High-Force-to-Volume Seismic Dissipators Embedded in a

Jointed Precast Concrete Frame

Geoffrey W. Rodgers1; Kevin M. Solberg2; John B. Mander3; J. Geoffrey Chase4;
Brendon A. Bradley5; and Rajesh P. Dhakal, M.ASCE6

Abstract: An experimental and computational study of an 80-percent scale precast concrete 3D beam-column joint subassembly designed
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with high force-to-volume (HF2V) dampers and damage-protected rocking connections is presented. A prestress system is implemented
using high-alloy high-strength unbonded thread-bars through the beams and columns. The thread-bars are posttensioned and supplemental
energy dissipation is provided by internally mounted lead-extrusion dampers. A multilevel seismic performance assessment (MSPA) is con-
ducted considering three performance objectives related to occupant protection and collapse prevention. First, bidirectional quasi-static cyclic
tests characterise the specimen’s performance. Results are used in a 3D nonlinear incremental dynamic analysis (IDA), to select critical
earthquakes for further bidirectional experimental tests. Thus, quasi-earthquake displacement tests are performed by using the computation-
ally predicted seismic demands corresponding to these ground motions. Resulting damage to the specimen is negligible, and the specimen
satisfies all performance objectives related to serviceability, life-safety, and collapse prevention. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X
.0000329. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Damping; Seismic effects; Damage; Earthquakes; Dynamic analysis; Precast Concrete; Frames.
Author keywords: High force-to-volume damper; HF2V; Lead extrusion damper; Multi-level seismic performance assessment; Damage
avoidance design; Quasi-earthquake displacement testing; Incremental dynamic analysis.

Introduction because it can lead to complete postearthquake loss of structural

Research and development of jointed precast concrete structures
has gained considerable momentum, with significant research on
the PRESSS systems (Priestley et al. 1999; Stanton et al. 1997)
and Damage-Avoidance Design (DAD) systems (Ajrab et al.
2004; Holden et al. 2003; Mander and Cheng 1997). These systems
accommodate inelastic behavior by rocking at specially detailed
joints; provide a level of seismic resistance comparable to current
standards for ductile (damage-prone) structures; and remain essen-
tially damage-free without the excessive residual displacement
common in conventional systems. Residual displacement is critical
1
Postdoctoral Researcher, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Univ. of
Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand (corre-
sponding author). E-mail: geoff.rodgers@canterbury.ac.nz
2
Master’s Student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Canterbury,
Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand.
3
Zachry Professor of Design and Construction Integration, Zachry Dept.
of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX 77843.
E-mail: jmander@civil.tamu.edu
4
Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Univ. of Canterbury, Pri-
vate Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand. E-mail: geoff.chase@
canterbury.ac.nz
5 residual compression forces remain upon joint closing. Residual
Lecturer, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Canterbury, Private Bag
4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand. E-mail: brendon.bradley@
canterbury.ac.nz
6
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Canterbury,
Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand. E-mail: rajesh
.dhakal@canterbury.ac.nz
Note. This manuscript was submitted on April 8, 2008; approved on
October 6, 2010; published online on October 21, 2010. Discussion period
open until August 1, 2012; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engineer-
ing, Vol. 138, No. 3, March 1, 2012. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445/2012/3-
375–386/$25.00.
amenity. However, these systems may exhibit relatively low hys-
teretic energy dissipation resulting in excessive response motion.
Although this may not be an issue with long period structures,
short to medium period rocking structures may undergo signifi-
cantly greater displacements than conventional ductile structures
(Priestley and Tao 1993). Hence, ductile jointed precast concrete
systems ideally require some supplemental energy dissipation to
dissipate earthquake energy and mitigate an excessive displacement
response.
Energy dissipation devices of varying sophistication are avail-
able. Early applications in ductile jointed connections provided dis-
sipation by mild steel reinforcing bars grouted in ducts across the
joint (Stanton et al. 1997). The devices proved to work well with
the grout providing a degree of buckling resistance. However, de-
bonding of the bars under cyclic loading caused some stiffness deg-
radation. Other options include tension-only mild steel devices
(Bradley et al. 2008) and external mild steel devices allowed to
buckle (Li et al. 2008; Solberg et al. 2008).
Each option has limitations. Mild steel devices allowed to
buckle lose significant energy dissipation upon buckling, giving
much less dissipation on subsequent cycles. Buckling restrained
devices may provide more stable resistance, but considerable
forces from these elements will effect initial structural stiffness
and have the possibility of a negative impact on response. As such,
residual forces from damping elements must be considered in de-
sign. Mild steel devices can also suffer failure resulting from low-
cycle fatigue and should strictly be replaced following a significant
earthquake. Finally, all yielding-and buckling-based dissipators
provide reduced capacity on subsequent smaller response cycles
where no yielding may occur.
Other research has looked at alternatives for providing energy
dissipation to concrete structures. Pekcan et al. (1995) examined

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J. Struct. Eng., 2012, 138(3): 375-386

