is correct, or check that the base() arguments to the __inter-
rupt() specifier are specified and are correct.
--RUNTIME=+ivt:0x100
Oops -- is this the right address? Nothing in the source code uses this base address.
(2025) qualifier * on local variable "*" is not allowed and has been ignored (Parser)
Some qualifiers are not permitted with auto or local static variables. This message
indicates that the indicated qualifier has been ignored with the named variable.
near int foobar; // oops -- auto variables cannot use near
(2026) variables qualified "*" are not supported for this device (Parser)
Some variable qualifiers are not permitted with some devices.
eeprom int serialNo; // oops -- can’t use eeprom with PIC18 devices
(2027) initialization of absolute variable "*" in * is not supported (Code Generator)

The variable indicated cannot be specified as absolute in the memory space.
eeprom char foobar @ 0x40 = 99; // oops - absolute can’t be eeprom
(2028) external declaration for identifier "*" doesn't indicate storage location
(Code Generator)
The declaration for an external object (e.g., one defined in assembly code) has no stor-
age specifiers to indicate the memory space in which it might reside. Code produced
by the compiler which accesses it might fail. Use const or a bank specifier as required.
extern int tapCounter; // oops - how does the compiler access this?
(2029) a function pointer cannot be used to hold the address of data (Parser)
A function pointer must only hold the addresses of function, not variables or objects.
int (*fp)(int);
int foobar;
fp = &foobar; // oops - a variable’s address cannot be assigned
(2030) a data pointer cannot be used to hold the address of a function (Parser)
A data pointer (even a generic void * pointer) cannot be used to hold the address of
a function.
void *gp;
int myFunc(int);
gp = foobar; // oops - a function’s address cannot be assigned

(2033) recursively called function might clobber a static register it has allocated in
expression (Code Generator)
The compiler has encountered a situation where a register is used by an expression
that is defined in a function that is called recursively, and that expression is part of a
larger expression that requires this same function to be called. The register might be
overwritten and the code may fail.
unsigned long fib_rec(unsigned long n)
{
// the temporary result of the LHS call to fib_rec() might
// store the result in a temp that is clobbered during the RHS
// call to the same function
return ((n > 1) ? (fib_rec(n-1) + fib_rec(n-2)) : n);
}
(2034) 24-bit floating-point types are not CCI compliant; use 32-bit setting for compliance
(Parser)
The CCI does not permit the use of 24-bit floating point types. If you require compli-
ance, use the -no-short-float and -no-short-double options, which will
ensure the IEEE standard 32-bit floating-point type is used for float and double
types.
(2035) use of sizeof() in preprocessor expressions is deprecated; use __SIZEOF_*__

macro to avoid this warning (Preprocessor)
The use of sizeof() in expressions that must be evaluated by the preprocess are no
longer supported. Preprocessor macros defined by the compiler, such as __SIZEO-
F_INT__, can be used instead. This does not affect the C operator sizeof() which
can be used in the usual way.
#if (sizeof(int) > 2) // oops -- use (__SIZEOF_INT__ > 2) instead
(2036) use of @ is not compliant with CCI, use __at() instead (Parser)
The CCI does not permit the definition of absolute functions and objects that use the @
address construct. Instead, place __at(address) after the identifier in the defini-
tion.
int foobar @ 0x100; // oops -- use __at(0x100) instead
(2037) short long integer types are not compliant with CCI (Parser)
The CCI does not permit use of the 3-byte short long type. Instead consider an
equivalent long int type.
short long input; // oops -- consider input to be long when using CCI
(2038) use of short long integer types is deprecated; use __int24 or __uint24 to avoid this
warning (Parser)
The short long type specifiers has been replaced with the more portable __int24
(replacing short long) and __uint24 (replacing unsigned short long) types.
short long input; // oops -- use __int24 as the type for input
(2039) __int24 integer type is not compliant with CCI (Parser)

The CCI does not permit use of the 3-byte __int24 type. Instead the long int type.
__int24 input; // oops -- use a long type when using CCI

(2040) __uint24 integer type is not compliant with CCI (Parser)

The CCI does not permit use of the 3-byte __uint24 type. Instead unsigned long
int type.
__uint24 input; // oops -- use an unsigned long type when using CCI
(2041) missing argument after "*" (Driver)

The specified option requires an argument, but none was detected on the command
line.
xc8-cc -mcpu=18f4520 -Wl,-Map main.c
Oops, the -Map option requires a map filename, e.g. -Wl,-Map=proj.map.
(2042) no target device specified; use the -mcpu option to specify a target device
(Driver)
The driver was invoked without selecting what chip to build for. Running the driver with
the -mprint-devices option will display a list of all chips that could be selected to
build for.
xc8 -cc main.c
Oops, use the -mcpu option to specify the device to build for.
(2043) target device was not recognized (Driver)

The top-level driver was not able to identify the family of device specified with the
-mcpu option.
xc8-cc -mcpu=pic io.c
Oops, the device name must be exactly one of those shown by -mprint-devices.
(2044) unrecognized option "*" (Driver)

The option specified was not recognized by the top-level driver. The option in question
will be passed further down the compiler tool chain, but this may cause errors or unex-
pected behavior.
(2045) could not find executable "*" (Driver)

The top-level driver was unable to locate the specified compiler tool in the usual loca-
tions. Ensure you have not moved files or directories inside the compiler install direc-
tory.
(2046) identifier length must be between * and *; using default length * (Driver)
The number of characters specified as the largest significant identifier length is illegal
and the default length of 255 has been used.
-N=16
Oops, the identifier length must be between 32 and 255.

Appendix C. Implementation-Defined Behavior
C.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter indicates the compiler’s choice of behavior where that behavior is
implementation defined.
Items discussed in this chapter are:

• Overview
• Translation
• Environment
• Identifiers
• Characters
• Integers
• Floating-Point
• Arrays and Pointers
• Hints
• Structures, Unions, Enumerations, and Bit Fields
• Qualifiers
• Library Functions
• Architecture
C.2 OVERVIEW
ISO C requires a conforming implementation to document the choices for behaviors

defined in the standard as “implementation-defined.” The following sections list all such
areas, the choices made for the compiler, and the corresponding section number from
the ISO/IEC 9899:1999 (aka C99) standard (or ISO/IEC 9899:1990 (aka C90)).

C.3 TRANSLATION
ISO Standard: “How a diagnostic is identified (3.10, 5.1.1.3).”
Implementation: By default, when compiling on the command-line the following formats are
used. The string (warning) is only displayed for warning messages.
filename: function()
linenumber:source line
^ (ID) message (warning)
or
filename: linenumber: (ID) message (warning)
where filename is the name of the file that contains the code (or empty
if no particular file is relevant); linenumber is the line number of the
code (or 0 if no line number is relevant); ID is a unique number that iden-
tifies the message; and message is the diagnostic message itself.
ISO Standard: “Whether each nonempty sequence of white-space characters other than
new-line is retained or replaced by one space character in translation
phase 3 (5.1.1.2).”
Implementation: Clang will replace each leading or interleaved whitespace character
sequences with a space. A trailing sequence of whitespace characters is
replaced with a new-line.
C.4 ENVIRONMENT
ISO Standard: "The mapping between physical source file multibyte characters and the
source character set in translation phase 1 (5.1.1.2)."
Implementation: Multi-byte characters are not supported in source files.
ISO Standard: “The name and type of the function called at program start-up in a
freestanding environment (5.1.2.1).”
Implementation: int main (void);
ISO Standard: “The effect of program termination in a freestanding environment (5.1.2.1).”
Implementation: A soft reset implemented by a branch to the reset vector location.
ISO Standard: “An alternative manner in which the main function may be defined
(5.1.2.2.1).”
Implementation: void main (void);
ISO Standard: “The values given to the strings pointed to by the argv argument to main
(5.1.2.2.1).”
Implementation: No arguments are passed to main. Reference to argc or argv is
undefined.
ISO Standard: “What constitutes an interactive device (5.1.2.3).”
Implementation: Application defined.
ISO Standard: "The set of signals, their semantics, and their default handling (7.14)."
Implementation: Signals are not implemented.
ISO Standard: "Signal values other than SIGFPE, SIGILL, and SIGSEGV that corre-
spond to a computational exception (7.14.1.1)."
ISO Standard: “Signals for which the equivalent of signal(sig, SIG_IGN); is
executed at program start-up (7.14.1.1).”
ISO Standard: “The set of environment names and the method for altering the
environment list used by the getenv function (7.20.4.5).”
Implementation: The host environment is application defined.
ISO Standard: “The manner of execution of the string by the system function (7.20.4.6).”

Implementation-Defined Behavior
C.5 IDENTIFIERS
ISO Standard: “Which additional multibyte characters may appear in identifiers and their
correspondence to universal character names (6.4.2).”
Implementation: None.
ISO Standard: “The number of significant initial characters in an identifier (5.2.4.1,
6.4.2).”
Implementation: All characters are significant.
C.6 CHARACTERS
ISO Standard: “The number of bits in a byte (C90 3.4, C99 3.6).”
Implementation: 8.
ISO Standard: “The values of the members of the execution character set (C90 and C99
5.2.1).”
Implementation: The execution character set is ASCII.
ISO Standard: “The unique value of the member of the execution character set produced
for each of the standard alphabetic escape sequences (C90 and C99
5.2.2).”
Implementation: The execution character set is ASCII.
ISO Standard: “The value of a char object into which has been stored any character
other than a member of the basic execution character set (C90 6.1.2.5,
C99 6.2.5).”
Implementation: The value of the char object is the 8-bit binary representation of the char-
acter in the source character set. That is, no translation is done.
ISO Standard: “Which of signed char or unsigned char has the same range, rep-
resentation, and behavior as “plain” char (C90 6.1.2.5, C90 6.2.1.1, C99
6.2.5, C99 6.3.1.1).”
Implementation: By default, unsigned char is functionally equivalent to plain char. The
options -funsigned-char and -fsigned-char can be used to explic-
itly specify the type.
ISO Standard: “The mapping of members of the source character set (in character con-
stants and string literals) to members of the execution character set (C90
6.1.3.4, C99 6.4.4.4, C90 and C99 5.1.1.2).”
Implementation: The binary representation of the source character set is preserved to the
execution character set.
ISO Standard: “The value of an integer character constant containing more than one
character or containing a character or escape sequence that does not
map to a single-byte execution character (C90 6.1.3.4, C99 6.4.4.4).”
Implementation: The previous value is shifted left by eight, and the bit pattern of the next
character is masked in. The final result is of type int. If the result is larger
than can be represented by an int, a warning diagnostic is issued and
the value truncated to int size.
ISO Standard: “The value of a wide character constant containing more than one multib-
yte character, or containing a multibyte character or escape sequence not
represented in the extended execution character set (C90 6.1.3.4, C99
6.4.4.4).”
ISO Standard: “The current locale used to convert a wide character constant consisting
of a single multibyte character that maps to a member of the extended
execution character set into a corresponding wide character code (C90
6.1.3.4, C99 6.4.4.4).”

ISO Standard: “The current locale used to convert a wide string literal into corresponding
wide character codes (C90 6.1.4, C99 6.4.5).”
Implementation: Wide strings are not supported.
ISO Standard: “The value of a string literal containing a multibyte character or escape
sequence not represented in the execution character set (C90 6.1.4, C99
6.4.5).”
C.7 INTEGERS
ISO Standard: “Any extended integer types that exist in the implementation (C99 6.2.5).”
Implementation: The __bit keyword designates a single-bit integer type. The __int24
and __uint24 keywords designate a signed and unsigned, respectively,
24-bit integer type.
ISO Standard: “Whether signed integer types are represented using sign and magnitude,
two’s complement, or one’s complement, and whether the extraordinary
value is a trap representation or an ordinary value (C99 6.2.6.2).”
Implementation: All integer types are represented as two’s complement, and all bit
patterns are ordinary values.
ISO Standard: “The rank of any extended integer type relative to another extended inte-
ger type with the same precision (C99 6.3.1.1).”
Implementation: There are no extended integer types with the same precision.
ISO Standard: “The result of, or the signal raised by, converting an integer to a signed
integer type when the value cannot be represented in an object of that
type (C90 6.2.1.2, C99 6.3.1.3).”
Implementation: When converting value X to a type of width N, the value of the result is the
Least Significant N bits of the 2’s complement representation of X. That is,
X is truncated to N bits. No signal is raised.
ISO Standard: “The results of some bitwise operations on signed integers (C90 6.3, C99
6.5).”
Implementation: The right shift operator sign extends signed values. Thus, an object with
the signed int value 0x0124 shifted right one bit will yield the value
0x0092 and the value 0x8024 shifted right one bit will yield the value
0xC012. Right shifts of unsigned integral values always clear the MSb of
the result. Left shifts (<< operator), signed or unsigned, always clear the
LSb of the result.
Other bitwise operations act as if the operand was unsigned.

