The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Chapter 22
The evaluation of boiler performance involves many
complex factors as indicated in preceding chapters.
Only a few of these factors are subject to precise analy-
sis; many others are the result of data taken from
operating units. Ash in the fuel has perhaps the most
dramatic impact on boiler performance as discussed
in Chapter 21. In spite of the large number of vari-
ables, boilers are designed, built and operated in con-
formance with design specifications.
A well-designed and operated boiler completes com-
bustion within the furnace. Flue gas temperatures
leaving the furnace can be predicted by the methods
presented in Chapter 4. Beyond the furnace, heat
transfer surface arrangements represent a balance of
temperature difference, space, pressure drop and draft
losses. The final selection of these surface arrange-
ments represents a compromise on the designer’s part
in meeting performance requirements while control-
ling ash deposition, corrosion, and erosion.
This chapter introduces the basic principles of boiler
performance calculations. It illustrates the use of heat
transfer, thermodynamics and fluid mechanics to de-
termine heat and material balances for given boiler
heat transfer components through practical applica-
tion. These principles, as well as fundamental relation-
ships, experimental data, operational experience and
designer knowledge, are being incorporated into ad-
vanced numerical computational models for boiler
evaluation. As discussed in Chapter 6 and elsewhere
in Steam, these models are becoming increasingly
useful in the design of boilers.
For the fossil fuel-fired steam generators being con-
sidered, the hotter heat transfer medium consists of the
products of combustion, or flue gases. The cooler me-
Note: To avoid the confusion of dual units, this chapter
is provided in English units only. See Appendix 1 for SI
conversion factors.
Steam 41 / Performance Calculations
Performance Calculations
dium is superheated steam, steam-water mixtures at
saturation, water or air depending upon the heat trans-
fer component under consideration. Heat transfer sur-
faces can be categorized into one of four cases accord-
ing to relative hot and cold medium flow direction and
temperature as shown in Fig. 1. Typically, boiler banks
or screens are Case I, superheaters and reheaters are
either Case II or III, economizers are Case II or III,
and air heaters are generally Case IV.
Performance calculations are typically used to es-
tablish one of three parameters: temperature, heat
transfer surface area, or surface cleanliness. As in most
thermal analysis problems, the evaluation of boiler
performance is an iterative process. To evaluate flue gas
and steam temperatures for a known boiler design ar-
rangement, the surface area and surface cleanliness
are normally known while the temperatures are as-
sumed. The outlet temperature calculation updates
subsequent iterations until convergence between as-
sumed and calculated temperatures is achieved.
Heat transfer surface area or sizing can be deter-
mined for given fluid temperatures and surface clean-
liness by assuming an initial surface arrangement and
then confirming the desired thermal performance by
calculation. High calculated outlet flue gas tempera-
tures indicate the need for additional surface whereas
low calculated outlet flue gas temperatures indicate
the need to remove surface. Surface area is adjusted
until calculated and specified temperatures converge.
Finally, for a given boiler configuration, measured
temperatures can be used to assess surface cleanli-
ness. An initially assumed cleanliness is used with the
measured temperatures and known surface to verify
the temperature data. The cleanliness factors are var-
ied until temperature convergence is achieved.
When calculating the thermal performance of heat
transfer equipment, initial temperatures are selected
in part based upon past experience. These are used
to establish the thermophysical properties, calculate
mean temperature differences and solve the problem.
22-1
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

The specific analysis procedure is started at slightly

different steps depending upon whether an existing
piece of equipment is being analyzed or a new plant
is being designed. For an existing installation, boiler
performance calculations begin by confirming heat
transfer equipment geometry and by defining the re-
quired operating conditions. Heat and material bal-
ances, including combustion calculations for the steam
generator as a whole, are then determined. These
calculations provide the information required to ana-
lyze each heat recovery component. The performance
of each component is often intimately tied to other
components within the boiler. As discussed in Chap-
ter 1, the calculation process normally follows the di-
rection of flue gas flow from furnace to stack and that
is the approach used in the following example. Predic-
tions of boiler performance are only complete when the
performance of all devices within the boiler envelope
agrees with the overall unit heat and material balances.
If a new plant is being analyzed, the process be-
gins with the heat and material balances to establish
air, fuel, feedwater and flue gas handling require-
ments. The process then continues with the iterative
determination of heat transfer surface and equipment
sizing as discussed above.
Because air resistance and draft loss calculations,
including stack effects, are dependent on established
air and gas temperature profiles through the boiler
and accessories, they are determined after any ther-
mal analysis. Pressure drop calculations are included
in each component’s evaluation. Flue and duct resis-
tance calculations and the evaluation of stack effects
are the final steps in the performance calculations.
For the example considered here, dimensional pa-

