Challenges for Electric Machines and Power Electronics in

Automotive Applications
Hector Zelaya De La Parra, Freddy Magnussen, Sjoerd Bosga
ABB Corporate Research
721 78 Vasteras, Sweden
E-mail: hector.zelaya@se.abb.com

Abstract: The paper is a review of the motor and drives developments in the automotive industry
related to electric and hybrid electric vehicles. The main challenges that the automotive industry faces
in the future are outlined highlighting the technological changes that are required to achieve the
targets of low cost, high power density and high ambient temperature.

Keywords: Hybrid electric vehicles; powertrains; electrical machines; power electronics.

1. Introduction electric vehicle, with both a conventional as

well as an electric drive-train, is a natural
A normal vehicle of today is equipped with an candidate for making the transition from the
internal combustion engine that runs on either conventional car towards the car of the future.
gasoline or diesel produced from oil. In all
In the late 1890’s electric vehicles (EV)
types of combustion processes carbon dioxide
outsold petrol engine cars ten to one, but due
emissions are produced, irrespective of
to technological limitations and the absence of
whether the fuels are based on fossil or
transistor-based converters the top speed of
renewable resources. Combustion of fossil
these early EVs was limited to about 30 km/h.
fuels increases the contamination of carbon
The introduction of volume production of
dioxide in the atmosphere. Fossil fuels are
petrol engine cars and the lack of electricity
taken from oil-, gas- and coal-reserves that are
infrastructure outside city boundaries quickly
million of years old and are obviously not
declined the availability of EVs in the market.
naturally part in an environmental cycle with a
In the early 1970’s there was a re-birth of the
short time span [1]. Burning of fuels that come
EV due to concern of pollution and the oil
from renewable energy sources is not regarded
embargo. In the early 1990’s a few car
to increase the amount of CO2 in the
manufacturers resumed the production of EVs
atmosphere, since the biomass is bounding an
(low volume) prompted by the California ZEV
equivalent amount of carbon dioxide during its
mandate. The mandate was weakened over the
growth. An increased contamination of CO2 in
years and this eventually stopped the
the atmosphere contributes to global warming
production of several EVs, like the GM EV1,
due to the green house effect, and has a
Ford Electric Ranger pickup and Toyota
dramatic influence on life on earth. The
RAV4-EV.
transport sector accounts for a considerable
part of the total green house gas emissions and
2. Automotive powertrains and
needs to change energy conversion methods
applications
into sustainable solutions. The fuel cell electric
and battery electric vehicles, are zero emission A. Commercial HEV market
vehicles (ZEV), and are sustainable transport
solutions, if the stored electric energy and The first commercial hybrid electric vehicle
hydrogen are produced with renewable energy, (HEV) was introduced in 1997 at the Tokyo
and regarded as cars for the future. The hybrid Auto Show by Toyota with the first version of
the Prius. At present the automotive market is
making rapid developments and there are a
number of commercially available HEVs
which include the Toyota Prius, Toyota Camry
Hybrid, Honda Civic Hybrid, Toyota
Highlander Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid,
Lexus RX 400h (Toyota), Nissan Altima
Hybrid, Saturn Vue Hybrid (GM), Mercury
Mariner Hybrid (Ford), Honda Accord Hybrid,
Lexus GS 450h and Lexus LS 600h.
The electric system in automobiles has seen a
continuous increase in vehicular power
requirement. Its voltage level started with a 6-
V system and at the beginning of the last
century to satisfy the demands of ignition,
cranking, and few lighting loads. More
complex loads that include power steering, and
electric driven systems will force the present
day 12-V level to switch over to much higher
voltage levels of 42 V, 300 V, or higher. The
rate of increase of automotive electric loads for
auxiliary equipment is assumed to be about 4%
per year.
B. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)
In addition to the traditional architectures in
HEVs, i.e. series, parallel and power split, a
tremendous increase in the research activity of
plug-in hybrids (PHEV) has been seen from
2006 onwards, as exemplified with the GM
Volt in Figure 1. The technological
implications of the development of PHEV can
be summarized as follows:
• Combination of evolutionary and
revolutionary
• Increments on hybrid powertrains
• Ground-up designs
• Reliance on Li Ion battery technology
• Diversity of energy management
strategies (electric-only vs. blended)
As far as power electronics is concerned, there
are three main implications in the PHEV
development: charging requirements, motor
power and battery capacity:
1) PHEV technologies require charging
converters integrated with the propulsion
system. Although plug-in hybrids require
relatively low power charging, there is a wide
range of options that need to be fulfilled, for
instance:
In the USA:
120 V AC, 15 A (~1,4 kW)
120 V AC, 20 A (~1,8 kW)
208 V AC, 30 A (~8,3 kW)
Figure 1: The GM Volt plug-in hybrid concept car.