C.8 FLOATING-POINT
ISO Standard: “The accuracy of the floating-point operations and of the library functions
in <math.h> and <complex.h> that return floating-point results (C90
and C99 5.2.4.2.2).”
Implementation: The accuracy is unknown.
ISO Standard: “The rounding behaviors characterized by non-standard values of
FLT_ROUNDS (C90 and C99 5.2.4.2.2).”
Implementation: No such values are used.
ISO Standard: “The evaluation methods characterized by non-standard negative values
of FLT_EVAL_METHOD (C90 and C99 5.2.4.2.2).”
Implementation: No such values are used.
ISO Standard: “The direction of rounding when an integer is converted to a floating-point
number that cannot exactly represent the original value (C90 6.2.1.3, C99
6.3.1.4).”
Implementation: The integer is rounded to the nearest floating point representation.
ISO Standard: “The direction of rounding when a floating-point number is converted to a
narrower floating-point number (C90 6.2.1.4, 6.3.1.5).”
Implementation: A floating-point number is rounded down when converted to a narrow
floating-point value.
ISO Standard: “How the nearest representable value or the larger or smaller represent-
able value immediately adjacent to the nearest representable value is
chosen for certain floating constants (C90 6.1.3.1, C99 6.4.4.2).”
Implementation: Not applicable; FLT_RADIX is a power of 2
ISO Standard: “Whether and how floating expressions are contracted when not disal-
lowed by the FP_CONTRACT pragma (C99 6.5).”
Implementation: The pragma is not implemented.
ISO Standard: “The default state for the FENV_ACCESS pragma (C99 7.6.1).”
Implementation: This pragma is not implemented.
ISO Standard: “Additional floating-point exceptions, rounding modes, environments, and
classifications, and their macro names (C99 7.6, 7.12).”
Implementation: None supported.
ISO Standard: “The default state for the FP_CONTRACT pragma (C99 7.12.2).”
Implementation: This pragma is not implemented.
ISO Standard: “Whether the “inexact” floating-point exception can be raised when the
rounded result actually does equal the mathematical result in an IEC
60559 conformant implementation (C99 F.9).”
Implementation: The exception is not raised.
ISO Standard: “Whether the “underflow” (and “inexact”) floating-point exception can be
raised when a result is tiny but not inexact in an IEC 60559 conformant
implementation (C99 F.9).”
Implementation: The exception is not raised.

C.9 ARRAYS AND POINTERS

ISO Standard: “The result of converting a pointer to an integer or vice versa (C90 6.3.4,
C99 6.3.2.3).”
Implementation: When converting an integer to a pointer variable, if the pointer variable
throughout the entire program is only assigned the addresses of objects
in data memory or is only assigned the addresses of objects in program
memory, the integer address is copied without modification into the
pointer variable. If a pointer variable throughout the entire program is
assigned addresses of objects in data memory and also addresses of
objects in program memory, then the MSb of the integer value will be set if
it is explicitly cast to a pointer to const type; otherwise the MSb is not
set. The remaining bits of the integer are assigned to the pointer variable
without modification.
When converting a pointer to an integer, the value held by the pointer is
assigned to the integer without modification. The usual integer truncation
applies if the integer is larger than the size of the pointer.
ISO Standard: “The size of the result of subtracting two pointers to elements of the same
array (C90 6.3.6, C99 6.5.6).”
Implementation: The signed integer result will have the same size as the pointer operands
in the subtraction.
C.10 HINTS
ISO Standard: “The extent to which suggestions made by using the register stor-
age-class specifier are effective (C90 6.5.1, C99 6.7.1).”
Implementation: The register storage class specifier has no effect.
ISO Standard: “The extent to which suggestions made by using the inline function
specifier are effective (C99 6.7.4).”
Implementation: A function might be inlined if a PRO-licensed compiler has the optimizers
set to level 2 or higher. In other situations, the function will not be inlined.

C.11 STRUCTURES, UNIONS, ENUMERATIONS, AND BIT FIELDS

ISO Standard: “Whether a “plain” int bit-field is treated as a signed int bit-field or as
an unsigned int bit-field (C90 6.5.2, C90 6.5.2.1, C99 6.7.2, C99
6.7.2.1).”
Implementation: A plain int bit-field is treated as an unsigned integer. Signed integer
bit-fields are not supported.
ISO Standard: “Allowable bit-field types other than _Bool, signed int, and
unsigned int (C99 6.7.2.1).”
Implementation: The signed and unsigned char type is allowed.
ISO Standard: “Whether a bit-field can straddle a storage unit boundary (C90 6.5.2.1,
C99 6.7.2.1).”
Implementation: A bit-field cannot straddle a storage unit. Any bit-field that would straddle
a storage unit will be moved to the LSb position in a new storage unit.
ISO Standard: “The order of allocation of bit-fields within a unit (C90 6.5.2.1, C99
6.7.2.1).”
Implementation: The first bit-field defined in a structure is allocated the LSb position in the
storage unit. Subsequent bit-fields are allocated higher-order bits.
ISO Standard: “The alignment of non-bit-field members of structures (C90 6.5.2.1, C99
6.7.2.1).”
Implementation: No alignment is performed.
ISO Standard: “The integer type compatible with each enumerated type (C90 6.5.2.2,
C99 6.7.2.2).”
Implementation: The type chosen to represent an enumerated type depends on the enu-
merated values. A signed type is chosen if any value is negative;
unsigned otherwise. If a char type is sufficient to hold the range of val-
ues, then this type is chosen; otherwise, an int type is chosen. Enumer-
ated values must fit within an int type and will be truncated if this is not
the case.
C.12 QUALIFIERS
ISO Standard: “What constitutes an access to an object that has volatile-qualified
type (C90 6.5.3, C99 6.7.3).”
Implementation: Each reference to the identifier of a volatile-qualified object constitutes
one access to the object.
C.13 PRE-PROCESSING DIRECTIVES

ISO Standard: “How sequences in both forms of header names are mapped to headers
or external source file names (C90 6.1.7, C99 6.4.7).”
Implementation: The character sequence between the delimiters is considered to be a
string which is a file name for the host environment.
ISO Standard: “Whether the value of a character constant in a constant expression that
controls conditional inclusion matches the value of the same character
constant in the execution character set (C90 6.8.1, C99 6.10.1).”
Implementation: Yes.
ISO Standard: “Whether the value of a single-character character constant in a con-
stant expression that controls conditional inclusion may have a negative
value (C90 6.8.1, C99 6.10.1).”
Implementation: Yes.

ISO Standard: “The places that are searched for an included < > delimited header, and
how the places are specified or the header is identified (C90 6.8.2, C99
6.10.2).”
Implementation: The preprocessor searches any directory specified using the -I option,
then, provided the -nostdinc option has not been used, the standard
compiler include directory, <install directory>/pic/include
ISO Standard: “How the named source file is searched for in an included "" delimited
header (C90 6.8.2, C99 6.10.2).”
Implementation: The compiler first searches for the named file in the directory containing
the including file, then the directories which are searched for a < >
delimited header.
ISO Standard: “The method by which preprocessing tokens are combined into a header
name (C90 6.8.2, C99 6.10.2).”
Implementation: All tokens, including whitespace, are considered part of the header file
name. Macro expansion is not performed on tokens inside the delimiters.
ISO Standard: “The nesting limit for #include processing (C90 6.8.2, C99 6.10.2).”
Implementation: No limit.
ISO Standard: "Whether the # operator inserts a \ character before the \ character that
begins a universal character name in a character constant or string literal
(6.10.3.2)."
Implementation: No.
ISO Standard: “The behavior on each recognized non-STDC #pragma directive (C90
6.8.6, C99 6.10.6).”
Implementation: See Section 4.14.3 “Pragma Directives”
ISO Standard: “The definitions for __DATE__ and __TIME__ when respectively, the
date and time of translation are not available (C90 6.8.8, C99 6.10.8).”
Implementation: The date and time of translation are always available.

C.14 LIBRARY FUNCTIONS

ISO Standard: “Any library facilities available to a freestanding program, other than the
minimal set required by clause 4 (5.1.2.1).”
Implementation: See Appendix A. Library Functions.
ISO Standard: “The format of the diagnostic printed by the assert macro (7.2.1.1).”
Implementation: Assertion failed: expression (file: func: line)
ISO Standard: “The representation of floating-point exception flags stored by the fege-
texceptflag function (7.6.2.2).”
IImplementation: Unimplemented.
ISO Standard: “Whether the feraiseexcept function raises the inexact exception in
addition to the overflow or underflow exception (7.6.2.3).”
Implementation: Unimplemented.
ISO Standard: “Strings other than "C" and "" that may be passed as the second argu-
ment to the setlocale function (7.11.1.1).”
ISO Standard: “The types defined for float_t and double_t when the value of the
FLT_EVAL_METHOD macro is less than 0 or greater than 2 (7.12).”
ISO Standard: “Domain errors for the mathematics functions, other than those required
by this International Standard (7.12.1).”
ISO Standard: “The values returned by the mathematics functions on domain errors
(7.12.1).”
Implementation: errno is set to EDOM on domain errors??
ISO Standard: “Whether the mathematics functions set errno to the value of the macro
ERANGE on overflow and/or underflow range errors (7.12.1).”
Implementation: Yes
ISO Standard: “Whether a domain error occurs or zero is returned when the fmod
function has a second argument of zero (7.12.10.1).”
Implementation: The first argument is returned.
ISO Standard: “The base-2 logarithm of the modulus used by the remquo function in
reducing the quotient (7.12.10.3).”
ISO Standard: Whether the equivalent of signal(sig, SIG_DFL); is executed prior to the
call of a signal handler, and, if not, the blocking of signals that is per-
formed (7.14.1.1).
ISO Standard: The null pointer constant to which the macro NULL expands (7.17).
Implementation: (0)
ISO Standard: “Whether the last line of a text stream requires a terminating new-line
character (7.19.2).”
Implementation: Streams are not implemented.
ISO Standard: “Whether space characters that are written out to a text stream
immediately before a new-line character appear when read in (7.19.2).”
ISO Standard: “The number of null characters that may be appended to data written to a
binary stream (7.19.2).”
ISO Standard: “Whether the file position indicator of an append-mode stream is initially
positioned at the beginning or end of the file (7.19.3).”


ISO Standard: “Whether a write on a text stream causes the associated file to be
truncated beyond that point (7.19.3).”
ISO Standard: “The characteristics of file buffering (7.19.3).”
Implementation: File handling is not implemented.
ISO Standard: “Whether a zero-length file actually exists (7.19.3).”
ISO Standard: “The rules for composing valid file names (7.19.3).”
ISO Standard: “Whether the same file can be open multiple times (7.19.3).”
ISO Standard: “The nature and choice of encodings used for multibyte characters in files
(7.19.3).”
ISO Standard: “The effect of the remove function on an open file (7.19.4.1).”
ISO Standard: “The effect if a file with the new name exists prior to a call to the rename
function (7.19.4.2).”
ISO Standard: “Whether an open temporary file is removed upon abnormal program
termination (7.19.4.3).”
ISO Standard: “What happens when the tmpnam function is called more than TMP_MAX
times (7.19.4.4).”
ISO Standard: “Which changes of mode are permitted (if any), and under what
circumstances (7.19.5.4).”
ISO Standard: “The style used to print an infinity or NaN, and the meaning of the
n-char-sequence if that style is printed for a NaN (7.19.6.1, 7.24.2.1).”
Implementation: The values are printed as the nearest number.
ISO Standard: “The output for %p conversion in the fprintf or fwprintf function
(7.19.6.1, 7.24.2.1).”
Implementation: Functionally equivalent to %lx.
ISO Standard: “The interpretation of a - character that is neither the first nor the last
character, nor the second where a ^ character is the first, in the scanlist
for %[ conversion in the fscanf or fwscanf function (7.19.6.2,
7.24.2.2).”
ISO Standard: “The set of sequences matched by the %p conversion in the fscanf or
fwscanf function (7.19.6.2, 7.24.2.2).”
ISO Standard: “The value to which the macro errno is set by the fgetpos, fsetpos,
or ftell functions on failure (7.19.9.1, 7.19.9.3, 7.19.9.4).”
ISO Standard: “The meaning of the n-char-sequence in a string converted by the str-
tod, strtof, strtold, wcstod, wcstof, or wcstold function
(7.20.1.3, 7.24.4.1.1).”
Implementation: No meaning is attached to the sequence.