Fig. 1 Log mean temperature difference (LMTD) for selected heat

exchanger configurations – single phase except for Case I colder
fluid. (*As discussed in Chapter 4, a configuration factor F is needed
for the case of crossflow.)

The resulting final temperatures are compared to the

original assumptions. Generally, if an error of 5F or
less is observed between iteration steps, the solution
is considered complete. Otherwise, the new tempera-
ture is used to repeat the analysis.
To illustrate performance calculations, a small boiler
(Fig. 2) with a simplified furnace and heating surface
arrangement will serve as an example. The objective
is to evaluate the outlet flue gas temperatures for the
given surface area and cleanliness. The procedures
developed here are fundamental and as such can be
used on a wide range of boiler applications.

Operating conditions
Boiler performance specifications are defined by the
customer. These specifications normally include: steam
output conditions – pressure, temperature and flow;
feedwater conditions; fuel and ash analysis; load
range; capability; and efficiency. The final boiler de-
sign efficiently meets the specifications with a mini-
mum of surface, materials and flow losses. Fig. 2 Example of a coal-fired industrial boiler, sectional side view.

22-2 Steam 41 / Performance Calculations

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

rameters are contained in Table 1, while Table 2 con-
tains the specified operating conditions. The remain-
der of this chapter focuses on predicting performance
for the hypothetical boiler.
Heat and material balances
Heat and material balances begin with combustion
calculations. For this example, combustion calcula-
tions are determined by the Btu method as presented
in Chapter 10. For the fuel analysis and losses speci-
fied in Table 2, the combustion calculations are sum-
marized in Table 3.
The unit is expected to produce 250,000 lb/h super-
heated steam at 450 psig and 650F with feedwater
conditions of 470 psig and 220F entering the econo-
mizer. The energy output, or heat in steam, is calcu-
lated to be 285.6 × 106 Btu/h (See Table 3, line 10).
The combustion calculations of Table 3 also define
key parameters which guide much of the subsequent
equipment design – heat input (328.6 × 106 Btu/h,
Table 3, line 54), gas weight (324,100 lb/h, Table 3,
line 56), air weight (302,500 lb/h, Table 3, line 58) and
heat available (1034 Btu/lb Table 3, line 60). These
values are noted for future reference.
This completes the heat and material balances and
combustion calculations for the defined boiler enve-
lope. As shown in Fig. 3, all pressures, temperatures
and flows crossing the unit boundaries are established
and calculations can now proceed on each component.
A more detailed analysis would also account for items
such as air infiltration, continuous boiler water dis-
charge (blowdown), saturated steam extractions and
steam reheaters, if applicable.
Component performance calculations
Furnace
Furnace exit gas temperatures must be determined
to design downstream heat transfer components.
Through testing and correlation of gas temperature
data, furnace exit gas temperature has been found to
have a relationship to the heat input of the fuel and
to the effectiveness of the furnace walls. In Chapter
4, furnace exit gas temperature curves for various
fuels are approximated. This extended family of curves
represents the accumulation of extensive field expe-
rience and analytical evaluation. They are dependent
on fuel and furnace geometry.
The heat which can be absorbed by the furnace was
determined from the combustion calculations to be
1034 Btu/lb of flue gas. The layout of the furnace
(Table 1) provides a flat projected surface of 4100 ft2.
For 2.5 in. outside diameter (OD) furnace tubes on 3 in.
centers, Chapter 4, Fig. 33 indicates an effectiveness fac-
tor of 1.0. The heat release rate to the furnace is then:
Heat release rate =
Heat available × Gas mass flow rate
Flat projected area × Effectiveness factor
(1)
3 2
= 81.7 × 10 Btu/h ft