 the use of elastomeric spring dampers to provide energy dissipa-
tion. Christopoulos et al. (2008) developed a self-centering, energy
dissipating bracing system that could be used in either concrete or
steel structures; whereas, Shen et al. (1995) examine the use of vis-
coelastic dampers to provide seismic resistance to concrete frames.
The development of passive control systems that use yielding steel
braces and shape-memory alloys is detailed in Dolce et al. (2005).
High force-to-volume (HF2V) lead-based damping devices pro-
vide an attractive alternative and consist of a central shaft with a
streamlined bulge encased in lead. When the shaft moves, the lead
yields because of the drag effect created by the bulge (Rodgers et al.
2007). Properly designed, these devices behave like a type of Cou-
lomb damper with a slight velocity sensitive effect. Unlike mild
steel devices, this velocity sensitivity attribute permits the HF2V
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device to creep back to near zero force over time providing a reus-
able device with no maintenance required following an earthquake.
More importantly, HF2V devices can provide the same resistive
capacity every response cycle.
Historically, lead-based damping devices were quite large limit-
ing applications to locations like base isolation (Cousins and Porritt
1993). Recent research has developed volumetrically small devices
with the same force capacity capable of direct placement in beam-
column joints (Rodgers et al. 2007; Rodgers et al. 2008b). As these
devices have some unique manufacture and assembly attributes,
they are referred to in this paper as a high force-to-volume
(HF2V) damper.
On the basis of lead-extrusion damper (Cousins and Porritt
1993; Robinson and Greenbank 1976) and HF2V damper (Rodgers
et al. 2008a) tests, the velocity exponent, α ≈ 0:11–0:13, where:
F ¼ C α vα ð1Þ
where F = the damper force; v = the velocity of the shaft; C α = a
constant dependent on the device architecture; and α = the velocity
exponent. More detailed velocity dependence studies can be found
in Mander et al. (2009), and Rodgers (2009).
This research incorporates the findings from previous studies
(Bradley et al. 2008; Li et al. 2008; Rodgers et al. 2007; Rodgers
et al. 2008b) and focuses on the development of cost effective reli-
able energy dissipation and detailing schemes. Previous work re-
lated to external dissipation devices. This research places the HF2V
dampers directly inside the concrete beam-end-zone providing
reliable energy dissipation and an architecturally pleasing finish.
Detailing of the beam-ends that frame into the column is modified
to accommodate the devices. A dual experimental-computational
study investigates the seismic capacity of the proposed jointed pre-
cast concrete frame system versus the seismic demands expected
from a variety of adverse earthquake scenarios.
Subassembly Development
Construction Considerations
Special attention was given to potential construction issues. The
beam and column elements were designed to be precast with lim-
ited concrete placement required on-site. A cast in situ ‘closure
pour’ was provided at one end of each beam. The other end
was considered to be a “dry-joint.” Hence: (1) the closure pour pro-
vides an access point for coupling the prestress thread-bars and the
damping devices; and (2) high performance concrete can be used in
the high stress zone at the beam-end. The closure pour, thus, be-
comes the primary focus for on-site erection. Within this region, the
HF2V damper in each beam can be coupled to a threaded rod anch-
ored in the column, the prestress thread-bars would be coupled to
376 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2012
J. Struct. Eng., 2012, 138(3): 375-386
one another, and the armoring channels would be tightened against
the face of the column. The damper within the beam at the dry-joint
end can be located and cast within the beam off-site. The damper
shaft connection can then be made from the opposing side of the
column face. A detailed overview of the construction sequence is
given in Solberg (2007).
Specimen Design
A 3D subassembly representing an interior joint on a lower floor of
a ten-storey building was developed. The subassembly consisted of
two beams cut at their midpoints and an orthogonal beam cut at its
midpoint, which is the approximate location of the point of contra-
flexure for seismic loads. These beams were all connected to a cen-
tral column. The orthogonal beam, referred to as the gravity beam,
was designed to support one-way precast flooring. The other two
seismic beams were designed for predominantly seismic forces. It
is important to note that the specific tendon drape utilized for the
gravity beam must be modified to avoid having an end eccentricity
that cannot be permitted. The dimensions of the prototype members
were 875 mm square columns, 700 × 500 mm beams, and a 3.6-m-
storey height. The prototype moment capacity of the beam-end at
the column face was 500 kNm. The subassembly was scaled to
80% of the prototype framed structure. The column was scaled
to 700 mm square and the beams scaled to 560 by 400 mm.
Fig. 1(a) shows a schematic of the building from which the speci-
men was derived. Fig. 1(b) shows the experimental setup, where
further details on the specimen dimensions and design details
may be found in Solberg (2007), Bradley et al. (2008), and Li
(2006). Fig. 1(c) illustrates the reinforcing layout for the structural
members, in which the target longitudinal reinforcement ratio is
0.01. Note that in Fig. 1(c) both the seismic beams are shown.
These beams are identical but both are shown to provide additional
section views. These members were designed to remain elastic
under the expected rocking connection strength from the HF2V de-
vice and prestress forces. Four D20 (f y ¼ 500 MPa) rolled
threaded, low-strength reinforcing bars (Reidbar™) are used for
longitudinal reinforcing at the top and bottom of the beam to pro-
vide a moment capacity of ϕM n ¼ 260 kNm. Because of the axial
prestress load, minimal transverse steel requirements governed.
Thus, HR12 (f y ¼ 500 MPa) stirrups were provided in the beam
at a spacing of half the beam depth (250 mm) and a closer
100-mm spacing at the ends. Additional transverse reinforcement
was provided top and bottom 1.2 m from the beam-ends to confine
the concrete in these high compression (burstingstress) zones.
Fig. 1(c) also illustrates the column reinforcing layout. A
longitudinal reinforcement ratio of 0.01 was provided by 12
D20 (f y ¼ 500 MPa) rebars and transverse steel consisting of
HR12 (f y ¼ 500 MPa) stirrups at a 250-mm spacing. The stirrups
were doubled and the spacing was halved within the joint region.
Shear resistance was primarily provided by the core concrete attrib-
uted to the axial load in the column. The stirrups were designed
considering the expected overstrength of the jointed/rocking
connection.
Two 45-mm longitudinal PVC ducts spaced 200 mm apart were
provided for the prestress system at the seismic beam vertical cen-
trelines. Two 26.5-mm (MacAlloy, f y ¼ 1;100 MPa) thread-bars
provided prestress in the seismic direction utilizing a straight pro-
file to ease congestion in the column and provide a more construct-
ible solution. The thread-bars in the gravity beam were draped to
provide “load-balancing” for the gravity loading from the one-way
floor panels; hence, this thread-bar crosses the joint’s centreline at a
30-mm eccentricity.
A 300-mm cast in situ ‘wet’ joint was provided at the column
connection end of each beam. The detailing strategy in the seismic
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100
00 E S
00
100 96
00 00 N W
96
100 00
00 96

(a) (b)

A
A

5@100
5@100 HR12 @250
HR12 @250 4@200
4@200 4@100
4@100 400
400

2@100
2@100
(4) D20 LOW-STRENGTH

560
560
ROLLED THREADED
LONGITUDINAL
REINFORCING BARS
(4) D20 TM
REIDBAR
(REIDBARS ), TYP

HR12@250
3850
3850 300
300

HR12 @250
LONGITUDINAL, TYP

1625
1625
SECTIONAL
A-A VIEW
SECTIONAL VIEW
REIDBAR COUPLER
EAST EAST
SEISMIC BEAM
SEISMIC BEAM
B
B A
A
A-A
A-A
REIDBAR COUPLERNUT,
NUT, TYP
TYP
4@100 4@200 HR12 INCLINED POST-
4@100 4@200 HR12 @250
@250 5@100
5@100
180x75x20.9
180x75x20.9STEEL
STEEL TENSIONING DUCTS
CHANNEL,
CHANNEL,TYP
TYP (GRAVITY DIRECTION)