ISO Standard: “Whether or not the strtod, strtof, strtold, wcstod, wcstof, or
wcstold function sets errno to ERANGE when underflow occurs
(7.20.1.3, 7.24.4.1.1).”
Implementation: No.
ISO Standard: “Whether the calloc, malloc, and realloc functions return a Null
Pointer or a pointer to an allocated object when the size requested is zero
(7.20.3).”
Implementation: Memory allocation functions are not implemented.
ISO Standard: “Whether open output streams are flushed, open streams are closed, or
temporary files are removed when the abort function is called
(7.20.4.1).”
ISO Standard: “The termination status returned to the host environment by the abort
function (7.20.4.1).”
ISO Standard: “The value returned by the system function when its argument is not a
Null Pointer (7.20.4.5).”
ISO Standard: “The local time zone and Daylight Saving Time (7.23.1).”
ISO Standard: "The range and precision of times representable in clock_t and time_t
(7.23)"
Implementation: the time_t type is used to hold a number of seconds and is defined as a
long type; clock_t is not defined.
ISO Standard: “The era for the clock function (7.23.2.1).”
ISO Standard: “The replacement string for the %Z specifier to the strftime, strfx-
time, wcsftime, and wcsfxtime functions in the “C” locale (7.23.3.5,
7.23.3.6, 7.24.5.1, 7.24.5.2).”
Implementation: These functions are unimplemented.
ISO Standard: “Whether or when the trigonometric, hyperbolic, base-e exponential,
base-e logarithmic, error, and log gamma functions raise the inexact
exception in an IEC 60559 conformant implementation (F.9).”
Implementation: No.
ISO Standard: “Whether the functions in <math.h> honor the Rounding Direction mode
(F.9).”
Implementation: The rounding mode is not forced.

C.15 ARCHITECTURE
ISO Standard: “The values or expressions assigned to the macros specified in the
headers <float.h>, <limits.h>, and <stdint.h> (C90 and C99
5.2.4.2, C99 7.18.2, 7.18.3).”
Implementation: See Table A-4, Table A-7 and the header files in <install direc-
tory>/pic/include/c99.
ISO Standard: “The number, order, and encoding of bytes in any object (when not
explicitly specified in the standard) (C99 6.2.6.1).”
Implementation: Little endian, populated from Least Significant Byte first.
ISO Standard: “The value of the result of the sizeof operator (C90 6.3.3.4, C99
6.5.3.4).”
Implementation: The type of the result is equivalent to unsigned int.

Glossary
A
Absolute Section
A GCC compiler section with a fixed (absolute) address that cannot be changed by the
linker.
Absolute Variable/Function
A variable or function placed at an absolute address using the OCG compiler’s @
address syntax.
Access Memory
PIC18 Only – Special registers on PIC18 devices that allow access regardless of the
setting of the Bank Select Register (BSR).
Access Entry Points
Access entry points provide a way to transfer control across segments to a function
which cannot be defined at link time. They support the separate linking of boot and
secure application segments.
Address
Value that identifies a location in memory.
Alphabetic Character
Alphabetic characters are those characters that are letters of the Arabic alphabet
(a, b, …, z, A, B, …, Z).
Alphanumeric
Alphanumeric characters are comprised of alphabetic characters and decimal digits
(0,1, …, 9).
ANDed Breakpoints
Set up an ANDed condition for breaking, i.e., breakpoint 1 AND breakpoint 2 must
occur at the same time before a program halt. This can only be accomplished if a data
breakpoint and a program memory breakpoint occur at the same time.
Anonymous Structure
16-bit C Compiler – An unnamed structure.
PIC18 C Compiler – An unnamed structure that is a member of a C union. The mem-
bers of an anonymous structure can be accessed as if they were members of the
enclosing union. For example, in the following code, hi and lo are members of an
anonymous structure inside the union caster.
union castaway {
int intval;
struct {
char lo; //accessible as caster.lo
char hi; //accessible as caster.hi
};
} caster;

ANSI
American National Standards Institute is an organization responsible for formulating
and approving standards in the United States.
Application
A set of software and hardware that can be controlled by a PIC microcontroller.
Archive/Archiver
An archive/library is a collection of relocatable object modules. It is created by assem-
bling multiple source files to object files, and then using the archiver/librarian to com-
bine the object files into one archive/library file. An archive/library can be linked with
object modules and other archives/libraries to create executable code.
ASCII
American Standard Code for Information Interchange is a character set encoding that
uses 7 binary digits to represent each character. It includes upper and lower case
letters, digits, symbols and control characters.
Assembly/Assembler
Assembly is a programming language that describes binary machine code in a sym-
bolic form. An assembler is a language tool that translates assembly language source
code into machine code.
Assigned Section
A GCC compiler section which has been assigned to a target memory block in the linker
command file.
Asynchronously
Multiple events that do not occur at the same time. This is generally used to refer to
interrupts that can occur at any time during processor execution.
Asynchronous Stimulus
Data generated to simulate external inputs to a simulator device.
Attribute
GCC characteristics of variables or functions in a C program which are used to describe
machine-specific properties.
Attribute, Section
GCC characteristics of sections, such as “executable”, “readonly”, or “data” that can be
specified as flags in the assembler .section directive.
B
Binary
The base two numbering system that uses the digits 0-1. The rightmost digit counts
ones, the next counts multiples of 2, then 22 = 4, etc.
Breakpoint
Hardware Breakpoint: An event whose execution will cause a halt.
Software Breakpoint: An address where execution of the firmware will halt. Usually
achieved by a special break instruction.
Build
Compile and link all the source files for an application.

Glossary
C
C\C++
C is a general-purpose programming language which features economy of expression,
modern control flow and data structures, and a rich set of operators. C++ is the
object-oriented version of C.
Calibration Memory
A special function register or registers used to hold values for calibration of a PIC micro-
controller on-board RC oscillator or other device peripherals.
Central Processing Unit
The part of a device that is responsible for fetching the correct instruction for execution,
decoding that instruction, and then executing that instruction. When necessary, it works
in conjunction with the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to complete the execution of the
instruction. It controls the program memory address bus, the data memory address
bus, and accesses to the stack.
Clean
Clean removes all intermediary project files, such as object, hex and debug files, for
the active project. These files are recreated from other files when a project is built.
COFF
Common Object File Format. An object file of this format contains machine code,
debugging and other information.
Command Line Interface
A means of communication between a program and its user based solely on textual
input and output.
Compiled Stack
A region of memory managed by the compiler in which variables are statically allocated
space. It replaces a software or hardware stack when such mechanisms cannot be effi-
ciently implemented on the target device.
Compiler
A program that translates a source file written in a high-level language into machine
code.
Conditional Assembly
Assembly language code that is included or omitted based on the assembly-time value
of a specified expression.
Conditional Compilation
The act of compiling a program fragment only if a certain constant expression, specified
by a preprocessor directive, is true.
Configuration Bits
Special-purpose bits programmed to set PIC microcontroller modes of operation. A
Configuration bit can or cannot be preprogrammed.
Control Directives
Directives in assembly language code that cause code to be included or omitted based
on the assembly-time value of a specified expression.
CPU
See Central Processing Unit.

Cross Reference File
A file that references a table of symbols and a list of files that references the symbol. If
the symbol is defined, the first file listed is the location of the definition. The remaining
files contain references to the symbol.
D
Data Directives
Data directives are those that control the assembler’s allocation of program or data
memory and provide a way to refer to data items symbolically; that is, by meaningful
names.
Data Memory
On Microchip MCU and DSC devices, data memory (RAM) is comprised of General
Purpose Registers (GPRs) and Special Function Registers (SFRs). Some devices also
have EEPROM data memory.
Data Monitor and Control Interface (DMCI)
The Data Monitor and Control Interface, or DMCI, is a tool in MPLAB X IDE. The inter-
face provides dynamic input control of application variables in projects. Applica-
tion-generated data can be viewed graphically using any of 4 dynamically-assignable
graph windows.
Debug/Debugger
See ICE/ICD.
Debugging Information
Compiler and assembler options that, when selected, provide varying degrees of infor-
mation used to debug application code. See compiler or assembler documentation for
details on selecting debug options.
Deprecated Features
Features that are still supported for legacy reasons, but will eventually be phased out
and no longer used.
Device Programmer
A tool used to program electrically programmable semiconductor devices such as
microcontrollers.
Digital Signal Controller
A A digital signal controller (DSC) is a microcontroller device with digital signal process-
ing capability, i.e., Microchip dsPIC DSC devices.
Digital Signal Processing\Digital Signal Processor
Digital signal processing (DSP) is the computer manipulation of digital signals, com-
monly analog signals (sound or image) which have been converted to digital form
(sampled). A digital signal processor is a microprocessor that is designed for use in dig-
ital signal processing.
Directives
Statements in source code that provide control of the language tool’s operation.
Download
Download is the process of sending data from a host to another device, such as an
emulator, programmer or target board.
DWARF
Debug With Arbitrary Record Format. DWARF is a debug information format for ELF
files.

Glossary
E
EEPROM
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. A special type of PROM that
can be erased electrically. Data is written or erased one byte at a time. EEPROM
retains its contents even when power is turned off.
ELF
Executable and Linking Format. An object file of this format contains machine code.
Debugging and other information is specified in with DWARF. ELF/DWARF provide
better debugging of optimized code than COFF.
Emulation/Emulator
See ICE/ICD.
Endianness
The ordering of bytes in a multi-byte object.
Environment
MPLAB PM3 – A folder containing files on how to program a device. This folder can be
transferred to a SD/MMC card.
Epilogue
A portion of compiler-generated code that is responsible for deallocating stack space,
restoring registers and performing any other machine-specific requirement specified in
the runtime model. This code executes after any user code for a given function,
immediately prior to the function return.
EPROM
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. A programmable read-only memory that
can be erased usually by exposure to ultraviolet radiation.
Error/Error File
An error reports a problem that makes it impossible to continue processing your pro-
gram. When possible, an error identifies the source file name and line number where
the problem is apparent. An error file contains error messages and diagnostics gener-
ated by a language tool.
Event
A description of a bus cycle which can include address, data, pass count, external
input, cycle type (fetch, R/W), and time stamp. Events are used to describe triggers,
breakpoints and interrupts.
Executable Code
Software that is ready to be loaded for execution.
Export
Send data out of the MPLAB IDE in a standardized format.
Expressions
Combinations of constants and/or symbols separated by arithmetic or logical
operators.
Extended Microcontroller Mode
In extended microcontroller mode, on-chip program memory as well as external mem-
ory is available. Execution automatically switches to external if the program memory
address is greater than the internal memory space of the PIC18 device.

Extended Mode (PIC18 MCUs)
In Extended mode, the compiler will utilize the extended instructions (i.e., ADDFSR,
ADDULNK, CALLW, MOVSF, MOVSS, PUSHL, SUBFSR and SUBULNK) and the indexed
with literal offset addressing.
External Label
A label that has external linkage.
External Linkage
A function or variable has external linkage if it can be referenced from outside the
module in which it is defined.
External Symbol
A symbol for an identifier which has external linkage. This can be a reference or a
definition.
External Symbol Resolution
A process performed by the linker in which external symbol definitions from all input
modules are collected in an attempt to resolve all external symbol references. Any
external symbol references which do not have a corresponding definition cause a linker
error to be reported.
External Input Line
An external input signal logic probe line (TRIGIN) for setting an event based upon
external signals.
External RAM
Off-chip Read/Write memory.
F
Fatal Error
An error that will halt compilation immediately. No further messages will be produced.
File Registers
On-chip data memory, including General Purpose Registers (GPRs) and Special
Function Registers (SFRs).
Filter
Determine by selection what data is included/excluded in a trace display or data file.
Fixup
The process of replacing object file symbolic references with absolute addresses after
relocation by the linker.
Flash
A type of EEPROM where data is written or erased in blocks instead of bytes.
FNOP
Forced No Operation. A forced NOP cycle is the second cycle of a two-cycle instruc-
tion. Because the PIC microcontroller architecture is pipelined, it prefetches the next
instruction in the physical address space while it is executing the current instruction.
However, if the current instruction changes the program counter, this prefetched
instruction is explicitly ignored, causing a forced NOP cycle.
Frame Pointer
A pointer that references the location on the stack that separates the stack-based
arguments from the stack-based local variables. Provides a convenient base from
which to access local variables and other values for the current function.