Table 1
Physical Arrangement - Furnace

Construction: 2.5 in. outside diameter (OD) tubes on 3 in. centers with membrane construction. (See Chapter 23 for description.)
Width: 12 ft Volume: 13,275 ft3 to superheater entrance plane
Depth: 15 ft Surface: 4100 ft2 flat projected area, not including superheater exit plane
Physical Arrangement - Components
Superheater Boiler Air
Parameter Units Screen (Note 1) Bank Economizer Heater

Tube OD in. 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 2.25

Backspacing (centerline) in. 6 3.25 4 3 4
Sidespacing (centerline) in. 6 6 4 3 3
Rows deep 2 12 28 10 29
Rows wide 23 23 35 47 47
Tube length ft 18 18 18 (Note 2) 10 19.5
Heating surface (Note 3) ft2 542 3169 11,545 2456 15,656
Free flow area (Note 4) ft2
Gas 130 130 85 42 32
Air 62

Notes:
1. The superheater is a counterflow configuration; however, the steam flows in two parallel paths from steam drum to
superheater outlet header. This is also called a two-flow arrangement.
2. Boiler bank tubes vary in length; the value listed represents an average length.
3. Heating surface is the external surface area of the tubes exposed to the flue gas except for the air heater where the flue
gas flows through rather than over the tubes.
4. Free flow area is the minimum clear area between tubes, perpendicular to the direction of gas or air flow except for air
heaters. The gas side free flow area for air heaters is the area defined by the inside diameter (ID) of the air heater tubes.

Steam 41 / Performance Calculations 22-3

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

calculations that follow account for bituminous coal

Table 2 ash deposition and cleanliness factors have been omit-
Operating Conditions ted for simplicity. If the calculation procedures devel-
Fuel: Bituminous Coal, Virginia oped here are used with other dirty fuels, then com-
Analysis As-Fired mensurate cleanliness factors are required to accu-
Ultimate, % by wt Proximate, % by wt rately predict thermal performance.
C 80.31 Moisture 2.90
H2 4.47 Volatiles 22.05 Screen
S 1.54 Fixed carbon 68.50
O2 2.85 Ash 6.55 Heat transfer
N2 1.38 100.00
H2 O 2.90 In this boiler design, the gases leaving the furnace
Ash 6.55 first pass across the screen tubes. In this case, the tubes
100.00 contain boiling water. These tubes control the amount
of furnace radiation reaching the superheater surface.
Higher heating value (HHV), as-fired: 14,100 Btu/lb The heat transfer relationship for this surface is as
Excess air 20.0% by wt follows:
Unburned carbon loss 0.4% by wt
Unaccounted loss (Table 3, Line 45) 1.5% by wt
g c p (T1 − T2 )