(2) 26.5mm HIGH(2) STRENGTH HORIZONTAL POST-

3200
26.5mm HIGH

3200
PRESTRESSING THREAD-
STRENGTH THREADED TENSIONING DUCTS
BARSROD
IN 45mm PVC,
PVC,TYP

2x4@100
IN 45mm TYP (SEISMIC DIRECTION)

2x4@100
560
(4) 18mm DIAMETER 300 3850

560
300 3850
SECTIONAL
B-B VIEW
SECTIONAL VIEW
THREADED
ANCHOR RODS TO

280
280
RODS FOR WEST SEISMIC
WEST SEISMIC BEAM
BEAM B-B
LOCATELE HF2V DAMPER
DAMPER, 18mm B-B
BB
CAST
CAST INSITU
INSITU WETJOINT
WET JOINT
4@100 4@200 HR12 @250 5@100
3@250
4@100 4@200 H R 12 @250 5@100 400
3@250
CENTERLINE ROD TO 400
CENTERLINE OF PRESTRESSING
BOTTOM OF BEAM
THREADBAR AT MIDPOINT:
TO BOTTOM OF
230
250

1015
230
250

1015

180mm
BEAM @AT
RADIUS = 16.5m
MIDPOINT:
560
560

180mm @ radius = 16.5m

560

4@100
4@100

100
100
300
300 3850
3850
GRAVITY BEAM
GRAVITY BEAM END ELEVATION 700
700
COLUMN
COLUMN
(c)

Fig. 1. Subassembly development and reinforcing detail: (a) prototype structure showing the location of subassembly [Reprinted with permission
from Solberg (2007)]; (b) photograph of the subassembly in experimental test apparatus; inset: Specimen Orientation (image by authors); (c) re-
inforcing details of the beams and column; Note that the column has horizontal posttensioning ducts in one direction and inclined ducts in the
orthogonal direction resulting from draped tendon profile in the gravity beam

direction is shown in Fig. 2(a). The joint was designed to accom-
modate 150 × 150 mm HF2V devices at midheight in the
beam-end-zone in the seismic beams and at a 50-mm vertical offset
from midheight in the gravity beam. This offset prevents interfer-
ence between the damper anchor rods from the two orthogonal di-
rections in the column. The dampers are intended to be included in
all beam-end-zones that connect to exterior columns. A 180-mm
parallel flange channel was used top and bottom of the beams
to armor the contact surfaces and prevent crushing of the concrete
at the rocking edge. The channel was provided to carry the concen-
trated load at the rocking edge and mechanically distribute this
force through the reinforcing bars into the beam. This armoring
concept prevents the large compression forces at the rocking edge
causing localized crushing of the concrete.
The channels also serve as a means of mechanically developing
the longitudinal reinforcing, by providing cuts on the interior
flange, whereby, the threaded longitudinal steel could be locked
into the channel by using nuts. These nuts also provided a means
of ensuring the channel is flush with the column face during on-site
fabrication. Four 25 × 10 × 500-mm rods were welded in the cor-
ners of each flange to help stiffen the joint region and ensure rigid
rocking behavior. Finally, four 1-m threaded rods were spaced at
100-mm centers to provide attachment and anchoring points for the
HF2V devices.

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J. Struct. Eng., 2012, 138(3): 375-386

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Fig. 2. Joint region detailing: (a) closure pour region at beam-end-zone; (b) column detailing at the joint region

Shear loads were carried by four 30-mm shear keys located at

each corner of the connecting beam. In the beam, two 30-mm holes
were drilled in the top and bottom flange to provide a female
attachment for the shear keys. The shear keys were tapered inward
5° to prevent binding with the beam during connection opening. In
the column, these shear keys were designed to be screwed into a nut
located behind a hole in the column’s steel plates.
One of the primary objectives of this study was to improve
beam-column joint detailing by improving constructability and
reducing materials compared to past designs (Li et al. 2008).
Fig. 2(b) shows that column detailing was improved in that:
(1) the column contact plates were reduced from a single full-
depth-plate to two end-plates; (2) the prestress ducts ran straight
rather than angled, reducing congestion; and (3) the internal damp-
ers were connected using a single rod with grouting tubes. The col-
umn end-plates were sized to provide a full contact surface for the
beam armoring and provide a 10-mm extension on all sides. This
plate was checked to ensure concrete crushing in the column did
not occur at the design strength of the connection, and it was de- Fig. 3. The cast in situ joint showing: (a) the east beam with the thread-
veloped into the joint core by using weld studs. bar exposed; (b) east beam with the thread-bar enclosed in PVC and
showing the damper (images by authors)
Specimen Construction
The specimen was constructed in several parts. First, the two seis-
mic beams were caged with a cast insitu end, as shown in Fig. 3(a). damper shaft-, coupler-, and column- threaded rod were all encased
This task required providing stubs for the longitudinal steel, the in a duct and waterproofed from the concrete.
prestress system ducts, and the threaded rods for the HF2V damper. Once the damper was in place, the main prestress thread-bars
Next, the gravity beam and column were caged and cast. The grav- were coupled together. Next, the channel top and bottom was tight-
ity beam required the draped profile, and the damper and tendons ened against the column face and locked with longitudinal steel
were offset 30 and 50 mm from centreline, respectively, to avoid nuts. Finally, a thin sheet provided a barrier between the wet con-
intersecting the orthogonal ducts in the column. crete and the column face to prevent any bonding. Note that this
The column longitudinal reinforcement was welded to a 20-mm measure may not be necessary because the tensile capacity of the
steel plate at the top and bottom, and the armoring plates were de- concrete would be negligible and was taken merely as a precaution.
veloped into the concrete by welds studs. A 50-mm recess at the A high performance concrete mix designed for good workability
column face where the damper anchoring rods are bolted allowed and high-strength was used for the three closure pours. Steel fibers
easy bolt clearance. Corrugated steel tubing provided the damper (2% by weight) were incorporated to help impede crack propaga-
ducts where the shaft and connecting rods passed through. Grout tion. This concrete had a measured 28-day compressive strength of
tubes are provided to grout the anchoring rod within the column, 76 MPa with 50 MPa measured for the regular beam and column
and the damper duct in the beam-ends was left open to allow free concrete.
movement of the damper shaft.
The remaining elements were installed to enable the closure HF2V Dampers
pour, as shown in Fig. 3(b). Within the closure pour, the HF2V The HF2V damper designs are shown in Fig. 4(a). Damper shaft
devices were attached to the threaded rods in the beam. The damper motion plastically extrudes lead between the shaft and outer body
shaft was coupled to the threaded rod in the column that was anch- to dissipate energy, as shown in Fig. 4(b) (Rodgers et al. 2007). A
ored against a steel washer in the recess on the column face. The single HF2V damper is placed within each beam-end, as shown in