In Europe:
230 V AC, 10A (~1,8 kW) on board charger
400 V AC, 16A (~8,5 kW) external charger
400 V AC, 30 A (~16 kW) on board charger
for larger vehicles (buses)
2) Motor Power: Since PHEVs have a wider
range of electric-only operation the
requirement in motor power is greater than that
for a HEV. A typical requirement for a family
car is 50 kW, whereas for a bus it would be
200 kW.
3) Battery Capacity: The battery energy
capacity for a PHEV car is 15 kWh and for a
bus it is 75 kWh.
C. HEV volumes and main players
HEV have been a niche market in Europe over
the last few years, with a penetration rate of
less than 0,5%, regular diesel and petrol engine
vehicles still dominating the market. The main
players in the HEV European market are:
• Toyota with its different variants of full
hybrids (~100 kW).
• PSA Group with the micro hybrids
(~6kW)
• Honda with mild hybrids (~12 kW)
In the US the total demand for HEVs in 2007
was around 355 000 units and it is expected
(according to Morgan Stanley Research) that it
will reach 1,2 million units by 2015. The main
contenders could be GM with the Volt and of
course Toyota with the Prius. In another
forecast analysis by The Freedonia Group, Inc.
(Cleveland, Ohio), the worldwide demand for
HEVs will be an estimated 1,6 million in 2010
and by 2015 it will have reached 4 million
HEVs. According to this forecast, 68% of the
expected demand will be in the US, 20% in
Asia Pacific and 12% in other regions.
3. State of the art in electric
powertrains
A. Electric machines
The ideal machine operating diagram for any
vehicle is given in Figure 2. In the start-up
phase from standstill the machine torque
should be high and constant in order to enable
a fast and smooth acceleration. When the
maximum rated power of the system is
reached, then the machine should deliver
constant power until the maximum continuous
speed of the vehicle is reached without
interruptive gear shifts. Finally, an over speed
or high speed region with reduced power
requirements should be available for safety
reasons regarding highway driving and
component mechanics. An internal combustion
engine does not have these operating
characteristics, since the engine does not
produce adequate torque at low revolutions
and the constant power region is very narrow,
like a peak, which means that a multi-step gear
box is required as a supporting transmission
component, as illustrated in Figure 2.
However, an electric machine can be designed
for the described performance characteristics
with a gearless or a simple single step
transmission. The gearless direct-drive
solution can be favourable using distributed in-
wheel machinery, while the single step
solution is preferred in classical configurations
for weight reasons. The width of the constant
power region, or field-weakening region for
electric machines, depends on the required
performance of the corresponding vehicle and
also on the used transmission. Electric vehicles
with single step transmissions normally require
the widest constant power region, which
typically has a speed ratio n2/n1 of up to four
(see Figure 2 for parameter definition). The
base requirements of electric machines for
electric or hybrid electric vehicles are
competitive cost, low weight and volume, high
fault-tolerance, wide field-weakening range,
high energy efficiency and high power factor.
The requirements should enable a vehicle
which has qualities like acceptable price,
compact, reliable, simple transmission, long
driving range and low inverter rating,
respectively.