g c p ∆Tg = m
q = U A ( LMTD ) = m (3)
ABMA radiation loss (see Chapter 23) 0.40% by wt
Furnace exit gas temperature 2000F where
Superheater outlet: q = heat transfer rate, Btu/h
Steam flow 250,000 lb/h
Steam temperature 650 F
U = hg = combined heat transfer coefficient or
Steam pressure 450 psig overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/h ft2 F
Steam enthalpy 1331 Btu/lb where the boiling water film and tube wall
resistances are assumed negligible
Economizer inlet:
Water flow 250,000 lb/h
hg = hrg + hcg = overall gas side heat transfer
Water temperature 220 F coefficient, Btu/h ft2 F
Water pressure 470 psig hrg = radiation heat transfer coefficient (gas
Water enthalpy 189 Btu/lb side), Btu/h ft2 F
Air heater:
hcg = convection heat transfer coefficient (gas
Air temperature entering 80 F side), Btu/h ft2 F
Barometric pressure 30 in. Hg A = total surface area, ft2
Gas temperature leaving 390 F LMTD = log mean temperature difference, gas
and saturated water (Ts′), F
m
g = gas mass flow rate, lb/h
where cp = mean specific heat of gas, Btu/lb F
∆Tg = T1 − T 2
Heat available = 1034 Btu/lb T1 = gas temperature entering tube bank, F
Gas mass flow rate = 324.1 × 103 lb/h T2 = gas temperature leaving tube bank, F
Flat projected area = 4100 ft2 Ts′ = saturation temperature of boiler water, F
Effectiveness factor = 1.0
Furnace exit gas temperature is 2000F from Chap- Using the nomenclature listed above, the log mean tem-
ter 4, Fig. 34. Sufficient information is now known to perature difference for Case I of Fig. 1 is defined by:
begin analysis of the convection pass, i.e., screen, su-
perheater, boiler bank, economizer and air heater. LMTD =
(T1 − T2 )
The performance of the convection pass, however, T1 − Ts′ (4)
is a function of the cleanliness, or effectiveness, of the n
T2 − Ts′
heat transfer surfaces. The values of the heat trans-
fer coefficient, as described in Chapter 4, apply to heat Heat is transferred to the screen by direct furnace
transfer surfaces free from ash and slag deposits. For radiation, intertube radiation and convection. Fur-
calculation purposes, the effect of ash or other depos- nace radiation to the screen is considered first. Radia-
its on the heat transfer surfaces can be accounted for tion from the furnace to the screen is calculated from
with a cleanliness factor: relationships developed in Chapter 4 using an effec-
tiveness of 0.3 which approximates flue gas and screen
Cleanliness factor = surface emissivities. The temperature differential (T14
Actual heat transfer rate (2) −T24) is defined by the furnace exit gas temperature
Clean surface heat transfer rate and the screen tube temperature. Due to the large
difference between gas and screen tube temperatures
where gas side heat transfer coefficients are multiplied and the exponents in the formulation, it is sufficiently
by the cleanliness factor to reproduce a given fuel’s accurate to assume that the screen tube temperature
fouling characteristics. Unless specifically noted, the is equal to the saturation temperature.

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Table 3
Combustion Calculations Btu Method
INPUT CONDITIONS − BY TEST OR SPECIFICATION FUEL − Bituminous coal, Virginia
1 Excess air: at burner/leaving boiler/econ, % by weight 20/20/20 15 Ultimate Analysis 16 Theo Air, lb/100 lb fuel 17 H2O, lb/100 lb fuel
2 Entering air temperature, F 80 Constituent % by weight K1 [15] x K1 K2 [15] x K2
3 Reference temperature, F 80 A C 80.31 11.51 924.4
4 Fuel temperature, F 80 B S 1.54 4.32 6.7
5 Air temperature leaving air heater, F 366 C H2 4.47 34.29 153.3 8.94 39.96
6 Flue gas temperature leaving (excluding leakage), F 390 D H2O 2.90 1.00 2.90
7 Moisture in air, lb/lb dry air 0.013 E N2 1.38
8 Additional moisture, lb/100 lb fuel 0 F O2 2.85 − 4.32 −12.3
9 Residue leaving boiler/economizer, % Total 85 G Ash 6.55
10 Output, 1,000,000 Btu/h 285.6 H Total 100.00 Air 1072.1 H2O 42.86
Corrections for sorbent (from Chapter 10, Table 14 if used)
11 Additional theoretical air, lb/10,000 Btu Table 14, Item [21] 0 18 Higher heating value (HHV), Btu/lb fuel 14,100
12 CO2 from sorbent, lb/10,000 Btu Table 14, Item [19] 0 19 Unburned carbon loss, % fuel input 0.40
13 H2O from sorbent, lb/10,000 Btu Table 14, Item [20] 0 20 Theoretical air, lb/10,000 Btu [16H] x 100 / [18] 7.603
14 Spent sorbent, lb/10,000 Btu Table 14, Item [24] 0 21 Unburned carbon, % of fuel [19] x [18] / 14,500 0.39