378 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2012

J. Struct. Eng., 2012, 138(3): 375-386

 from prestress and HF2V devices. Initial posttensioning of 250 kN
per thread-bar gives a total of 500 kN at the interface. The dampers
were designed for a 250 kN yield force, corresponding to λ ¼ 1:23
and 1.06 in the north-south direction for positive and negative mo-
ment, respectively, and λ ¼ 1:13 in the east-west direction.
Fig. 4(c) presents experimental force-displacement responses of
the HF2V devices in a universal (Avery) testing machine. Devices
1, 2, and 3 were installed in the west, east, and south joints of the
specimen, respectively. The devices provide a similar response with
an average yield force of 270 kN. Differences in initial stiffness and
yield force can be attributed to small voids forming in the lead re-
sulting from incomplete prestressing to remove microvoids, where
Rodgers et al. (2007) discusses this issue in detail.
(a)
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102
Predicted Response
The analytical prediction method assumes members remain elastic
and that once gap-opening of the beam-to-column joints occurs,
145 displacements can be determined from rigid-body kinematics. Tak-
ø48
ø30

Shaft Motion ing the internal moment arm (ePS , ediss ) from the rocking edge and
summing each contribution yields
X X
Endcap
M¼ M PS þ M diss ð3Þ

Lead Flow
Lead Filled where M PS = moment in the thread-bars (¼ PPS ePS ); and M diss =
Chamber moment in the dissipation device (¼ Pdiss ediss ). The force in the
(b)
thread-bars is then obtained from
400
APS E PS
HF2V Damper Force (kN)

300 PPS ¼ Pi þ ePS θcon n ð4Þ

200 Lt
100
where Pi = initial posttensioning force (250 kN); EPS = thread-bar
0
elastic modulus (170 GPa); APS = thread-bar cross sectional area
-100
(552 mm2 ); Lt = unbonded length of thread-bar (9 m); θcon = con-
-200 nection rotation; and n = number of joint openings spanned by the
Damper 1
-300 thread-bar (2 in the east-west direction and 1 in the north-south
Damper 2
-400 Damper 3 direction). The force in the HF2V device is thus
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Displacement (mm)
K diss ediss θcon
(c) Pdiss ¼ min j ð5Þ
Py;diss
Fig. 4. HF2V Damper details: (a) exploded isometric view; (b) cross
sectional view; (c) hysteresis loops where K diss = stiffness of the dissipation device measured as
200 kN=mm, which was the average of the three devices; and
Py;diss = “yield force” of the HF2V device (250 kN).
A nonlinear moment-rotation relationship was developed for the
Fig. 2(a). The damper shaft [Fig. 4(a)] was designed to be coupled subassembly. The behavior of the structural elements was assumed
to a threaded rod in the column of the same size. Four 18-mm to be elastic, but partial separation of the beam from the column
(f y ¼ 300 MPa) threaded rods at 100-mm centers were cast into face causes geometric nonlinearity from rigid-body rotations.
the precast beam to anchor the device within the closure pour, Given an elastic moment-rotation analysis, the force-displacement
through oversize attachment holes on the devices that allow adjust- response of the subassembly can be evaluated.
ment when coupled to the threaded rod. In the east-west direction, the horizontal force at the top of the
To ensure the system recentres, the expected negative moment column, V col , can be found as the following given the moment at
contribution from the HF2V device in compression should not the joint:
exceed the expected positive moment contribution from the pre-
stress. Hence, the moment contribution ratio, λ, must be greater L
than 1: V col ¼ 2M ð6Þ
Lb Lc
ϕM PS;i where L = beam length to column centreline (9.8 m); Lb = clear
λ¼ >1 ð2Þ
Ωdiss M diss support length of the beam (9.1 m); and Lc = storey height
(2.8 m). The total top displacement of the system, given V col ,
where M PS;i = moment contribution from the initial prestress force; can be attributed to localized joint rotation and the total elastic de-
M diss = moment contribution from the dissipation devices in com- formation of the system:
pression; Ωdiss = overstrength factor of the dissipation devices (as-
sumed as 1.5); ϕ = understrength factor for the prestress (assumed Δ ¼ Δelastic þ θcon
Lb
L ð7Þ
as 0.85). Rearranging terms gives a ratio of moment contribution L c

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2012 / 379

J. Struct. Eng., 2012, 138(3): 375-386

 in which Δelastic = the elastic deformation of the system from flex-
ure, given by