One machine type candidate is the induction
machine, which for instance is used in the
battery electric vehicles Tesla Roadster and
Think, (see Figure 3) and was also used in the
obsolete GM EV1 and Ford Electric Ranger
pickup. The induction motor in the battery
powered electric super sports car Tesla
Roadster has for instance a maximum power of
185 kW in the speed region 4 500-8 500 r/min,
and a maximum speed of 14 000 r/min, giving
a constant power range speed ratio of almost
two, followed by a maximum speed to rated
speed ratio of roughly 3 [2]. The speed profile
is characteristic for induction machines, which
has a limited upper speed in the constant
power region, and if wider constant power
regions are needed then normally other electric
machine types must be chosen, or the inverter
needs to be oversized. The same phenomenon
is also characteristic for synchronous
reluctance machines and switched reluctance
machines, which similar to the induction
machine are robust machine types without the
need of permanent magnets. The maximum
torque in the high speed region for all these
three machine types is inversely proportional
to the square of the speed. The peak torque
density at rated speed is 7,2 Nm/kg for the air
cooled motor in the Tesla Roadster [2]. The
continuous torque density is not specified, but
is normally around half of the peak value in
this application. The continuous torque density
of industrial induction motors in similar size is
for comparison around 1,0 Nm/kg, but
industrial motors normally run at lower
temperature rise, have longer required lifetime,
and is governed by many industrial standards.
The state-of-the-art electric machine type used
in electric and hybrid electric vehicles is the
permanent magnet machine. The machine type
is today totally dominating this market and is
used in the most popular commercial hybrid
electric vehicles like in the twelve named
vehicles in section 2A. The combined annual
sales volume in 2007 of these twelve vehicles
in ranked order in the USA, which is by far the
biggest market, is more than 352 000 [3].
Toyota sold almost 278 000 in the USA and a
total of 429 000 hybrid vehicles globally [4].
Figure 2: The ideal machine power operating
diagram for any vehicle is shown, where the first
axis represents the machine speed for using a single
step transmission system, which is directly
proportional to the vehicle speed. The typical
power output from an internal combustion engine
for different gear steps is illustrated by the
numbered curves.

Figure 3: The battery electric cars Tesla Roadster
(left) and Think City (right).
The permanent magnet (PM) machine is the
preferred type in powertrains for hybrid
electric vehicles of today, because of its high
torque density, potentially wide constant
power range, and relatively small required
inverter rating. The peak specific torque
density is 8,9 Nm/kg for the electric motor in
the Toyota Prius and 10,0 Nm/kg in the Toyota
Camry Hybrid, while their continuous specific
torque densities are 3,6 Nm/kg and 4,8 Nm/kg,
respectively. The constructions are based on
interior permanent magnet machine designs
with eight poles and distributed overlapping
windings in 48 slots. The end-windings are
effectively cooled by oil spray in addition to
the water cooled housings [3, 5-7]. Unlike for
the earlier described machine types, the
permanent magnet machine type can be
designed for a theoretically infinitely wide
constant power range, only practically limited
by thermal and mechanical factors. The
machine type is also very flexible in
construction, and can be designed with many
pole numbers, with different air gap flux
directions like radial, axial or transversal flux,
or with different winding types like distributed
or concentrated windings [8-9]. The Honda
Civic is equipped with one PM machine with
concentrated windings for its parallel HEV
system. Characteristic feature of this machine
is short axial build through short end-
windings. The machine topology is a
crankshaft mounted integrated starter
generator (ISG), which has very high diameter
to length ratio requirements regarding space.
The concentrated windings can be form wound
which enable high copper fill factor in slots.
The end-windings are shorter than in
distributed windings, which reduce the
resistance as well as the material need. This
type of winding is typically also used in
servomotors for robotics and machine tools.
The random wound distributed windings
enable more sinusoidal magnetomotive force
and therefore also less parasitic effects like
rotor losses and unbalanced magnetic forces.
The reluctance torque component is also
greater, because of less flux leakage in the
stator. The end-windings are longer, which
makes them easier to cool, for instance with oil
cooling, as in the Toyota Prius.
B. Drives
In all available applications of electric and
hybrid electric vehicles, the drive system
controlling the motor consists of a voltage
source inverter (VSI).
DC Voltage and Semiconductor Technology
The DC voltage level varies quite considerable
depending on the size of the EV or HEV. The
so called commuter cars like the Tango T600
or Think City with a voltage level of 230 to
370 V. On the other hand, a HEV like the
Prius, use a booster to increase the DC voltage
to 600 V with the obvious advantage of
reducing the burden on the motor by lower
field weakening requirements.
In most cases the power electronics are liquid
cooled with a mixture of ethylene glycol and
water (60:40). The inlet temperature is around
70°C and typical ambient temperatures in the
electronics are between 70-80°C.