COMBUSTION GAS CALCULATIONS, Quantity/10,000 Btu Fuel Input

22 Theoretical air (corrected), lb/10,000 Btu [20] − [21] x 1151 / [18] + [11] 7.572
23 Residue from fuel, lb/10,000 Btu ([15G] + [21]) x 100 / [18] 0.049
24 Total residue, lb/10,000 Btu [23] + [14] 0.049
A At Burners B Infiltration C Leaving Furnace D Leaving Blr/Econ
25 Excess air, % by weight 20.00 0.0 20.0 20.0
26 Dry air, lb/10,000 Btu (1 + [25] / 100) x [22] 9.086 9.086
27 H2O from air, lb/10,000 Btu [26] x [7] 0.118 0.118 0.118 0.118
28 Additional moisture, lb/10,000 Btu [8] x 100 / [18] 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
29 H2O from fuel, lb/10,000 Btu [17H] x 100 / [18] 0.304 0.304
30 Wet gas from fuel, lb/10,000 Btu (100 − [15G] − [21]) x 100 / [18] 0.660 0.660
31 CO2 from sorbent, lb/10,000 Btu [12] 0.000 0.000
32 H2O from sorbent, lb/10,000 Btu [13] 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
33 Total wet gas, lb/10,000 Btu Summation [26] through [32] 9.864 9.864
34 Water in wet gas, lb/10,000 Btu Summation [27] + [28] + [29] + [32] 0.422 0.422 0.422 0.422
35 Dry gas, lb/10,000 Btu [33] − [34] 9.442 9.442
36 H2O in gas, % by weight [100] x [34] / [33] 4.28 4.28
37 Residue, % by weight [9] x [24] / [33] 0.42 0.42

EFFICIENCY CALCULATIONS, % Input from Fuel

Losses
38 Dry gas, % 0.0024 x [35D] x ([6] − [3]) 7.02
39 Water from Enthalpy of steam at 1 psi, T = [6] H1 = (3.958E − 5 x T + 0.4329) x T + 1062.2 1237.1
40 fuel, as fired Enthalpy of water at T = [3] H2 = [3] − 32 48.0
41 % [29] x ([39] − [40]) / 100 3.61
42 Moisture in air, % 0.0045 x [27D] x ([6] − [3]) 0.16
43 Unburned carbon, % [19] or [21] x 14,500 / [18] 0.40
44 Radiation and convection, % ABMA curve, Chapter 23 0.40
45 Other, % (include manufacturers margin if applicable) 1.50
46 Sorbent net losses, % if sorbent is used From Chapter 10, Table 14, Item [41] 0.00
47 Summation of losses, % Summation [38] through [46] 13.09
Credits
48 Heat in dry air, % 0.0024 x [26D] x ([2] − [3]) 0.00
49 Heat in moisture in air, % 0.0045 x [27D] x ([2] − [3]) 0.00
50 Sensible heat in fuel, % (H at T[4] − H at T [3]) x 100 / [18] 0.0 0.00
51 Other, % 0.00
52 Summation of credits, % Summation [48] through [51] 0.00
53 Efficiency, % 100 − [47] + [52] 86.91

KEY PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS Leaving Furnace Leaving Blr/Econ

54 Input from fuel, 1,000,000 Btu/h 100 x [10] / [53] 328.6
55 Fuel rate, 1000 lb/h 1000 x [54] / [18] 23.3
56 Wet gas weight, 1000 lb/h [54] x [33] / 10 324.1 324.1
57 Air to burners (wet), lb/10,000 Btu (1 + [7]) x (1 + [25A] / 100) x [22] 9.204
58 Air to burners (wet), 1000 lb/h [54] x [57] / 10 302.5
59 Heat available, 1,000,000 Btu/h [54] x {([18] − 10.30 x [17H]) / [18] − 0.005
Ha = 66.0 Btu/lb x ([44] + [45]) + Ha at T[5] x [57] / 10,000} 335.2
60 Heat available/lb wet gas, Btu/lb 1000 x [59] / [56] 1034.0
61 Adiabatic flame temperature, F From Chapter 10, Fig. 3 at H = [60], % H2O = [36] 3560

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Second screen row absorption:

0.55 × 1.79 × 106 Btu/h = 0.99 × 106 Btu/h
Furnace radiation to
superheater: 0.81 × 106 Btu/h
Furnace radiation does not affect the flue gas tem-
perature drop across the screen; however, the furnace
radiation absorbed by the screen is taken into account
when determining screen steam generation rate. Fur-
nace radiation passing through the screen will be
absorbed by the superheater. The evaluation of fur-
nace radiation on superheater performance will be
addressed in the superheater section.
The heat transfer to the screen tubes is by convec-
tion and intertube radiation, and is calculated from
the formulas provided below. Calculations start by
assuming a gas temperature leaving the screen. This
assumption is verified later. In this case, 1920F is as-
sumed. Log mean temperature difference:

LMTD =
(T1 − T2 ) = 1498F
T1 − Ts′ (6)

n
T2 − Ts′
where
T1 = furnace exit gas temperature = 2000F
T2 = gas temperature leaving screen = 1920F
Fig. 3 Example of boiler fuel, air, gas, water and steam flow streams. Ts′ = saturation temperature = 462F
Gas mass flux:

( )
q′′ = σ Fe T14 − T24 = 18, 420 Btu/h ft2 (5)  g / Ag = 2498 lb/h ft2
Gg = m (7)
where
where
m g = gas mass flow rate = 324,100 lb/h Table 3
q ″ = heat flux, Btu/h ft2 Ag = minimum gas free flow area Table 1
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 130 ft2
= 1.71 × 10-9 Btu/h ft2 R4
Fe = effectiveness factor = 0.3 Gas film temperature:
T1 = furnace exit gas temperature
= 2000F = 2460R Tf = Ts′ + ( LMTD / 2 ) = 1211F (8)
T2 = saturation temperature
= 462F = 922R where

The entrance to the screen is 18 ft high and 12 ft Ts′ = 462F

wide for a flat projected area of 216 ft2. The heat trans- LMTD = 1498F
ferred to the screen by furnace radiation is 216 ft2 × Gas Reynolds number:
18,420 Btu/h ft2 or 3.98 × 106 Btu/h.
Based on the configuration of the screen (two rows Re = K Re Gg = 5745 (9)
deep on 6 in. side- and back-spacing), some of the radi-
ant heat is absorbed by the screen and the remainder where
is absorbed by the superheater. From Chapter 4, Fig. KRe = gas properties factor = 2.3 h ft2/lb Fig. 4
33, Curve 1, an effectiveness factor of 0.55 (i.e., 55% Gg = 2498 lb/h ft2
of the radiant energy entering any row is absorbed)
is used to determine radiant screen absorption. On a Gas film convection heat transfer coefficient from
row by row basis, the radiation from the furnace is dis- Chapter 4, Equation 61:
tributed as follows:
hcg = hc′ Fpp Fa Fd = 7.53 Btu/h ft2 F (10)
Furnace radiation to
first screen row: 3.98 × 106 Btu/h where
First screen row absorption:
0.55 × 3.98 × 106 Btu/h = 2.19 × 106 Btu/h hc′ = basic convection crossflow Ch. 4, Fig. 18
Furnace radiation to geometry and velocity factor
second screen row: 1.79 × 106 Btu/h = 69.9 Btu/h ft2 F

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where
hr′ = 8.2 Btu/h ft2 F Fig. 5
pr = partial pressure = 0.19 atm Fig. 6
L = mean radiating length = 1.42 ft Fig. 7
K = fuel factor = 0.42 Fig. 8
Fs = 0.681
Combined heat transfer coefficient:

hg = hcg + hrg = 9.88 Btu/h ft2 F (13)

where
hcg = 7.53 Btu/h ft2 F
hrg = 2.35 Btu/h ft2 F
Overall heat transfer rate:

q = U A ( LMTD ) = 8.02 × 106 Btu/h (14)

where
Fig. 4 Determination of Reynolds number, Re. U = hg = 9.88 Btu/h ft2 F
A = 542 ft2
LMTD = 1498F
Fpp = physical properties factor Ch. 4, Fig. 19
= 0.133 To verify the flue gas exit temperature assumption
Fa = arrangement factor = 0.81 Ch. 4, Fig. 22 of T2 = 1920F for the screen tubes, the gas tempera-
Fd = heat transfer depth factor Ch. 4, Fig. 23 ture leaving the screen can be calculated by an en-
= 1.0
In this calculation, Fd is 1.0 because the furnace
flue gases turn prior to entering the screen.
The total radiation absorption in the screen is com-
prised of direct furnace radiation and intertube radia-
tion. Direct furnace radiation affects screen steam
generation rate, but does not affect the gas tempera-
ture leaving the screen. The intertube radiation, how-
ever, is a direct function of flue gas temperature leav-
ing the bank. Also, direct furnace radiation is propor-
tional to the planar area it crosses while intertube ra-
diation is proportional to the total bank heating surface.
To determine intertube radiation, the radiation
heat transfer coefficient must be adjusted to eliminate
direct furnace radiation through the use of an effec-
tiveness factor based on areas.