V col;uplift ðLc
DÞ3 L2c L3b
Δelastic ¼ þ ð8Þ
12 EIcol L2 EIbm
where EIbm and EIcol = effective stiffness of the beam
(0:25EIbm;gross ) and column (0:6EIcol;gross ), respectively; and
D = the depth of the beams (560 mm). The values of effective stiff-
ness for the beam and column (0:25EIbm;gross and 0:6EIcol;gross ) are
based upon the analysis in Li (2006). During rocking, an eccentric
point force is applied to the rocking edge, and there is a portion of
the structural elements that do not contribute to the bending resis-
tance. The values of the effective stiffness are derived on the basis
of St. Venant’s principle in Li (2006) and used in Solberg et al.
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(2008, 2009). A more detailed derivation of Eq. (8) can be found
in either Li (2006) or Rodgers (2009).
Experimental Setup
The experimental test setup shown in Fig. 1(b) is closely similar to
that in Bradley et al. (2008). The column was pinned to the floor
using a universal joint. Additional pins were on stiff struts near
the end of each beam. Actuators A and B were located at the
top of the east and south face of the column, inducing displace-
ments in the seismic (east-west) and gravity (north-south)
directions, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1(b). Actuator C was
orthogonal to the side face of the gravity beam in-line with the grav-
ity beam support strut and was used primarily to stabilize the speci-
men. Rotary potentiometers were installed against the opposite face
of each actuator. An additional actuator at midheight of the gravity
beam simulates the precast one-way floor panels with a constant
120 kN load spread over a 1.5 m timber block.
At one end of each prestress thread-bar anchor, load cells mea-
sure the forces in the thread-bars. Four 32-mm high-strength
thread-bars along the longitudinal column axis were stressed to
500 kN for a 2000 kN total axial load (0:1f 0c Ag ), simulating gravity
forces. A total of 24 potentiometers measured localized displace-
ments. Within the joint, each coupler connecting the HF2V shaft to
the threaded rod in the column was converted to a load cell con-
sisting of eight strain gauges compensating for bending and tem-
perature effects. Four strain gauges were placed on the top and
bottom web of the beam armoring channels to detect any potential
yielding upon gap-opening.
Test Methods
Displacement-controlled uni- and bidirectional testing was per-
formed. Both quasi-static testing using cyclic loading patterns
and quasi-earthquake displacement (QED) tests (Dutta et al.
1999) using load patterns from computational simulation of the full
10-storey prototype structure were employed. The QED method is
intended to produce realistic displacement demands representative
of an expected seismic response (Dhakal et al. 2006).
Quasi-Static Displacement Profiles
Preliminary low drift level quasi-static tests were used to character-
ize the specimen for use in a computational model for the QED test
(Solberg 2007). Owing to the damage-free nature of the specimen,
it was possible to conduct preliminary tests (both uni- and bidirec-
tional) without damaging the specimen. Further quasi-static testing
was carried out following the QED testing regime, consisting of
uni-directional tests in each direction to a maximum drift of 3%
380 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2012
J. Struct. Eng., 2012, 138(3): 375-386
(equivalent to a radial drift of 4%) and bidirectional tests to a maxi-
mum (radial) drift of 4%.
Quasi-Earthquake Displacement Testing
The QED method is intended as a more realistic protocol by cap-
turing specimen behavior under ‘real’ earthquake ground motion.
Unlike quasi-static testing, which uses controlled cyclic displace-
ments in ascending order, QED testing captures small loading
cycles following severe displacement demand from initial pulses.
Second, P
Δ effects can be considered in the analytical model,
thus, capturing nonuniform displacements resulting from excessive
yielding in a single direction. Finally, QED test performance can be
extrapolated to infer likely damage at multiple levels of excitation.
Quasi-static test data was used to create an equivalent computa-
tional model of the specimen. Details of the development of the 3D
analytical model are given in Bradley et al. (2008). Elastoplastic
and bilinear elastic springs represent the dampers and prestress
at the joint, respectively. The natural period of the full structure
was found to be 1.5 s.
To perform a Multi-Level Seismic Performance Assessment
(MSPA), the earthquake records to be used must be preidentified.
Dhakal et al. (2006) proposed a methodology on the basis of In-
cremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA), in which an IDA is conducted
using multiple earthquake ground motions and the IDA results are
probabilistically processed to select records that give medium and
high confidence at desired levels of seismic intensity. Performing
an IDA involves conducting nonlinear dynamic analyses of a com-
putational structural model subjected to a suite of earthquake
ground motion records scaled to different intensity measures
(IMs) (Vamvatsikos and Cornell 2002). For each analysis, an en-
gineering demand parameter (EDP) is monitored, producing an
IDA curve (i.e., a plot of IM versus EDP) for each earthquake
record.
A reliable computational model of the structure yields displace-
ment profiles at nodes of interest for use in physical testing. This
task required the identification of earthquakes likely to represent
various levels of demand considering both rare and relatively fre-
quent earthquakes. The procedure described by Dhakal et al. (2006)
was adopted to define three key earthquake records representing
multiple levels of seismic demand, by performing an IDA
(Vamvatsikos and Cornell 2002) to identify the structural response
from various earthquakes. Earthquakes representing percentile
levels at various intensities can then be identified and used for
subsequent analysis.
Assuming a firm soil site in Wellington, New Zealand (a high
seismic zone), three levels of demand were identified following
Dhakal et al. (2006). These demand levels were: (1) a 90th percen-
tile design basis earthquake (DBE); (2) a 50th percentile maximum
considered earthquake (MCE); and (3) a 90th percentile MCE. The
DBE and MCE were defined as earthquakes with return periods of
475 years (10% in 50 years) and 2475 years (2% in 50 years), re-
spectively. For the site of interest, this corresponds to a peak ground
acceleration (PGA) of approximately 0.4 g for the DBE and 0.8 g
for the MCE, on the basis of the seismic hazard model in Stirling
et al. (2002). For each demand level, a performance level related to
serviceability and life-safety was defined. For the 90th percentile
DBE, it corresponds to a high level of confidence that the structure
remains operational. After the MCE the structure is expected to be
repairable with a moderate level of confidence (50th percentile
MCE) and is not expected to collapse with a high level of confi-
dence (90th percentile MCE).
Earthquake records were selected from a suite of 20 recorded
ground motions from the SAC project (Somerville et al. 1997).
The spectral acceleration (Sa ) at the fundamental period of the
 results in very low friction between the duct and tendons; therefore,
also contributing very little inherent energy dissipation.
The hysteretic results without damper contributions are pre-
sented in Rodgers (2009) and show an essentially bilinear elastic
response regime with negligible energy dissipation. Evaluation of
the energy dissipation provided by HF2V dampers in a damage-
avoidance steel connection has been presented in Mander et al.
(2009). Rodgers et al. (2008b) presents a comparison of the energy
dissipation achieved with a connection similar to the one in this
manuscript, comparing the connection without supplemental
damping with HF2V dampers and with yielding steel fuse bars.
The specimen did not suffer any noticeable stiffness or strength
degradation, and stable hysteretic energy dissipation is evident. The
maximum recorded residual drift was approximately 0.08%, (2.6%
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of the maximum drift) and is attributed to friction arising within the