Power Output and Power Density
A very good example of a powerful converter
used in an EV, is the Zilla Z2k used in the
Tango T600. This converter is capable of
delivering 2000 A at 50°C heat sink
temperature (coolant temperature). The
continuous power at the same temperature is
192 kW with a peak power of 640 kW; this
gives an overload capacity of 3,3 times the
nominal value for 2 minutes (common in most
EV converters). The power density of this
converter is 25 kW/litre (calculated at
continuous power).
The overload capacity for the Prius is 1,8 times
the nominal value for 18 seconds and the
power density is 1,7 kW/litre (for one motor
drive and continuous power). The booster
converter (DC to DC) which has become an
integral part of the HEV drive system has even
higher power densities at about 25 kW/litre.
The main trends are:
• Better and more advanced cooling
techniques, pushing for better
performance in the semiconductor
area.
• Integration techniques of passive
components allowing higher densities.
• Higher overload capacities as a result
of the two factors above.
C. Additional Converters
Due to the high voltage levels being used in
HEVs, it becomes essential to have converters
to supply all the auxiliary loads on board the
vehicle. Although the DC/DC converter
technology is well developed for low-power
applications at lower cost, much work needs to
be done for high-power applications. There is
also the challenge to meet all the vehicle
standards for electromagnetic interference
(EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) as well as specifications of reliability
and packaging [10-12].
DC to DC converters are used mainly as
voltage boosters in HEV. The converter is
normally integrated with the DC/AC inverter.
This is illustrated in Figure 4 that shows the
power control unit of for the Toyota Prius.
There is a considerable amount of develop-
ment carried out just on the DC-DC converter
for the automotive industry [13] and the trend
for the power density is from a present value
of about 25 kW/litre to 80 kW/litre.
D. Batteries
Batteries are still the bottle neck in the
successful development of EVs and HEVs.
The major contenders are the alkaline (NiCd,
NiMH) and lithium based batteries due to their
high power densities, number of cycles and
efficiency, albeit at a very high cost. The
summary shown in Table 1 presents a
comparison of the main characteristics for
several energy reservoir systems.
4. Challenges in electric power trains
A. Electric machines
The market dominance of the permanent
magnet machine will probably continue to last
for a while, but there are some future
challenges to be faced ahead. The permanent
magnet material that is used in almost all of
these machines is based on rare-earth
Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB). Even
though the material is not rare, like the name
may indicate, there are some factors that can
influence future utilization. The raw materials
are mainly from Chinese mines, and the tax
and export regulation rules have not been
stable during the last ten years, which is
affecting the material price. But the most
influential factor on the future price of NdFeB
magnets is the market demand. The increase of
the hybrid electric vehicle market is the most
important, but there are others. Permanent
magnet generators for wind systems are
growing in popularity, although the doubly-fed
induction generator is still market dominating.
Figure 4: Power Control Unit in the Toyota Prius.
Table 1: Energy Reservoir Comparison.
Energy Power Lifetime Efficiency
(Wh/kg) (W/kg) (Cycles) (%)
PbAC 25-40 140-350 200-1500 70-75
NiCd 25-40 500 800-1500 70-75
NiMH 40-55 500-1400 500-2000 70-80
Li-Ion 70-130 600-3000 800-1500 85-90
Ultracapacitors 3-5 2000-10000 500k-1M 95-100
The rated generator power of the largest units
today is around 5 MW. The wind power
capacity increased by 20 GW in 2007 and the
total global capacity passed 100 GW in 2008.
The present annual market increase is 27%
[14]. The requirements for energy savings in
industry is also increasing the market share of
variable speed drive motor systems, and new
suitable permanent magnet motor products
have recently been introduced by major
industrial motor manufacturers like Leroy-
Somer, Hitachi and WEG. The rail traction
market is also introducing permanent magnet
motors, especially in gearless intercity trains
with distributed motors on several axes, as
have been demonstrated by Alstom,
Bombardier and Siemens. The permanent
magnet machine type for the industrial and the
traction applications are still niche markets.
Then there is an existing permanent magnet
motor market for servo applications, mainly
for robots and machine tools where GE Fanuc
and Yaskawa are important manufacturers
with estimated annual servomotor sales of
more than 500 000 each, which used to be the
largest market for permanent magnet
machines, but which now is being overtaken
by the hybrid electric vehicle market, with
Toyota in the lead position and with in-house
production of the electric machines. The
simultaneous increase of all these different
permanent magnet machine markets will most
likely have an effect on the future availability
and price of the NdFeB material.