Glossary
Free-Standing
An implementation that accepts any strictly conforming program that does not use
complex types and in which the use of the features specified in the library clause (ANSI
‘89 standard clause 7) is confined to the contents of the standard headers <float.h>,
<iso646.h>, <limits.h>, <stdarg.h>, <stdbool.h>, <stddef.h> and
<stdint.h>.
G
GPR
General Purpose Register. The portion of device data memory (RAM) available for
general use.
H
Halt
A stop of program execution. Executing Halt is the same as stopping at a breakpoint.
Heap
An area of memory used for dynamic memory allocation where blocks of memory are
allocated and freed in an arbitrary order determined at runtime.
Hex Code\Hex File
Hex code is executable instructions stored in a hexadecimal format code. Hex code is
contained in a hex file.
Hexadecimal
The base 16 numbering system that uses the digits 0-9 plus the letters A-F (or a-f). The
digits A-F represent hexadecimal digits with values of (decimal) 10 to 15. The rightmost
digit counts ones, the next counts multiples of 16, then 162 = 256, etc.
High Level Language
A language for writing programs that is further removed from the processor than
assembly.
I
ICE/ICD
In-Circuit Emulator/In-Circuit Debugger: A hardware tool that debugs and programs a
target device. An emulator has more features than an debugger, such as trace.
In-Circuit Emulation/In-Circuit Debug: The act of emulating or debugging with an in-cir-
cuit emulator or debugger.
-ICE/-ICD: A device (MCU or DSC) with on-board in-circuit emulation or debug circuitry.
This device is always mounted on a header board and used to debug with an in-circuit
emulator or debugger.
ICSP
In-Circuit Serial Programming. A method of programming Microchip embedded
devices using serial communication and a minimum number of device pins.
IDE
Integrated Development Environment, as in MPLAB IDE.
Identifier
A function or variable name.
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

Import
Bring data into the MPLAB IDE from an outside source, such as from a hex file.
Initialized Data
Data which is defined with an initial value. In C,
int myVar=5;
defines a variable which will reside in an initialized data section.
Instruction Set
The collection of machine language instructions that a particular processor
understands.
Instructions
A sequence of bits that tells a central processing unit to perform a particular operation
and can contain data to be used in the operation.
Internal Linkage
A function or variable has internal linkage if it cannot be accessed from outside the
module in which it is defined.
International Organization for Standardization
An organization that sets standards in many businesses and technologies, including
computing and communications. Also known as ISO.
Interrupt
A signal to the CPU that suspends the execution of a running application and transfers
control to an Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) so that the event can be processed. Upon
completion of the ISR, normal execution of the application resumes.
Interrupt Handler
A routine that processes special code when an interrupt occurs.
Interrupt Service Request (IRQ)
An event which causes the processor to temporarily suspend normal instruction exe-
cution and to start executing an interrupt handler routine. Some processors have
several interrupt request events allowing different priority interrupts.
Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)
Language tools – A function that handles an interrupt.
MPLAB IDE – User-generated code that is entered when an interrupt occurs. The loca-
tion of the code in program memory will usually depend on the type of interrupt that has
occurred.
Interrupt Vector
Address of an interrupt service routine or interrupt handler.
L
L-value
An expression that refers to an object that can be examined and/or modified. An l-value
expression is used on the left-hand side of an assignment.
Latency
The time between an event and its response.
Library/Librarian
See Archive/Archiver.

Glossary
Linker
A language tool that combines object files and libraries to create executable code,
resolving references from one module to another.
Linker Script Files
Linker script files are the command files of a linker. They define linker options and
describe available memory on the target platform.
Listing Directives
Listing directives are those directives that control the assembler listing file format. They
allow the specification of titles, pagination and other listing control.
Listing File
A listing file is an ASCII text file that shows the machine code generated for each C
source statement, assembly instruction, assembler directive, or macro encountered in
a source file.
Little Endian
A data ordering scheme for multibyte data whereby the LSB is stored at the lower
addresses.
Local Label
A local label is one that is defined inside a macro with the LOCAL directive. These
labels are particular to a given instance of a macro’s instantiation. In other words, the
symbols and labels that are declared as local are no longer accessible after the ENDM
macro is encountered.
Logic Probes
Up to 14 logic probes can be connected to some Microchip emulators. The logic probes
provide external trace inputs, trigger output signal, +5V, and a common ground.
Loop-Back Test Board
Used to test the functionality of the MPLAB REAL ICE in-circuit emulator.
LVDS
Low Voltage Differential Signaling. A low noise, low-power, low amplitude method for
high-speed (gigabits per second) data transmission over copper wire.
With standard I/O signaling, data storage is contingent upon the actual voltage level.
Voltage level can be affected by wire length (longer wires increase resistance, which
lowers voltage). But with LVDS, data storage is distinguished only by positive and neg-
ative voltage values, not the voltage level. Therefore, data can travel over greater
lengths of wire while maintaining a clear and consistent data stream.
Source: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/L/LVDS.html.
M
Machine Code
The representation of a computer program that is actually read and interpreted by the
processor. A program in binary machine code consists of a sequence of machine
instructions (possibly interspersed with data). The collection of all possible instructions
for a particular processor is known as its “instruction set”.
Machine Language
A set of instructions for a specific central processing unit, designed to be usable by a
processor without being translated.

Macro
Macro instruction. An instruction that represents a sequence of instructions in abbrevi-
ated form.
Macro Directives
Directives that control the execution and data allocation within macro body definitions.
Makefile
Export to a file the instructions to Make the project. Use this file to Make your project
outside of MPLAB IDE, i.e., with a make.
Make Project
A command that rebuilds an application, recompiling only those source files that have
changed since the last complete compilation.
MCU
Microcontroller Unit. An abbreviation for microcontroller. Also uC.
Memory Model
For C compilers, a representation of the memory available to the application. For the
PIC18 C compiler, a description that specifies the size of pointers that point to program
memory.
Message
Text displayed to alert you to potential problems in language tool operation. A message
will not stop operation.
Microcontroller
A highly integrated chip that contains a CPU, RAM, program memory, I/O ports and
timers.
Microcontroller Mode
One of the possible program memory configurations of PIC18 microcontrollers. In
microcontroller mode, only internal execution is allowed. Thus, only the on-chip pro-
gram memory is available in microcontroller mode.
Microprocessor Mode
One of the possible program memory configurations of PIC18 microcontrollers. In
microprocessor mode, the on-chip program memory is not used. The entire program
memory is mapped externally.
Mnemonics
Text instructions that can be translated directly into machine code. Also referred to as
opcodes.
Module
The preprocessed output of a source file after preprocessor directives have been exe-
cuted. Also known as a translation unit.
MPASM™ Assembler
Microchip Technology’s relocatable macro assembler for PIC microcontroller devices,
KeeLoq® devices and Microchip memory devices.
MPLAB Language Tool for Device
Microchip’s C compilers, assemblers and linkers for specified devices. Select the type
of language tool based on the device you will be using for your application, e.g., if you
will be creating C code on a PIC18 MCU, select the MPLAB C Compiler for PIC18
MCUs.

Glossary
MPLAB ICD
Microchip’s in-circuit debuggers that works with MPLAB IDE. See ICE/ICD.
MPLAB IDE
Microchip’s Integrated Development Environment. MPLAB IDE comes with an editor,
project manager and simulator.
MPLAB PM3
A device programmer from Microchip. Programs PIC18 microcontrollers and dsPIC
digital signal controllers. Can be used with MPLAB IDE or stand-alone. Replaces
PRO MATE II.
MPLAB REAL ICE™ In-Circuit Emulator
Microchip’s next-generation in-circuit emulators that works with MPLAB IDE. See
ICE/ICD.
MPLAB SIM
Microchip’s simulator that works with MPLAB IDE in support of PIC MCU and dsPIC
DSC devices.
MPLIB™ Object Librarian
Microchip’s librarian that can work with MPLAB IDE. MPLIB librarian is an object librar-
ian for use with COFF object modules created using either MPASM assembler (mpasm
or mpasmwin v2.0) or MPLAB C18 C compiler.
MPLINK™ Object Linker
MPLINK linker is an object linker for the Microchip MPASM assembler and the Micro-
chip C18 C compiler. MPLINK linker also can be used with the Microchip MPLIB librar-
ian. MPLINK linker is designed to be used with MPLAB IDE, though it does not have to
be.
MRU
Most Recently Used. Refers to files and windows available to be selected from MPLAB
IDE main pull down menus.
N
Native Data Size
For Native trace, the size of the variable used in a Watch window must be of the same
size as the selected device’s data memory: bytes for PIC18 devices and words for
16-bit devices.
Nesting Depth
The maximum level to which macros can include other macros.
Node
MPLAB IDE project component.
Non-Extended Mode (PIC18 MCUs)
In Non-Extended mode, the compiler will not utilize the extended instructions nor the
indexed with literal offset addressing.
Non Real Time
Refers to the processor at a breakpoint or executing single-step instructions or MPLAB
IDE being run in simulator mode.
Non-Volatile Storage
A storage device whose contents are preserved when its power is off.

NOP
No Operation. An instruction that has no effect when executed except to advance the
program counter.
O
Object Code/Object File
Object code is the machine code generated by an assembler or compiler. An object file
is a file containing machine code and, possibly, debug information. It can be immedi-
ately executable or it can be relocatable, requiring linking with other object files, e.g.,
libraries, to produce a complete executable program.
Object File Directives
Directives that are used only when creating an object file.
Octal
The base 8 number system that only uses the digits 0-7. The rightmost digit counts
ones, the next digit counts multiples of 8, then 82 = 64, etc.
Off-Chip Memory
Off-chip memory refers to the memory selection option for the PIC18 device where
memory can reside on the target board, or where all program memory can be supplied
by the emulator. The Memory tab accessed from Options>Development Mode pro-
vides the Off-Chip Memory selection dialog box.
Opcodes
Operational Codes. See Mnemonics.
Operators
Symbols, like the plus sign ‘+’ and the minus sign ‘-’, that are used when forming
well-defined expressions. Each operator has an assigned precedence that is used to
determine order of evaluation.
OTP
One Time Programmable. EPROM devices that are not in windowed packages. Since
EPROM needs ultraviolet light to erase its memory, only windowed devices are eras-
able.
P
Pass Counter
A counter that decrements each time an event (such as the execution of an instruction
at a particular address) occurs. When the pass count value reaches zero, the event is
satisfied. You can assign the Pass Counter to break and trace logic, and to any
sequential event in the complex trigger dialog.
PC
Personal Computer or Program Counter.
PC Host
Any PC running a supported Windows operating system.
Persistent Data
Data that is never cleared or initialized. Its intended use is so that an application can
preserve data across a device Reset.
Phantom Byte
An unimplemented byte in the dsPIC architecture that is used when treating the 24-bit
instruction word as if it were a 32-bit instruction word. Phantom bytes appear in dsPIC
hex files.