Fig. 5. Incremental dynamic analysis curves resulting from the
analytical model
structure was selected as the intensity measure (IM) (Baker and
Cornell 2005). Thus, the DBE and MCE intensity levels correspond
to a Sa of 0.27 and 0.48 g, respectively. The resulting IDA data is
plotted in Fig. 5, showing the 10th, 50th, and 90th percentile
curves, which notes the three selected records. These records cor-
respond to peak (radial) interstory drifts of 1.6, 1.6 and 2.8% for the
90% DBE, 50% MCE, and the 90% MCE, respectively.
Experimental Results
This section first presents results from the quasi-static tests fol-
lowed by QED test results.
Quasi-Static Test Results
The response of the subassembly in the east-west and north-
south direction is given in Fig. 6. The specimen was subjected
to two fully reversed displacement cycles, at column drift ampli-
tudes of 0.5, 0.75, 1.5, 2.25, and 3.0%. The prediction by using
Eqs. (3)–(8) is plotted along with the experimental results, with
good agreement between the two.
In the east-west direction, the hysteretic behavior displays
notable energy dissipation. The dissipation is notably high, given
that the structural members remain essentially elastic; therefore,
providing essentially no hysteretic energy dissipation. Further-
more, the straight tendon profile in the east-west (seismic) direction
250
EXPERIMENTAL
200 PREDICTION
150
prestressing system.
Fig. 6 shows that the yield drift of the experimental specimen in
the east-west direction is approximately 0.5%. Although the beams
used in the experimental specimen have a relatively high slender-
ness ratio, they are posttensioned, prestressed concrete, which af-
fects their behavior. The yield drift of 0.5% is in-line with what
would be expected for structures with notably lower slenderness
ratios. The experimental specimen was based upon a well-known
New Zealand design (Bull and Brunsdon 1998) and for New
Zealand seismicity levels, which are very similar to those in
California.
One aspect of the results in Fig. 6 that should be noted is the
amount of added lateral force (applied column-shear force) attrib-
uted to the HF2V dampers. Fig. 4(c) presents the hysteresis loops
for the HF2V damping devices showing that they produce peak
forces of around 250–300 kN. However, Fig. 6 shows that the en-
closed area within the flag-shaped hysteresis loops spans approx-
imately 100 kN, which represents 50 kN from what the response
would be without dampers. This observation is simply attributable
to the small lever arm from the rocking edge present for the damp-
ers, as they are located at midheight of the beam. Therefore, once
the equivalent moments are calculated, 300 kN resistive force ap-
plied at the line of action of the dampers corresponds to 60 kN
lateral load at the top of the column. Details of connection
modeling and specific geometric relationships can be found in
Rodgers (2009).
In the north-south direction, the results are similar with stable
energy dissipation. The maximum residual drift was 0.12%, (4% of
the maximum). This value is slightly larger than that in the
150
EXPERIMENTAL
PREDICTION
100

100
LATERAL LOAD (kN)
LATERAL LOAD (kN)

50
50

0 0
-50
4%
-100 2%
-50
0%
-150
-2% -100
-200 -4%
-4% -2% 0% 2% 4%
-250 -150
-4% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% 4% -4% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% 4%
(a) DRIFT EW (b) DRIFT NS

Fig. 6. Uni-directional testing to 3 percent drift: Force-displacement response from experimental testing and the hand method prediction: (a) east-
west direction; (b) north-south direction; inset in (a) is the overall clover-leaf pattern resulting from the bidirectional loading

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2012 / 381

J. Struct. Eng., 2012, 138(3): 375-386

 450 400
STRAIGHT PROFILE (EW)
DRAPED PROFILE (NS)
300
400

HF2V DEVICE FORCE (kN)

PRESTRESS FORCE (kN)
200

100
350
0

300 -100

-200
250
-300

200 -400
-100 -50 0 50 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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(a) COLUMN TOP DISPLACEMENT (mm) (b) GAP OPENING AT COLUMN CENTRELINE (mm)

Fig. 7. Response of: (a) the prestress; (b) the in-service performance of the HF2V dampers in the east beam

east-west direction and is attributed to the increase in prestress fric-
tion from the draped tendon profile. Differential friction forces re-
sulting from reversed cyclic loading contribute to this effect.
These frictional effects are evident in Fig. 7(a), which shows the
change in prestress force for a given column displacement. It is
evident that friction between the duct and prestress thread-bars
leads to some energy dissipation that is not considered in the origi-
nal design. This effect is minimized in the east-west direction where
the straight ducts result in less tendon-duct friction. Fig. 7(b) shows
the in-service response of the HF2V damper in the east beam. The
apparent in-service stiffness of the damper was reduced compared
to the damper tests alone. It is very important to note that the dis-
placement in Fig. 7(b) is not directly measured but is, rather, an
inferred displacement measured across the joint at the beam mid-
height by a potentiometer attached to the column face. It, therefore,
records the midheight gap-opening displacement and includes all
sources of flexibility from axial stretching of the connecting ele-
ments to take-up in the threaded coupler nuts. Because of the em-
bedded device design, direct in-service device displacements were
unavailable. These additional sources of flexibility and slack re-
duced the contribution of the damper to the overall hysteretic per-
formance on smaller cycles. For example, the HF2V device should
“yield” at approximately 1 mm of elongation but was not observed
until ∼2:5 mm. The revised stiffness of the HF2V devices consid-
ering the added freedom in the connecting elements is ∼80 and
50 kN=mm for the gravity and east-west joints, respectively.
Although improved detailing of the damper connecting ele-
ments will reduce the effects of added flexibility, these effects will
always be present and can have a notable influence on the damper
contributions to the overall subassembly response. The sources of
flexibility are not discussed here but are discussed in detail in
cracks, approximately 50-mm in length and less than 1-mm in
width, were observed in the beam corners from the end of the chan-
nel’s flange. They formed when this region was in compression
from connection opening. Beyond 2% drift, some additional cracks
were observed but were minor. No cracks were observed around the
armoring in the column, nor were any diagonal shear cracks ob-
served across the joint. No crushing was observed around the steel
armoring the column. Upon the completion of testing, a prestress
loss of 4% per thread-bar in the east-west and north-south direction
occurred.
Results from bidirectional testing are given as individual east-
west and north-south direction plots in Fig. 6, with the bidirectional
clover-leaf displacement-controlled loading pattern shown inset in
Fig. 6(a). The specimen exhibited stable and highly dissipative hys-
teresis loops over multiple cycles of different sizes with negligible
stiffness or strength degradation. The bidirectional rocking caused
some additional 50–100 mm minor crack propagation to the beams
near the joint interface. These cracks appeared when the specimen
was displaced concurrently in the east-west and north-south (diago-
nal) direction, resulting from significant force concentration at the
rocking corner of the beams. Comparing the uni- and bidirectional
hysteresis loops indicates that the specimen performed essentially
the same as in uni-directional loading. Very minor strength loss
from the bidirectional testing is noticeable at the 3-percent drift
amplitude.
Fig. 8 shows the compression force in two of the dampers over
time, recorded after quasi-static testing to 3% drift. In the first 8 h,
240
220 Damper - Seismic Beam
200 Damper - Gravity Beam
HF2V Damper Force (kN)