Limiting factors for enhanced torque density in
electric machines are maximum allowable
temperature of mainly the winding insulation
and the permanent magnets. The maximum
continuous temperature with the normally
highest industrial class H winding insulation is
180°C in the hot spot and 165°C on winding
average. The winding temperature can
transiently pass 200°C, without insulation
failure. However, rules of thumb states that the
insulation lifetime is doubled for every 10°C
temperature reduction in continuous operation.
The NdFeB permanent magnets are sensitive
to elevated temperatures and to demagnetizing
fields produced by stator currents. If the
demagnetizing fields are too severe, for
instance in a short-circuit condition at high
temperature, the magnets risk permanent
demagnetization, with a resulting loss of
machine power. The present NdFeB
permanent magnet qualities that have the
highest temperature tolerance, may have a
operating temperature of maximum around
180°C in machine applications. Another
permanent magnet material, namely the
Samarium-Cobalt (SmCo), has higher
temperature tolerance and can be operated
above 200°C, but this material has in general
lower flux and is more than twice as expensive
per weight unit.
Enabling factors for enhanced torque density
in electric machines are reductions of machine
losses, improved cooling for better heat
transfer, or increased temperature. Reductions
of machine losses can be achieved with proper
selection of machine topology, for instance
will synchronous machines eliminate slip
losses in the rotor as present in induction
machines. The use of better steel grades and
thinner laminations will reduce hysteresis and
eddy-current iron losses. Improved cooling of
especially the winding system will reduce the
temperature and the resistance and therefore
also the joule losses. Direct-water cooling of
the copper conductors, which is seen in large
turbo-machinery, is complicated and expensive
and consequently not viable in small machines,
but oil spray cooling as in Toyota Prius is a
practical and good solution in hybrid electric
vehicle applications, since the oil pump system
is already implemented for the engine. Water
cooling of the housing and forced air cooling
are other possible combinations. Heat pipes
can be used to extract heat from a high tem-
perature area to a cooler area, in order to
increase the total performance. The possibility
of increasing the operating temperature is
further dependent on better knowledge of
thermal behaviour, so that safety margins can
be reduced.
Future potential electric machine candidates
for vehicle powertrains, which have not yet
been commercially used in this market, are
among others flux-switching permanent
magnet machines, synchronous reluctance
machines with permanent magnet assist and
memory motors. The flux-switching
permanent magnet machine is proposed as a
new potential machine candidate for aerospace
applications, due to its inherit fault tolerance
capability [15]. The permanent magnets are
located on the stator side for easy cooling
arrangement and the coils are non-overlapping
with small mutual inductance and influence in
case of phase failure. The synchronous
reluctance machine with permanent magnet
assist using ferrites is proposed as a cost
effective machine alternative with high
efficiency and power factor [16-17]. Ferrites
are relatively weak magnets that cost only one
tenth of the cost of NdFeB magnets per weight
unit. The ferrites are mainly used for reducing
the required inverter rating and for increasing
the constant power region. Memory motors are
electric machines that are equipped with
Aluminium-Nickel-Cobalt(AlNiCo) permanent
magnets in the rotor. AlNiCo magnets are
easily demagnetized, which is the whole point
with this machine type, since the magnetic flux
level of the magnets are continuously altered
by the stator currents depending on the
operating conditions. This means that it
changes from a high flux level at low speed to
a low flux level at high speed in the constant
power region, in order to minimize the
required current amplitude and corresponding
losses. A normal permanent magnet machine
with a winding with changeable number of
turns has similar behaviour, if it would be
practically feasible (has earlier been proposed
for rail traction applications). Siemens VDO,
now owned by Continental, is working on the
memory motor concept and also academic
research is ongoing [18-19]. AlNiCo
permanent magnets have high thermal stability
and can be operated above 500°C, so this
particular property is superior compared to the
NdFeB magnets, even though the energy
product or magnetic strength is much lower.
B. Drives
In conventional drives, low frequency and
EMI filters are realized as assemblies of
discrete components. These components are
generally bulky and not designed to spatially
fit with each other, which results in a large
percentage of the converter volume being
occupied by air. The requirements in the car
industry are more demanding; according to the
European Centre for Power Electronics
(ECPE), the target for power density in the
HEV drives will be 10 kW/litre (including
motor and drive) in 2010. The biggest jump,
from today’s technology to the 2010 target will
be achieved by integrating the motor and
power electronics. There are some prototypes
already, like those developed by the ECPE,
Tyco Electronics and Continental.