Glossary
PIC MCUs
PIC microcontrollers (MCUs) refers to all Microchip microcontroller families.
PICkit 2 and 3
Microchip’s developmental device programmers with debug capability through Debug
Express. See the Readme files for each tool to see which devices are supported.
Plug-ins
The MPLAB IDE has both built-in components and plug-in modules to configure the
system for a variety of software and hardware tools. Several plug-in tools can be found
under the Tools menu.
Pod
The enclosure for an in-circuit emulator or debugger. Other names are “Puck”, if the
enclosure is round, and “Probe”, not be confused with logic probes.
Power-on-Reset Emulation
A software randomization process that writes random values in data RAM areas to
simulate uninitialized values in RAM upon initial power application.
Pragma
A directive that has meaning to a specific compiler. Often a pragma is used to convey
implementation-defined information to the compiler. MPLAB C30 uses attributes to
convey this information.
Precedence
Rules that define the order of evaluation in expressions.
Production Programmer
A production programmer is a programming tool that has resources designed in to pro-
gram devices rapidly. It has the capability to program at various voltage levels and com-
pletely adheres to the programming specification. Programming a device as fast as
possible is of prime importance in a production environment where time is of the
essence as the application circuit moves through the assembly line.
Profile
For MPLAB SIM simulator, a summary listing of executed stimulus by register.
Program Counter
The location that contains the address of the instruction that is currently executing.
Program Counter Unit
16-bit assembler – A conceptual representation of the layout of program memory. The
program counter increments by 2 for each instruction word. In an executable section,
2 program counter units are equivalent to 3 bytes. In a read-only section, 2 program
counter units are equivalent to 2 bytes.
Program Memory
MPLAB IDE – The memory area in a device where instructions are stored. Also, the
memory in the emulator or simulator containing the downloaded target application firm-
ware.
16-bit assembler/compiler – The memory area in a device where instructions are
stored.
Project
A project contains the files needed to build an application (source code, linker script
files, etc.) along with their associations to various build tools and build options.

Prologue
A portion of compiler-generated code that is responsible for allocating stack space, pre-
serving registers and performing any other machine-specific requirement specified in
the runtime model. This code executes before any user code for a given function.
Prototype System
A term referring to a user’s target application, or target board.
Psect
The OCG equivalent of a GCC section, short for program section. A block of code or
data which is treated as a whole by the linker.
PWM Signals
Pulse Width Modulation Signals. Certain PIC MCU devices have a PWM peripheral.
Q
Qualifier
An address or an address range used by the Pass Counter or as an event before
another operation in a complex trigger.
R
Radix
The number base, hex, or decimal, used in specifying an address.
RAM
Random Access Memory (Data Memory). Memory in which information can be
accessed in any order.
Raw Data
The binary representation of code or data associated with a section.
Read Only Memory
Memory hardware that allows fast access to permanently stored data but prevents
addition to or modification of the data.
Real Time
When an in-circuit emulator or debugger is released from the halt state, the processor
runs in Real Time mode and behaves exactly as the normal chip would behave. In Real
Time mode, the real time trace buffer of an emulator is enabled and constantly captures
all selected cycles, and all break logic is enabled. In an in-circuit emulator or debugger,
the processor executes in real time until a valid breakpoint causes a halt, or until the
user halts the execution.
In the simulator, real time simply means execution of the microcontroller instructions as
fast as they can be simulated by the host CPU.
Recursive Calls
A function that calls itself, either directly or indirectly.
Recursion
The concept that a function or macro, having been defined, can call itself. Great care
should be taken when writing recursive macros; it is easy to get caught in an infinite
loop where there will be no exit from the recursion.
Reentrant
A function that can have multiple, simultaneously active instances. This can happen
due to either direct or indirect recursion or through execution during interrupt
processing.

Glossary
Relaxation
The process of converting an instruction to an identical, but smaller instruction. This is
useful for saving on code size. MPLAB ASM30 currently knows how to RELAX a CALL
instruction into an RCALL instruction. This is done when the symbol that is being called
is within +/- 32k instruction words from the current instruction.
Relocatable
An object whose address has not been assigned to a fixed location in memory.
Relocatable Section
16-bit assembler – A section whose address is not fixed (absolute). The linker assigns
addresses to relocatable sections through a process called relocation.
Relocation
A process performed by the linker in which absolute addresses are assigned to relo-
catable sections and all symbols in the relocatable sections are updated to their new
addresses.
ROM
Read Only Memory (Program Memory). Memory that cannot be modified.
Run
The command that releases the emulator from halt, allowing it to run the application
code and change or respond to I/O in real time.
Run-time Model
Describes the use of target architecture resources.
Runtime Watch
A Watch window where the variables change in as the application is run. See individual
tool documentation to determine how to set up a runtime watch. Not all tools support
runtime watches.
S
Scenario
For MPLAB SIM simulator, a particular setup for stimulus control.
Section
The GCC equivalent of an OCG psect. A block of code or data which is treated as a
whole by the linker.
Section Attribute
A GCC characteristic ascribed to a section (e.g., an access section).
Sequenced Breakpoints
Breakpoints that occur in a sequence. Sequence execution of breakpoints is
bottom-up; the last breakpoint in the sequence occurs first.
Serialized Quick Turn Programming
Serialization allows you to program a serial number into each microcontroller device
that the Device Programmer programs. This number can be used as an entry code,
password or ID number.
Shell
The MPASM assembler shell is a prompted input interface to the macro assembler.
There are two MPASM assembler shells: one for the DOS version and one for the
Windows version.

Simulator
A software program that models the operation of devices.
Single Step
This command steps though code, one instruction at a time. After each instruction,
MPLAB IDE updates register windows, watch variables, and status displays so you can
analyze and debug instruction execution. You can also single step C compiler source
code, but instead of executing single instructions, MPLAB IDE will execute all assembly
level instructions generated by the line of the high level C statement.
Skew
The information associated with the execution of an instruction appears on the proces-
sor bus at different times. For example, the executed opcodes appears on the bus as
a fetch during the execution of the previous instruction, the source data address and
value and the destination data address appear when the opcodes is actually executed,
and the destination data value appears when the next instruction is executed. The trace
buffer captures the information that is on the bus at one instance. Therefore, one trace
buffer entry will contain execution information for three instructions. The number of cap-
tured cycles from one piece of information to another for a single instruction execution
is referred to as the skew.
Skid
When a hardware breakpoint is used to halt the processor, one or more additional
instructions can be executed before the processor halts. The number of extra
instructions executed after the intended breakpoint is referred to as the skid.
Source Code
The form in which a computer program is written by the programmer. Source code is
written in a formal programming language which can be translated into machine code
or executed by an interpreter.
Source File
An ASCII text file containing source code.
Special Function Registers (SFRs)
The portion of data memory (RAM) dedicated to registers that control I/O processor
functions, I/O status, timers or other modes or peripherals.
SQTP
See Serialized Quick Turn Programming.
Stack, Hardware
Locations in PIC microcontroller where the return address is stored when a function call
is made.
Stack, Software
Memory used by an application for storing return addresses, function parameters, and
local variables. This memory is dynamically allocated at runtime by instructions in the
program. It allows for reentrant function calls.
Stack, Compiled
A region of memory managed and allocated by the compiler in which variables are stat-
ically assigned space. It replaces a software stack when such mechanisms cannot be
efficiently implemented on the target device. It precludes reentrancy.
MPLAB Starter Kit for Device
Microchip’s starter kits contains everything needed to begin exploring the specified
device. View a working application and then debug and program you own changes.

Glossary
Static RAM or SRAM
Static Random Access Memory. Program memory you can read/write on the target
board that does not need refreshing frequently.
Status Bar
The Status Bar is located on the bottom of the MPLAB IDE window and indicates such
current information as cursor position, development mode and device, and active tool
bar.
Step Into
This command is the same as Single Step. Step Into (as opposed to Step Over) follows
a CALL instruction into a subroutine.
Step Over
Step Over allows you to debug code without stepping into subroutines. When stepping
over a CALL instruction, the next breakpoint will be set at the instruction after the CALL.
If for some reason the subroutine gets into an endless loop or does not return properly,
the next breakpoint will never be reached. The Step Over command is the same as
Single Step except for its handling of CALL instructions.
Step Out
Step Out allows you to step out of a subroutine which you are currently stepping
through. This command executes the rest of the code in the subroutine and then stops
execution at the return address to the subroutine.
Stimulus
Input to the simulator, i.e., data generated to exercise the response of simulation to
external signals. Often the data is put into the form of a list of actions in a text file.
Stimulus can be asynchronous, synchronous (pin), clocked and register.
Stopwatch
A counter for measuring execution cycles.
Storage Class
Determines the lifetime of the memory associated with the identified object.
Storage Qualifier
Indicates special properties of the objects being declared (e.g., const).
Symbol
A symbol is a general purpose mechanism for describing the various pieces which
comprise a program. These pieces include function names, variable names, section
names, file names, struct/enum/union tag names, etc. Symbols in MPLAB IDE refer
mainly to variable names, function names and assembly labels. The value of a symbol
after linking is its value in memory.
Symbol, Absolute
Represents an immediate value such as a definition through the assembly .equ
directive.
System Window Control
The system window control is located in the upper left corner of windows and some dia-
logs. Clicking on this control usually pops up a menu that has the items “Minimize,”
“Maximize,” and “Close.”
T
Target
Refers to user hardware.

Target Application
Software residing on the target board.
Target Board
The circuitry and programmable device that makes up the target application.
Target Processor
The microcontroller device on the target application board.
Template
Lines of text that you build for inserting into your files at a later time. The MPLAB Editor
stores templates in template files.
Tool Bar
A row or column of icons that you can click on to execute MPLAB IDE functions.
Trace
An emulator or simulator function that logs program execution. The emulator logs pro-
gram execution into its trace buffer which is uploaded to MPLAB IDE’s trace window.
Trace Memory
Trace memory contained within the emulator. Trace memory is sometimes called the
trace buffer.
Trace Macro
A macro that will provide trace information from emulator data. Since this is a software
trace, the macro must be added to code, the code must be recompiled or reassembled,
and the target device must be programmed with this code before trace will work.
Trigger Output
Trigger output refers to an emulator output signal that can be generated at any address
or address range, and is independent of the trace and breakpoint settings. Any number
of trigger output points can be set.
Trigraphs
Three-character sequences, all starting with ??, that are defined by ISO C as
replacements for single characters.
U
Unassigned Section
A section which has not been assigned to a specific target memory block in the linker
command file. The linker must find a target memory block in which to allocate an
unassigned section.
Uninitialized Data
Data which is defined without an initial value. In C,
int myVar;
defines a variable which will reside in an uninitialized data section.
Upload
The Upload function transfers data from a tool, such as an emulator or programmer, to
the host PC or from the target board to the emulator.
USB
Universal Serial Bus. An external peripheral interface standard for communication
between a computer and external peripherals over a cable using bi-serial transmission.
USB 1.0/1.1 supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps. Also referred to as high-speed
USB, USB 2.0 supports data rates up to 480 Mbps.

Glossary
V
Vector
The memory locations that an application will jump to when either a Reset or interrupt
occurs.
Volatile
A variable qualifier which prevents the compiler applying optimizations that affect how
the variable is accessed in memory.
W
Warning
MPLAB IDE – An alert that is provided to warn you of a situation that would cause phys-
ical damage to a device, software file, or equipment.
16-bit assembler/compiler – Warnings report conditions that can indicate a problem,
but do not halt processing. In MPLAB C30, warning messages report the source file
name and line number, but include the text ‘warning:’ to distinguish them from error
messages.
Watch Variable
A variable that you can monitor during a debugging session in a Watch window.
Watch Window
Watch windows contain a list of watch variables that are updated at each breakpoint.
Watchdog Timer (WDT)
A timer on a PIC microcontroller that resets the processor after a selectable length of
time. The WDT is enabled or disabled and set up using Configuration bits.
Workbook
For MPLAB SIM stimulator, a setup for generation of SCL stimulus.