Rodgers et al. (2011), which investigates the contributions of 180

damper flexibility to the overall response of a steel connection de- 160
y = -17.11ln(x) + 151.04
signed for damage-avoidance. Rodgers et al. (2011) develops a 140
R² = 0.9705
series model of a damper-spring system to account for the flexibil- 120
ity of the damper shaft and connections as well as an overall 100
column-shear versus drift connection model. Although the inves- 80
y = -12.15ln(x) + 126.9
60
tigation presented in Rodgers et al. (2011) is for a steel connection, R² = 0.9804
40
the sources of flexibility associated with the dampers are very sim-
20
ilar to those in the research presented within this manuscript. 0
Observed damage to the specimen was minimal. Flexural cracks 0 10 20 30 40
were detected in the beams spaced at approximately 250 mm and a Time (hours)
maximum width of approximately 1 mm but closed after testing.
Fig. 8. Damper force decay over time: results are plotted for the east
No flexural cracks were observed in the column. Up to 2% drift,
and gravity beam damper; The data is fitted to a logarithmic function
virtually no cracking was observed in the joint region. Some small

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J. Struct. Eng., 2012, 138(3): 375-386

 200 200 200

LATERAL LOAD (kN)

LATERAL LOAD (kN)

LATERAL LOAD (kN)

100 100 100

0 0 0

-100 -100 -100

-200 -200 -200

-3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3%
3% 3% 3%
DRIFT NS DRIFT NS DRIFT NS
2% 2% 2%

1% 1% 1%
DRIFT NS

DRIFT NS

DRIFT NS
0% 0% 0%
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-1% -1% -1%

-2% -2% -2%

-3% -3% -3%

-3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3%
0 0 0
DRIFT NS DRIFT NS DRIFT NS

200 200 200

STEP

STEP

STEP
400 400 400

600 600 600

800 800 800

-3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3%
(a) DRIFT EW DRIFT EW DRIFT EW

200 200 200

LATERAL LOAD (kN)

LATERAL LOAD (kN)

100 100 LATERAL LOAD (kN) 100

0 0 0

-100 -100 -100

-200 -200 -200

-3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3%
3% 3% 3%
DRIFT NS DRIFT NS DRIFT NS
2% 2% 2%

1% 1% 1%
DRIFT EW

DRIFT EW

DRIFT EW

0% 0% 0%

-1% -1% -1%

-2% -2% -2%

-3% -3% -3%

-3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3%
0 0 0
DRIFT NS DRIFT NS DRIFT NS

200 200 200

STEP

STEP

STEP

400 400 400

600 600 600

800 800 800

-3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3%
(b) DRIFT NS DRIFT NS DRIFT NS

Fig. 9. Quasi-earthquake displacement test results: (a) east-west direction results: (left) 90% DBE; (centre) 50% MCE; (right) 90% MCE; (b) north-
south direction results: (left) 90% DBE; (centre) 50% MCE; (right) 90% MCE

JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2012 / 383

J. Struct. Eng., 2012, 138(3): 375-386

 the initial 200 kN compression force dropped to ∼100 kN. After
40 h, it reduced to ∼85 kN following the logarithmic decay
in Fig. 8.
Quasi-Earthquake Displacement Test Results
Fig. 9 shows the experimental results for the three IDA selected
earthquakes used as QED test inputs. The force-displacement re-
sponse, the bidirectional column orbit, and the displacement versus
time are shown. In all cases, the specimen exhibited a good flag-
shaped hysteretic energy dissipation response. Bidirectional rock-
ing coupled with multiple nonuniform displacement cycles resulted
in some minor stiffness degradation. This loss is evident when scru-
tinizing the north-south force-displacement response, particularly
for the 50% MCE case, which exhibited significant biaxial motion
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interaction.
Damage to the specimen was minimal with only slight cracking
near the joint region observed; these cracks generally closed at the
end of testing. Some prestress losses of 0–15 kN were detected.
These losses were attributed to a combination of some local crack-
ing/crushing of the concrete around the thread-bar anchorages and
to normal tendon-duct frictional effects.
Multi-Level Seismic Performance Assessment
Ground motions representing different levels of seismic demand
were applied to a subassembly representing an exterior column
of a multistorey building. By using these test results, it is possible
to extrapolate observed damage to the whole structure and deter-
mine if identified performance objectives were met. The first ob-
jective deals with serviceability. Given a design level earthquake,
there must be high confidence that the structure will not sustain
damage that disrupts normal function. The seismic demand for this
objective is the 90th percentile DBE (10% probability in 50 years/
475-year return period). The displacement profile had a single,
large 1.6% interstory drift cycle followed by a slow reduction in
displacement. Residual drift was negligible. Observed damage
from this level of shaking was minimal. Flexural cracks were ob-
served in the beams and small (50 mm) cracks that closed after
testing were observed in the beam’s joint region. The HF2V damp-
ers performed well with some hysteretic energy dissipation on the
first large pulse followed by near-elastic behavior. The specimen
did not suffer any stiffness or strength degradation, as shown in
the experimental results of Fig. 6 and in more detail in Rodgers
(2009). Given these results, the specimen satisfied the first MSPA
requirement that the building should remain operational following
a DBE.
The second performance objective relates to repairability where
there must be moderate confidence that the structure is repairable
following a rare earthquake. This criteria relates to the 50th percen-
tile MCE (2% probability in 50 years=2;450 year return period).
The displacement demand was most severe in the north-south
(gravity) direction corresponding to a maximum interstory drift
of 1.6%. Again, the specimen performed very well. Only a few
additional cracks near the beam’s armoring were observed. In
the east-west direction, the specimen behaved elastically with no
stiffness or strength degradation. In the north-south direction, some
minor stiffness degradation was observed and attributed to binding
of the draped thread-bar profile within the duct. Hence, the speci-
men easily met the second MSPA requirement.
The final performance objective relates to collapse prevention
and life-safety. With a high level of confidence the structure must
not collapse following a very rare earthquake. This objective was
related to the 90th percentile MCE. The displacement demand
384 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH 2012
J. Struct. Eng., 2012, 138(3): 375-386
consisted of one primary pulse to 2.8% east-west interstory drift
(3.1% radial drift) followed by several small cycles. As with the
previous two earthquakes, damage to the specimen was minimal.
Some previously developed cracks propagated away from the joint
another 100 mm. A few additional cracks formed near the armoring
region but mostly closed after testing. During the first pulse, a con-
siderable amount of hysteretic energy dissipation was observed,
and subsequent displacement cycles were elastic with the full stiff-
ness and strength of the specimen preserved. Some prestress losses
of ∼0–5% were recorded, likely attributed to embedding in the
anchorage regions. These losses were deemed too small to neces-
sitate restressing the thread-bars. Given the damage outcome from
this level of demand, the structure satisfied the final objective of
life-safety.
It is considered that this dual experimental-computational
MSPA has verified the seismic resistance capability of the proposed
structural system with jointed precast concrete with internal HF2V
dampers. The investigation has demonstrated that the specimen,
and indirectly the structure, is capable of remaining essentially
damage-free under maximum considered severe ground-shaking
conditions. All performance objectives related to serviceability
and life-safety were achieved. This structure was designed to avoid
damage by rocking at specially detailed joints and, thus, offers an
attractive alternative to conventional monolithic design and con-
struction. The authors believe an equivalent monolithic structure
would have likely undergone severe cyclic rotations at its plastic
hinges resulting in major damage locally and excessive residual
displacement of the global system.
Discussion
Overall, the specimen performed as expected by exhibiting very
stable hysteresis loops with no stiffness or strength degradation
and negligible residual drift. Minor cracks were observed in the
joint region of the beam ranging in length from 25 to 150 mm.
These cracks were confined primarily to the armored end regions
and tended to close after testing. No damage (cracking or crushing)
was observed in the column. This result was attributed to the aver-
age axial stress (∼0:1f 0c ) in the column that suppressed cracking.
Testing confirmed that the detailing strategy is sufficient to pro-
tect the members from damage resulting from bidirectional drifts up
to 4%. The joint was shown to ‘roll’ slightly, but this effect was
minimal. Given the good agreement between predicted and exper-
imental results by using the rigid-body assumption and the negli-
gible rolling of the connection, the hand analysis method is
demonstrated to be of sufficient sophistication for predicting the
backbone response.
The design of the beam-column joint region was relatively sim-
ple. However, it is important to emphasize that checks be made to
ensure that armoring is sufficient for spreading the compressive
contact forces to the concrete without damage. Because very little
cracking was observed in the joint region, the steel fiber reinforcing
in the closure pour did not play a critical role in the joint’s response.
It is, thus, suggested that the addition of fibers to the mix are not
strictly necessary. To further investigate these types of effects, a
finite-element analysis may be necessary to identify any portions
that may have been overdesigned.
A particular focus of this research was an examination of the
efficacy of the internal HF2V dampers. Results show that the
HF2V dampers successfully achieved their design objectives.
The HF2V dampers provided stable, repeatable energy dissipation
and were shown to ‘reset’ after testing, as the residual force in the
devices decayed logarithmically. These results are very desirable
 particularly considering that the devices would not have to be serv-
iced or replaced following an earthquake.
Because of the very small connection opening (∼5–10 mm), the
effectiveness of the HF2V dampers is very sensitive to their stiff-
ness and connection to the structural system. To limit stiffness
losses from connecting elements, the HF2V dampers were tight-
ened against the connecting rods and the threaded rods grouted
in the column. However, some minor slack in the connecting ele-
ments led to a reduction in stiffness of approximately 60%. Hence,
further development of these devices and systems should consider
specific connection details.
A considerable amount of effort was devoted to identify the
most constructible solution possible. The key to this design is
the inclusion of the cast in situ closure pour. This approach provides
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a means of ensuring a reliable contact surface at the joint and easier
coupling of various elements, thus, enabling segmental precast
construction.
The MSPA method relies heavily on the computational model
developed from the experimental data. For realistic displacement
profiles to be extracted from the model, the response of the two
must be reasonably identical. Furthermore, nonstructural damage,
which constitutes a large portion of overall damage, should be con-
sidered for a more complete conclusion to be drawn. Nevertheless,
the MSPA method has demonstrated a sound means of experimen-
tally verifying the performance of structures at various levels of
seismic demand.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study:
1. The jointed precast concrete specimen with internal HF2V
dampers in the beam-end regions satisfied all seismic perfor-
mance objectives related to serviceability and life-safety. The
specimen remained essentially damage-free, fulfilling the
Damage-Avoidance Design objective, after being subjected
to displacement profiles representing a design basis earthquake
and more severe maximum considered earthquakes
2. The HF2V dampers mounted internally at each beam-end pro-
vide reliable, repeatable energy dissipation on every test cycle.
Residual device compression forces were shown to logarithmi-
cally decay through creep toward zero force over time. The
devices do not need to be serviced or replaced following an
earthquake.
3. The detailing strategy provided an excellent level of protection
from damage, although still retaining a degree of simplicity
and constructability. Throughout the quasi-static and QED test-
ing up to 3.1% radial drift, the specimen suffered negligible
damage, and only a few small cracks were observed near
the steel armoring and these generally closed after testing
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