The targets shown above will require much
higher power densities with lower energy loss,
smaller size and lower cost. It is difficult to
realize such higher power density systems with
Si-IGBTs, because of their material limits.
Therefore, new power devices made of new
materials need to be developed. Wide band-
gap semiconductors such as SiC and GaN are
two candidates being investigated for future
drive systems in HEV applications. Toyota is
involved in the development of GaN devices
[12]. The properties of SiC are ideal for HEV
applications, i.e. high temperature operation,
high switching frequency and high breakdown
voltage.
C. Additional converters
Whereas the most important challenges for the
main motor converter, as outlined in the
previous section, are power density and high-
temperature operation, it has to be noted that a
HEV is a true multi-converter system. This
first became apparent during the 1990’s, when
several authors attempted to integrate charger
functionality into the motor converter. Even
the motor was in some designs used as an
inductance in the charger circuit [20]. Such
integration would be most beneficial, if fast
charging of a large battery is required, which is
less of an issue in today's HEV developments.
Also research into inductive [21] or conductive
couplings between (on board) charger and the
grid, as well as research on a charging station
infrastructure has lost much of its earlier
appeal. Today, battery-only powered vehicles
are more seen as a niche than during last
decade. On-road replaceable battery packs
could still be an acceptable solution, but only
if a significant infrastructure of battery
replacement stations were to be build up, and a
common standard for battery sizes, voltages
and capacities was defined and accepted. For
plug-in HEVs, typically a charger is included
inside the vehicle, with a standard plug
connection to a residential power grid. This
requires the charger to be not only low-cost,
but at the same time fulfilling each country' s
voltage and current levels as well as EMI,
EMC and safety standards. Furthermore, the
charger should ideally be aware of variations
in kWh cost during the day, charging only
when cost is lowest. This requires
compatibility with a multitude of grid systems,
or the development and acceptance of related
standards. Last but not least, car owners will
want some degree of control over when and
how much to charge the battery, posing a
challenge on user interface design. Many
dream about a future where HEVs connected
to the grid would support the grid, releasing
energy during peak hours and absorbing it at
times of low consumption. The challenges in
this area are mainly non technical. How would
the HEV owner be compensated for this
service, how is battery life time ensured and
accounted, and how will optimal battery use be
found for each specific HEV owner, his
vehicle use and his grid connections?
A typical (plug-in) HEV has several more
converters than "just" the main motor
converter and the charger. There is also a
converter related to the energy generation -
either a DC/DC converter connected to fuel
cells and/or super capacitors, or a rectifier
connected to a generator. In the case of the
Toyota Prius, there are two inverters [5]. It
will remain a major challenge to find an
optimal combination of converters, storage
systems, motors, gears, generators, etc. for
each case. Of course, all these parts need to be
optimally dimensioned, considering failure
modes, safety, reliability, optimization of
energy consumption, lifetime, etc.
Investigations have been started with regards
to finding the main drivers behind MTTF
(mean time to failure) and cost of maintenance
[22].
Yet another challenge and increase of
complexity is the replacement of the
traditional single powertrain configuration by
several wheel motors. Investigations on
control strategies in case one of these motors
(or their converters) fail are still rare [23].
Without fault detection and diagnosis,
immediately followed by control actions in the
non-faulty motor(s), a single failure could put
the vehicle on an unavoidable collision course.
5. Conclusions
The main technological challenges that have
been outlined in this paper are:
• The drive system power density in the HEV
market is increasing at a fast pace when
compared with the trends in traditional
converter used in industry. Several aspects
 can be identified: electromagnetic passive
integration, film capacitors, transformer
optimization, filter integration, new cooling
techniques;
• The integration of motor and power
electronics as a future solution for
increased power density;
• Cooling aspects to meet the demands of
higher temperatures for both motor and
power electronic converters;
• Investigation into new types of PM
materials capable of withstanding higher
temperatures;
• The cost per kW is changing quickly and
will probably have an overall effect in other
industries;
• Traditional automotive industry companies
are becoming important motor
manufacturers due to the production
volume.
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