NOTES:

Index
Symbols _COMMON_ macro ............................................... 161
_ assembly label character .............................151, 186 _delay function ................................................. 32, 272
__at address construct, see absolute variables/func- _EEPROM_INT macro........................................... 161
tions _EEPROMSIZE macro............................118, 119, 161
__bank qualifier...................................................... 109 _ERRATA_TYPES macro........................................ 62
__bit type ................................................................. 96 _FLASH_ERASE_SIZE macro .............................. 161
__builtin_software_breakpoint builtin ......266, 267, 268 _FLASH_WRITE_SIZE macro ............................... 161
__Bxxxx type symbols ........................................... 178 _GPRBITS_ macro ................................................ 161
__compiled qualifier ............................................... 124 _GPRCOUNT_ macro............................................ 161
__conditional_software_breakpoint macro............. 268 _HAS_OSCVAL macro .......................................... 161
__control qualifier..................................................... 92 _HTC_EDITION_ macro ........................................ 162
__DATABANK macro............................................. 162 _PIC12 macro ........................................................ 162
__DATE__ macro .................................................. 162 _PIC14E macro...................................................... 162
__DEBUG macro ....................................224, 268, 269 _PIC18 macro ........................................................ 162
__debug_break macro ........................................... 269 _PROGMEM_ macro ............................................. 162
__delay_ms macro................................................. 269 _RAMSIZE macro .................................................. 162
__delay_us macro.................................................. 269 _READ_OSCCAL_DATA macro.............................. 93
__delaywdt_ms macro ........................................... 269 _ROMSIZE macro.................................................. 162
__delaywdt_us macro ............................................ 269 ;; macro comment suppress character................... 200
__eeprom qualifier ..........................................110, 118 ? assembly label character .................................... 186
__EEPROM_DATA macro ..............................118, 270 ??nnnn type symbols ..................................... 186, 200
__EXTMEM macro................................................. 162 . (dot) linker load address character....................... 222
__far qualifier ......................................................... 110 .h files, see header files
__FILE__ macro .................................................... 162 .hxl files, see hexmate log files
__FLASHTYPE macro ........................................... 162 .i files, see preprocessed files
__fpnormalize function ........................................... 270 .map files, see map files
__Hxxxx type symbols ........................................... 178 .s files, see assembly files
__interrupt qualifier ................................................ 132 .sx files, see assembly files
__LINE__ macro .................................................... 162 xxxx@yyyy type symbols ....................................... 152
__LOG macro (REAL ICE)....................................... 94 @ command file specifier................................. 46, 219
__Lxxxx type symbols ............................................ 178 / psect address symbol .......................................... 222
__MPLAB_ICD__ macro........................................ 161 & macro concatenation character .................. 184, 199
__near qualifier ...............................................110, 117 && bitwise AND operator ....................................... 184
__nonreentrant qualifier ..................................114, 124 # preprocessor operator......................................... 160
__OPTIMIZE_SPEED__ macro ............................. 163 ## preprocessor operator....................................... 160
__osccal_val function............................................. 271 #pragma
__persistent qualifier ...............................111, 143, 144 addrqual .......................................................... 165
__PICC__ macro ................................................... 163 inline................................................................ 165
__PICCPRO__ macro............................................ 163 interrupt_level ................................................. 166
__ram pointer-target specifier ................................ 102 intrinsic............................................................ 165
__reentrant qualifier ........................................114, 124 printf_check..................................................... 166
__RESETBITS_ADDR macro ................................ 163 regsused ......................................................... 167
__rom pointer-target specifier ................................ 102 switch .............................................................. 167
__section qualifier ...........................................111, 175 % macro argument prefix ....................................... 200
__software qualifier ................................................ 124 % message format placeholder character................ 55
__TRACE macro (REAL ICE) .................................. 94 <> macro argument characters ...................... 184, 200
__XC macro ........................................................... 163 $ assembly label character .................................... 186
__XC8 macro ......................................................... 163 $ location counter symbol ...................................... 186
__XC8_VERSION macro ....................................... 163 Numerics
_BANKBITS_ macro .............................................. 161
0b binary radix specifier ......................................... 106
_Bool type ................................................................ 96

A delimiters......................................................... 184
abs PSECT flag.............................................. 156, 193 destination operands....................................... 180
ABS1 class ............................................................. 175 differences in................................................... 180
absolute functions .................................................. 126 expressions ..................................................... 188
absolute object files................................................ 221 include files ..................................................... 204
absolute psects .......................................156, 193, 195 initializing locations ................................. 197, 198
absolute variables .......................................... 116, 198 label scope .............................................. 187, 191
activation, see compiler installation & activation labels....................................................... 184, 187
addressable unit, see delta PSECT flag location counter............................................... 186
addrqual pragma directive...................................... 165 operators ......................................................... 188
advisory messages................................................... 54 pseudo-ops ..................................................... 190
alignment registers ............................................ 27, 152, 187
of HEX file records ............................................ 60 relative jumps .................................................. 186
of psects, see reloc PSECT flag repeating instructions ...................................... 201
anonymous structures and unions ......................... 100 reserving memory ................................... 156, 198
arg nodes ............................................................... 214 statement formats ........................................... 184
arrays strings.............................................................. 185
and pointer sizes ............................................. 101 volatile objects................................................. 185
as dummy pointer targets ............................... 105 assembly list files ................................37, 52, 207–213
maximum size of ............................................. 113 blank lines ....................................................... 205
ASCII characters .................................................... 184 content ............................................................ 207
extended ......................................................... 107 excluding conditional code .............................. 204
asm C statement .................................................... 150 format .............................................................. 204
asmfile option ........................................................... 74 including conditional code ............................... 203
ASMOPT control .................................................... 203 macros .................................................... 203, 204
assembler controls ......................................... 203–205 new page......................................................... 205
assembler directives....................................... 190–202 titles and subtitles............................................ 205
assembler macros .................................................. 199 assembly variables
disabling in listing ............................................ 204 C equivalent .................................................... 150
expanding in listings........................................ 203 defining............................................................ 198
repeat with argument ...................................... 201 global............................................................... 191
repeating ......................................................... 201 identifiers......................................................... 186
suppressing comments ................................... 200 initialized ......................................................... 197
unnamed ......................................................... 201 reserving memory ........................................... 198
assembler optimizations......................................... 206 type ................................................................. 186
assembler optimizer assert function ........................................................ 273
and list files ..................................................... 207 auto variables ......................................................... 211
enabling .......................................................... 203 initialization...................................................... 143
saving state ..................................................... 203 memory allocation ........................................... 114
selectively disabling ........................................ 203 size limits......................................................... 115
stack depth considerations ............................. 213 AVR devices............................................................. 86
assembler-generated symbols ............................... 186 B
assembly code
banked memory........................................ 36, 112, 196
called by C ...................................................... 148
linear addressing............................... 37, 113, 117
generating from C ............................................. 69
number of available banks .............................. 161
interaction with C ............................................ 150
qualifiers for..................................................... 109
mixing with C............................................. 25, 148
selection in assembly code ........26, 149, 181, 202
stack overflow ................................................... 43
BANKMASK macro .......................................... 26, 149
writing.......................................................... 25–27
BANKSEL directive .......................................... 26, 149
assembly constants................................................ 185
BANKx class........................................................... 175
assembly files......................................................... 148
base __interrupt argument ..................................... 133
assembly language
base specifier, see radix specifier
absolute variables ........................................... 198
biased exponent ....................................................... 98
access operands ............................................. 180
big endian format.................................................... 236
accessing C objects ........................................ 150
BIGRAM class ........................................................ 175
character set ................................................... 184
binary constants
comments ............................................... 184, 185
assembly ......................................................... 185
common errors ............................................ 27, 44
C code............................................................. 106
conditional ....................................................... 199
bit access of variables .............................................. 22
data types ....................................................... 186
bit data types ............................................................ 95

Index
bit instructions .....................................................90, 96 compiled specifier .................................................. 124
bit PSECT flag ....................................................... 193 compiled stack ..........................................87, 114, 140
bit variables ............................................................ 117 compiler applications................................................ 48
bitclr macro .............................................................. 91 compiler errors
bit-fields...............................................................22, 99 format................................................................ 54
bitset macro ............................................................. 91 list of........................................................ 281–412
bitwise complement operator ................................. 120 compiler installation & activation ........................ 13–14
blinking an LED ........................................................ 42 compiler operating mode.................................... 11, 33
bootloaders .......................................................29, 240 compiler options, see driver options
requirements ................................................... 142 compiler selection .................................................... 16
bss psect .........................................................113, 173 compiler-generated code ......................................... 37
btemp variables...................................................... 122 compiler-generated psects............................. 170–173
building projects ....................................................... 49 COND control......................................................... 203
byte addressable memory...................................... 193 conditional assembly.............................................. 199
CONFIG class ........................................................ 175
C
config pragma .......................................................... 88
C identifiers .............................................................. 95 config psect ............................................................ 171
C standard configuration bits ...................................................... 88
conformance ..................................................... 83 CONST class ......................................................... 174
divergence ........................................................ 83 const objects
C standard libraries .........................................146, 251 initialization ..................................................... 108
C90 standard ........................................................... 45 storage location............................................... 115
call depth, see stack depth const psect ............................................................. 171
call graph .......................................... 87, 140, 211–213 const qualifier ......................................................... 108
call graph critical path ............................................ 213 constants
call graph graphs ................................................... 214 assembly......................................................... 185
call graph table....................................................... 211 C specifiers ..................................................... 106
call grpah arg nodes .............................................. 214 character ......................................................... 107
call instruction ........................................................ 183 string, see string literals .................................. 107
casting...............................................................17, 120 context switch code..................... 24, 36, 126, 138, 167
CCI, see Common C Interface conversion between types...................................... 120
character constants crystal frequency .................................................... 269
assembly......................................................... 185 cstack psect ........................................................... 173
in C ................................................................. 107 Customer Notification Service.................................... 8
checksum psect ..................................................... 171 Customer Support ...................................................... 8
checksums ........................................................58, 236
cinit psect ............................................................... 171 D
Clang front end ........................................................ 70 DABS directive ....................................................... 198
class PSECT flag ................................................... 193 data memory ................................... 112, 173, 193, 196
classes data pointers .......................................................... 101
linker ............................................................... 174 data psect....................................................... 113, 173
classes, see linker classes data stack......................................................... 87, 114
clearing variables ................................................... 144 data types
clrwdt instruction ...................................................... 32 assembly......................................................... 186
CLRWDT macro..................................................... 274 floating point ....................................................... ??–99
CODE class ........................................................... 174 integer ............................................................... 95
COFF files ...........................................................52, 72 size of.......................................................... 95, 99
command files .......................................................... 46 DB directive............................................................ 197
linker ............................................................... 219 DDW directive ........................................................ 198
command-line driver, see driver debuggers .......................................................... 29, 60
commands, see building projects, command-line Debugging Information............................................. 72
Common C Interface ................................................ 83 default psect........................................................... 189
COMMON class ..................................................... 175 delay routine..................................................... 32, 269
common memory ............................................110, 112 delaywdt function ................................................... 272
compilation delta PSECT flag.....................................149, 193, 219
incremental builds ............................................. 49 dependency files ...................................................... 76
make files, see make files device family macro ............................................... 161
sequence .....................................................48–49 device macros ........................................................ 162
to assembly file ................................................. 69 device selection................................................ 60, 222
to object file....................................................... 68 device support...............................................37, 69, 86
to preprocessed file .......................................... 68 DI macro................................................................. 274

diagnostic files.......................................................... 52 O3 ..................................................................... 73
directives, see assembler directives Og ..................................................................... 73
disabling interrupts ........................................... 30, 139 Os...................................................................... 74
Documentation osccal .......................................................... 63, 93
Conventions ........................................................ 6 oscval ................................................................ 63
Layout ................................................................. 5 pedantic............................................................. 71
double data type................................................. 82, 97 ram ............................................................ 63, 110
driver .................................................................. 45–82 reserve ........................................................ 59, 64
command format ............................................... 46 resetbits..................................................... 64, 145
help on options.................................................. 69 rom .................................................................... 64
input files ........................................................... 46 S........................................................................ 69
long command lines .......................................... 46 save-resetbits.................................................... 64
single step compilation...................................... 49 save-temps.................................................. 49, 72
driver option serial.................................................................. 79
addrqual .....................................58, 109, 110, 165 short-double ................................................ 82, 97
ansi ................................................................... 70 short-float .................................................... 82, 97
asmfile............................................................... 74 shroud ............................................................... 64
c .................................................................. 49, 68 signed-char ....................................................... 70
checksum .......................................................... 58 stack..................................... 65, 88, 114, 124, 140
codeoffset ............................................29, 59, 136 stackcall .................................................... 66, 129
config ................................................................ 59 std ..................................................................... 70
cpu ............................................................ 60, 226 target-help ................................................... 37, 69
D ....................................................................... 76 U........................................................................ 77
debugger ........................................................... 60 undefints.................................................... 67, 131
default-config-bits.............................................. 59 unsigned-char ................................................... 70
dfp ..................................................................... 60 v ........................................................................ 69
download........................................................... 60 version............................................................... 69
download-hex.................................................... 60 w........................................................................ 71
E................................................................ 68, 159 Wa..................................................................... 78
emi .................................................................... 61 warn ............................................................ 55, 71
errata................................................................. 61 Wl ...................................................... 79, 225, 227
ext ..................................................................... 70 Wp..................................................................... 77
fill................................................................. 58, 79 x ........................................................................ 69
g ........................................................................ 72 Xassembler ....................................................... 78
help ................................................................... 69 Xclang ............................................................... 77
I ......................................................................... 81 Xl ....................................................................... 79
instrument-functions.................................... 72, 94 Xp1.................................................................... 77
ivt .................................................................... 131 Xparser.............................................................. 77
L ........................................................................ 81 Xpreprocessor................................................... 77
l ......................................................................... 78 driver options...........................................16, 46, 56–82
local................................................................... 74 DS directive ............................................................ 198
M ....................................................................... 76 DW directive ........................................................... 197
max-errors............................................53, 71, 226 dynamic memory allocation.................................... 119
maxichip ............................................................ 62
E
MD .................................................................... 77
MF ..................................................................... 77 EEDATA class........................................................ 175
MM .................................................................... 77 EEPROM data........................................................ 118
MMD ................................................................. 77 EEPROM memory
no-data-init ...................................................... 143 initializing......................................................... 118
nodefaultlibs...................................................... 79 reading ............................................................ 119
nofallback .......................................................... 75 writing.............................................................. 119
no-keep-startup ................................................. 63 eeprom psect.......................................................... 171
nostartfiles......................................................... 79 eeprom_data psect................................................. 171
nostdinc............................................................. 81 eeprom_read function ............................................ 119
nostdlib.............................................................. 79 eeprom_write function ............................................ 119
O ....................................................................... 73 EI macro ................................................................. 274
o .................................................................. 52, 68 ELF files ............................................................. 52, 72
O0 ..................................................................... 73 ELSE directive........................................................ 198
O1 ..................................................................... 73 ELSIF directive ....................................................... 198
O2 ..................................................................... 73 enabling interrupts.................................................. 139
END directive ......................................................... 191

Index
end_init psect ......................................................... 171 functions
endianism............................................................95, 97 absolute .......................................................... 126
ENDIF directive ...................................................... 198 external ........................................................... 124
ENDM directive ...................................................... 199 inline................................................................ 123
ENTRY class.......................................................... 174 interrupt, see interrupt functions
entry point .............................................................. 191 location of.......................................................... 38
entry__ type symbols ............................................. 151 reentrant.......................................................... 124
EQU directive ..........................................184, 187, 197 size of................................................................ 23
equating assembly symbols ................................... 197 static................................................................ 123
errata workarounds .................................................. 61 written in assembler ........................................ 148
ERRATA_4000_BOUNDARY macro ..................... 161
G
errata.h header file ................................................... 62
error counter ............................................................ 53 get_cal_data function ............................................. 276
error files ................................................................ 220 GIE SFR bit ............................................................ 139
error messages .............................................41, 53–55 glitches on ports ....................................................... 28
format................................................................ 54 GLOBAL directive ............................. 25, 149, 187, 191
list of ........................................................281–412 global PSECT flag.................................................. 193
location ............................................................. 41 goto instruction....................................................... 183
maximum number of ......................................... 71 H
eval_poly function .................................................. 275
hardware errata........................................................ 61
EXPAND control .............................................200, 203
hardware multiply instructions.................................. 91
exponent .................................................................. 97
hardware stack......................................................... 87
extended character set .......................................... 107
header files............................................................. 147
extended instruction set ........................................... 86
device................................................................ 86
external functions ................................................... 124
help! ................................................................... 13, 69
external memory .................................................... 110
hex files ............................................................ 47, 233
EXTRN directive .................................................... 197
address alignment............................................. 60
F addresses ....................................................... 193
F constant suffix ..................................................... 107 data record................................................ 60, 236
fatal error messages ................................................ 54 embedding serial numbers.............................. 241
fcall pseudo instruction .....................................26, 183 embedding strings........................................... 242
file extensions .......................................................... 47 extended address record ................................ 240
file types format.............................................................. 240
command ...................................................46, 219 merging ..................................................... 29, 233
input .................................................................. 46 multiple............................................................ 220
object, see object files record length ............................................. 60, 240
preprocessed .................................................... 68 statistics .......................................................... 240
symbol ............................................................ 220 hexadecimal constants
filling unused memory .........................................30, 58 assembly......................................................... 185
fixup overflow errors..................................44, 224, 225 hexmate application ............................................... 233
Fletcher’s checksum algorithm..........................59, 237 hexmate log files ............................................ 234, 240
float data type .....................................................82, 97 hexmate options............................................. 235–242
floating-point constant suffixes............................... 107 high_priority __interrupt argument ......................... 132
floating-point types ........................................82, 97–99 hlink application...................................................... 217
biased exponent ............................................... 98 HTC_ERR_FORMAT environment variable............. 54
exponent ........................................................... 98 HTC_MSG_FORMAT environment variable ............ 54
relaxed .......................................................97, 270 HTC_WARN_FORMAT environment variable ......... 54
rounding............................................................ 98 I
fpbase symbol ........................................................ 104
ICD, see debuggers
function
ID Locations ............................................................. 89
calling convention ........................................... 129
idata psect.............................................................. 171
duplication........................................140, 140–141
identifiers
parameters............................... 114, 127, 128, 148
assembly......................................................... 186
pointers ........................................................... 104
C ....................................................................... 95
prototypes ................................................177, 202
IDLOC class ........................................................... 175
return values ................................................... 128
idloc psect .............................................................. 171
signatures ................................................177, 202
IEEE floating-point format, see floating-point types . 97
size limits ........................................................ 127
IF directive.............................................................. 198
specifiers......................................................... 123
implementation-defined behaviour ........................... 85
stack usage..................................................... 129

INCLUDE control.................................................... 204 linking ...................................................... 217, 223
include files, see header files object....................................................... 225, 227
incremental builds .................................................... 49 p-code ............................................................... 51
INHX32 hex files ............................................ 235, 240 replacing modules in ............................... 147, 177
INHX8M hex files............................................ 235, 240 search order ...................................................... 46
init psect ................................................................. 171 user-defined .................................................... 147
initialized variables ................................................. 143 library functions ...................................................... 251
inline functions ....................................................... 123 limit PSECT flag ............................................. 194, 223
inline pragma directive ........................................... 165 limits.h header file .................................................... 96
inline PSECT flag ................................................... 193 linear data memory................................... 37, 112, 117
inline qualifier ........................................................... 94 link addresses ........................................................ 222
input files .................................................................. 46 linker classes.......................................63, 64, 174, 193
installation, see compiler installation & activation address limit .................................................... 223
instruction set ........................................................... 86 address ranges ............................................... 219
instrumented trace ................................................... 93 adjusting...................................................... 63, 64
intcode psect .......................................................... 171 boundary argument ......................................... 223
integer constants .................................................... 106 linker options ...................................217, 217–224, 227
integer suffixes ....................................................... 106 viewing ............................................................ 227
integral promotion .................................................. 120 linker scripts ........................................................... 170
Intel HEX files, see hex files linker-defined symbols............................................ 178
intentry psect .......................................................... 171 linking projects........................................................ 170
intermediate files ................................................ 46, 48 LIST control ............................................................ 204
assembly ........................................................... 50 LITE mode, see compiler operating mode
Internet Address ......................................................... 7 little endian format ...................................... 95, 97, 236
interrupt ljmp pseudo instruction..................................... 26, 183
priority ............................................................. 132 load addresses ....................................................... 222
sources ........................................................... 132 LOCAL directive ..................................................... 186
vectors ...................................................... 59, 136 local PSECT flag .................................................... 194
interrupt functions location counter .............................................. 186, 196
context switching..................................... 138, 167 long double types ..................................................... 97
moving ...................................................... 59, 126 low_priority__interrupt argument............................ 132
optimizations ..................................................... 36 ltemp variables ....................................................... 122
interrupt_level pragma directive ............................. 166
M
interrupts .................................................................. 24
context switching..................................24, 36, 126 Macro ....................................................................... 76
disabling .................................................... 30, 139 macro concatenation .............................................. 160
enabling .......................................................... 139 MACRO directive............................................ 184, 199
unused vectors.................................................. 67 main function .......................................................... 142
intrinsic pragma directive........................................ 165 main-line code ........................................................ 132
IRP directive ........................................................... 201 maintext psect ................................................ 125, 172
IRPC directive ........................................................ 201 make files ........................................................... 46, 49
irq __interrupt argument ......................................... 133 managed stack ....................................................... 129
ivt0xn psect ............................................................ 172 mantissa ................................................................... 97
IVTBASE register ..................................................... 62 map files ............................................52, 221, 226–230
MDF.......................................................................... 53
J mediumconst psect ................................................ 172
jmp_tab psect ......................................................... 172 memory
banks, see banked memory
K
common .................................................. 110, 112
keep PSECT flag.................................................... 194 data ..........................................112, 173, 193, 196
L linear data ....................................................... 112
pages .......................................181, 183, 196, 202
L constant suffix ..................................................... 106
remaining .......................................................... 39
labels, assembly............................................. 184, 187
reserving ............................................... 21, 38, 59
LED, blinking ............................................................ 42
specifying ranges ............................................ 219
lib directory ............................................................... 51
summary ........................................................... 39
LIBR application, see librarian
unbanked ........................................................ 112
librarian ...................................................147, 177, 232
memory allocation .................................................. 112
libraries..................................................................... 51
data memory ................................................... 112
adding files to .................................................. 232
dynamic........................................................... 119
deleting modules from..................................... 232
function code................................................... 125

Index
non-auto variables .......................................... 112 optimizations .......................................................... 157
program memory ............................................ 115 causing corruption............................................. 30
memory models ..................................................... 119 code size........................................................... 34
merge PSECT flag ..........................................194, 196 data size............................................................ 35
merging hex files .................................................... 235 faster code ........................................................ 35
message description files......................................... 53 interrupt functions ............................................. 36
messages............................................................53–55 option instruction ...................................................... 92
advisory ............................................................ 54 options, see driver options
disabling...............................................53, 55, 168 ORG directive................................................. 156, 196
error, see error messages osccal_val function................................................... 93
fatal error .......................................................... 54 oscillator calibration constants ....................31, 93, 144
format................................................................ 54 preserving ......................................................... 93
ID number ......................................................... 53 output files................................................................ 68
list of ........................................................281–412 names of ........................................................... 52
meaning ............................................................ 41 overlaid memory areas........................................... 221
placeholders in.................................................. 55 overlaid psects ....................................................... 195
types of ............................................................. 54 ovrld PSECT flag............................................ 156, 195
warning level of ................................................. 55
P
messaging system ..............................................53–55
default warning level ......................................... 55 PAGE control ......................................................... 205
environment variables....................................... 54 paged memory ................................ 181, 183, 196, 202
message count ................................................. 53 selection in assembly code ............................... 26
Microchip Internet Web Site ....................................... 7 PAGESEL directive ...................................26, 181, 202
modules parameters, see function, parameters
generating ......................................................... 68 PATH environment variable ..................................... 47
movfw pseudo instruction ...................................... 182 p-code files............................................................... 46
MPLAB IDE phase errors ........................................................... 193
compiler selection ............................................. 16 pointer
search path ....................................................... 81 comparisons.................................................... 105
multi-byte SFRs ....................................................... 90 definitions........................................................ 101
multiply instructions.................................................. 91 encoding ......................................................... 103
qualifiers.......................................................... 101
N targets ............................................................. 101
native trace .............................................................. 93 types ............................................................... 101
NDEBUG macro..................................................... 268 pointer reference graph.................................. 103, 210
NOCOND control ................................................... 204 pointers ...................................................101–105, 112
noexec PSECT flag................................................ 194 assigning dummy targets ................................ 105
NOEXPAND control ............................................... 204 assigning integers ........................................... 105
NOLIST control ...................................................... 204 data ................................................................. 101
nonreentrant specifier ............................................ 124 function ........................................................... 104
non-volatile RAM.................................................... 109 powerup label......................................................... 143
NOP function.......................................................... 276 powerup psect................................................ 145, 172
NOP macro ............................................................ 276 powerup routine ............................................... 51, 145
null macro operator ................................................ 200 powerup.S .............................................................. 145
NULL pointers .................................................104, 106 pragma directives................................................... 165
nv psect...........................................................113, 173 preprocessed files .................................................... 68
preprocessing......................................................... 159
O
preprocessor
object code version number ................................... 226 macro concatenation....................................... 160
object file libraries .................................................. 225 types ............................................................... 160
object files ...........................................................50, 68 preprocessor directives .................................. 159–160
absolute .......................................................... 221 in assembly files.............................................. 184
contents .......................................................... 225 preprocessor macros
relocatable ...................................................... 225 containing strings .............................................. 76
symbol only ..................................................... 220 predefined ....................................................... 161
OBJTOHEX application ......................................... 233 printf function.................................................... 31, 146
operator format checking............................................... 166
cast ................................................................... 17 printf_check pragma directive ................................ 166
sizeof ................................................................ 84 PRO mode, see compiler operating mode
OPT control directive ............................................. 203 processor selection .......................................... 60, 222
optim PSECT flag .................................................. 195 program counter..................................................... 186

program memory .................................................... 193 Q
absolute variables ................................... 108, 117 qualifier................................................................... 110
project name ............................................................ 52 __bank ............................................................ 109
projects..................................................................... 49 __compiled...................................................... 124
psect __control ........................................................... 92
absolute .......................................................... 156 __eeprom ................................................ 110, 118
bss .......................................................... 113, 173 __far ................................................................ 110
checksum ........................................................ 171 __near ..................................................... 110, 117
cinit.................................................................. 171 __nonreentrant........................................ 114, 124
config .............................................................. 171 __persistent..................................... 111, 143, 144
const ............................................................... 171 __reentrant.............................................. 114, 124
cstack .............................................................. 173 __section................................................. 111, 175
data ......................................................... 113, 173 __software....................................................... 124
default ............................................................. 189 const........................................................ 102, 108
eeprom ............................................................ 171 special ............................................................. 109
eeprom_data ................................................... 171 volatile .......................... 28, 30, 109, 139, 156, 185
end_init ........................................................... 171 qualifiers ......................................................... 108–111
grouping .................................................. 193, 194 and structures ................................................... 99
idata ................................................................ 171
idloc................................................................. 171 R
init ................................................................... 171 radix specifiers
intcode ............................................................ 171 assembly ......................................................... 185
intentry ............................................................ 171 C code............................................................. 106
ivt0xn............................................................... 172 RAM banks, see banked memory
jmp_tab ........................................................... 172 RAM class .............................................................. 175
maintext .................................................. 125, 172 reading timer registers.............................................. 90
mediumconst................................................... 172 Reading, Recommended............................................ 7
powerup .................................................. 145, 172 Readme...................................................................... 7
reset_vec ........................................................ 172 read-modify-write problems...................................... 43
reset_wrap ...................................................... 172 read-only variables ................................................. 108
smallconst ....................................................... 172 READTIMERx macro ............................................. 278
stack................................................................ 173 REAL ICE In-Circuit Emulator .................................. 93
strings ............................................................. 172 REALICE, see debuggers
stringtext ......................................................... 172 recursion................................................................... 84
temp ................................................................ 173 reentrancy ................................................................ 84
textn ........................................................ 125, 173 reentrant functions.................................... 87, 124, 140
xxx_text ................................................... 126, 173 reentrant specifier................................................... 124
psect association.................................................... 193 registers
PSECT directive ............................................... 27, 192 allocation to ..................................................... 119
PSECT flags................................................... 193–196 in assembly code ............................................ 187
psects ..................................................................... 225 special function ............................................... 187
absolute .................................................. 193, 195 temporary ........................................................ 122
alignment of, see reloc PSECT flag used by functions .............................. 38, 122, 150
class ........................................................ 219, 223 regsused pragma directive ..................................... 167
compiler-generated ................................. 170–173 relative branch instructions..................................... 184
delta value....................................................... 219 relative jump ........................................................... 186
function ........................................................... 125 relaxed floating-point rules ............................... 97, 270
linking .............................................................. 225 reloc PSECT flag.................................................... 195
maximum address........................................... 194 relocatable object files............................................ 225
maximum size ................................................. 196 replacing library modules ....................................... 177
overlaid ........................................................... 195 REPT directive ....................................................... 201
page boundaries and ...................................... 196 reserving memory............................................... 38, 59
placing in memory ................................... 193, 222 reset ....................................................................... 111
placing with others .......................................... 196 code executed after............................. 30, 51, 145
specifying addresses .............................. 219, 222 determining cause........................................... 145
pseudo-ops, see assembler directives vector ................................................................ 59
pure PSECT flag .................................................... 195 RESET macro ........................................................ 278
putch function ........................................................... 31 reset_vec label ....................................................... 143
putchar function...................................................... 277 reset_vec psect ...................................................... 172
reset_wrap psect .................................................... 172

Index
retfie instruction...................................................... 183 static functions ............................................... 123, 151
retlw instruction ...................................................... 116 static variables ............................................... 143, 151
return values, see function, return values STATUS register, preserving ................................. 145
returning from interrupts......................................... 183 STD mode, see compiler operating mode
rotate operator ..................................................32, 121 STRCODE class .................................................... 174
runtime startup code ...............................142, 171, 225 STRING class ........................................................ 174
preserving variables........................................ 111 string literals ........................................................... 107
variable initialization........................................ 143 assembly......................................................... 185
packing............................................................ 242
S
storage location....................................... 108, 242
safeguarding code ..............................................30, 64 type of ............................................................. 107
scale value ............................................................. 193 strings psect ........................................................... 172
sections, see psects stringtext psect ....................................................... 172
segment selector.................................................... 220 struct types, see structures
serial numbers ....................................................... 241 structure bit-fields..................................................... 99
embedding ...................................................... 241 structure qualifiers.................................................... 99
SET directive...................................................184, 197 structures ................................................................. 99
SFRs ........................................................................ 90 anonymous ..................................................... 100
accessing in assembly .................................... 152 bit-fields in................................................... 22, 99
SFRx class ............................................................. 175 maximum size of ............................................. 113
shadow registers .............................................138, 183 SUBTITLE control .................................................. 205
sign bit...................................................................... 97 supported devices, see device, support
SIGNAT directive ....................................149, 177, 202 switch pragma directive.......................................... 167
signatures .......................................................177, 202 switch statement .................................................... 167
signedness of plain char .......................................... 70 switch statements................................................... 121
silicon errata............................................................. 61 symbol files .............................................220, 221, 222
single step compilation............................................. 49 symbol table ........................................................... 215
size limits ................................................................. 36 symbol tables ......................................................... 223
const variables ................................................ 116 sorting ............................................................. 221
non-auto variables .......................................... 113 symbol-only object file............................................ 220
size of types ..................................................82, 95, 99 symbols
size PSECT flag ..................................................... 196 assembler-generated ...................................... 186
sizeof operator ......................................................... 84 linker defined................................................... 178
SLEEP macro ........................................................ 279 undefined ........................................................ 223
smallconst psect .................................................... 172
software breakpoint.........................................268, 269 T
software specifier ................................................... 124 target device, see device, selection
software stack ...................................................88, 114 temp psect.............................................................. 173
sources directory.................................................... 145 temporary registers ................................................ 122
SPACE control ....................................................... 205 textn psect...................................................... 125, 173
space PSECT flag.................................................. 196 TITLE control.......................................................... 205
special function registers, see SFRs trace features ........................................................... 93
special type qualifiers............................................. 109 translation units ........................................................ 68
specifiers, see qualifiers tris instruction ........................................................... 92
sports cars ............................................................. 186 ttemp variables....................................................... 122
stack type conversions .............................................. 17, 120
compiled ............................................87, 114, 140 types, see data types
data ............................................................87, 114
U
hardware ........................................................... 87
managed ......................................................... 129 U constant suffix..................................................... 106
software .....................................................88, 114 unbanked memory, see memory, common
stack depth............................................................. 212 undefined symbols ................................................. 156
stack overflow .....................................................43, 87 adding ............................................................. 223
stack pointer............................................................. 88 uninitialized variables ............................................. 144
stack psect ........................................................87, 173 unions
standard library files anonymous ..................................................... 100
start label ........................................................143, 145 qualifiers............................................................ 99
start record ............................................................. 191 unnamed bit-fields.................................................. 100
start_initialization ................................................... 143 unnamed psect....................................................... 189
startup module ......................................................... 51 unnamed structure members ................................. 100
startup.s, see startup module unused interrupt vectors........................................... 67

unused memory ....................................................... 39
filling .................................................................. 58
unused variables .................................................... 156
removing ......................................................... 109
USB ........................................................................ 442
V
value....................................................................... 161
variables
absolute .......................................................... 116
accessing from assembler .............................. 150
in assembly ..................................................... 198
in program memory ................................... 21, 115
in registers ...................................................... 119
initialization ..................................................... 143
location of.......................................................... 38
maximum size of ............................................... 36
sizes ............................................................ 95, 99
verbose output ......................................................... 69
volatile qualifier ................... 28, 30, 109, 139, 156, 185
W
warning level ............................................................ 55
setting ............................................................. 223
warning messages ............................................. 41, 54
disabling .......................................................... 168
location.............................................................. 41
suppressing............................................... 42, 223
Warranty Registration................................................. 7
watch dog timer ........................................................ 42
Watchdog Timer ..................................................... 443
with PSECT flag ..................................................... 196
withtotal .................................................................. 196
word addressable memory ..................................... 193
word boundaries..................................................... 195
WRITETIMERx macro............................................ 279
wtemp variables ..................................................... 122
WWW Address ........................................................... 7
X
xc.h header file ......................................................... 86
xc.inc assembly header file .............148, 152, 153, 187
xc8-cc application..................................................... 46
xtal frequency ......................................................... 269

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11/07/16

MPLAB XC8 C Compiler User Guide For PIC

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MPLAB® XC8 C Compiler

User’s Guide for PIC® MCU

 2012-2018 Microchip Technology Inc. DS50002737A

Information contained in this publication regarding device Trademarks

QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

DS50002737A-page 2  2012-2018 Microchip Technology Inc.

 2012-2018 Microchip Technology Inc. DS50002737A-page 3

Chapter 5. Macro Assembler

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CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS GUIDE

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THE MICROCHIP WEB SITE

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DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS CUSTOMER CHANGE NOTIFICATION SERVICE

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DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

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1.2 COMPILER DESCRIPTION AND DOCUMENTATION

1. This document is being prepared for release.

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1.3 DEVICE DESCRIPTION

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2.2 INSTALLING AND ACTIVATING THE COMPILER

2.2.1 How Do I Install and Activate My Compiler?

2.2.2 How Can I Tell if the Compiler has Activated Successfully?

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2.3 INVOKING THE COMPILER

2.3.1 How Do I Compile From Within MPLAB X IDE?

2.3.2 How Do I Compile on the Command-line?

2.3.3 How Do I Compile Using a Make Utility?

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2.3.4 How Can I Select Which Compiler I Want to Build With?

2.3.5 How Do I Build Libraries?

2.3.7 What is Different About an MPLAB X IDE Debug Build?

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2.4 WRITING SOURCE CODE

2.4.1 C Language Specifics

2.4.1.1 WHEN SHOULD I CAST EXPRESSIONS?

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2.4.1.2 CAN IMPLICIT TYPE CONVERSIONS CHANGE THE EXPECTED

2.4.1.3 HOW DO I ENTER NON-ENGLISH CHARACTERS INTO MY PROGRAM?

2.4.1.4 HOW CAN I USE A VARIABLE DEFINED IN ANOTHER SOURCE FILE?

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2.4.2 Device-Specific Features

2.4.2.1 HOW DO I SET THE CONFIGURATION BITS?

2.4.2.2 HOW DO I USE THE PIC DEVICE’S ID LOCATIONS?

2.4.2.3 HOW DO I DETERMINE THE CAUSE OF RESET ON MID-RANGE

2.4.2.4 HOW DO I ACCESS SFRS?

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2.4.3 Memory Allocation

2.4.3.1 HOW DO I POSITION VARIABLES AT AN ADDRESS I NOMINATE?

2.4.3.2 HOW DO I PLACE A VARIABLE INTO A UNIQUE SECTION?

2.4.3.3 HOW DO I POSITION A VARIABLE INTO AN ADDRESS RANGE?

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2.4.3.5 HOW DO I PLACE VARIABLES IN PROGRAM MEMORY?

2.4.3.6 HOW DO I PLACE A FUNCTION INTO A UNIQUE SECTION?

2.4.3.7 HOW DO I POSITION A FUNCTION INTO AN ADDRESS RANGE?

2.4.3.8 HOW DO I STOP THE COMPILER FROM USING CERTAIN MEMORY

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2.4.4.1 WHY ARE MY FLOATING-POINT RESULTS NOT QUITE WHAT I AM