Effective surface A − Ap
Fs = = = 0.681 (11)
Total surface A
where
A = total bank heating surface = 542 ft2 Table 1
Ap = planar area of the bank credited with
radiation absorption. In this example,
80% of the direct furnace radiation
was absorbed by the screen.
= 0.8 × 12 × 18 = 172.8 ft2
Because this calculation subtracts the effect of di-
rect furnace radiation, it will be added back in when
the total screen absorption is finally determined.
Gas side radiation heat transfer coefficient adjust-
ing for effective surface:
Fig. 5 Basic radiation heat transfer coefficient, hr′, for Equations 12,
hrg = hr′ K Fs = 2.35 Btu/h ft2 F (12) 32, and 44.

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

screen absorption of 11.20 × 106 Btu/h.

Draft loss
Screen gas side draft loss is calculated from Chap-
ter 3, Equations 52 and 56:
2
 30   T + 460   G 
∆P = ( f N Fd )    5   3 
 B   1.73 × 10   10  (16)
= 0.04 in. wg
where
f = friction factor = 0.23 Ch. 3, Fig. 15
N = number of tube rows = 2 Table 1
Fd = tube bundle correction factor
= 1.12 Ch. 3, Fig. 14
B = barometric pressure
= 30 in. Hg Table 2
T = 0.95 (T1 + T2)/2 = 1862F (Note 1 below)
G = 2498 lb/h ft2 Eq. 7

Pressure drop
The screen tubes are part of the furnace circuitry
and tube side pressure drop calculations for this sur-
face are included in a circulation analysis. Refer to
Chapter 5 for circulation information.

Superheater
Heat transfer
The next component in the direction of flue gas flow
is the superheater. Saturated steam from the steam
drum is heated to the outlet conditions shown in Table 2.

Fig. 6 Partial pressure, pr, of principal radiating constituents (CO2 +

H2O) of combustion gases in atmosphere for various fuels, heat
values and excess air.

ergy balance between the energy absorbed by the

screen tubes (excluding furnace radiation) and the
energy lost by the flue gas.

g c p = 1920F
T2 = T1 − q / m (15)
where
T1 = 2000F
q = 8.02 × 106 Btu/h
m
g = 324,100 lb/h Eq. 3
cp = 0.31 Btu/lb F Fig. 9
Solving the heat balance for T2 indicates agreement
with the earlier assumption of 1920F, and no recalcu- Fig. 7 Mean radiating length, L, for various tube diameters and
lation is required. Otherwise, T2 from Equation 15 would arrangements or pitches – in-line tubes.
be used in Equation 6 and the calculation repeated.
To complete the screen heat transfer analysis, the
total screen absorption is determined. Screen absorp-
tion is the sum of the convection and intertube radia-
tion heat transfer rates (8.02 × 106 Btu/h) and direct Note 1: Under most conditions, this equation is a good
furnace radiation rate (3.18 × 106 Btu/h) for a total approximation of effective flue gas temperature.

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The governing heat transfer equations for super-

heater surfaces are:
q = U A ( LMTD ) (17)

LMTD =
(T1 − T2′) − (T2 − T1′)
n 1
(T − T2′) (18)
(T2 − T1′)
Fig. 1, Case III
q = mg c p ∆Tg = mg c p (T1 − T2 )


(19)

s ∆H
q = m (20)
Fig. 9 Approximate mean specific heat, cp, of flue gas.
where
q = heat transfer rate, Btu/h Inlet:
U = (hg hs)/(hg + hs) = combined heat transfer T1′ = 462F, P1′ = 460 psig, H1′ = 1205 Btu/lb
coefficient, Btu/h ft2 F (assuming negli-
gible wall resistance) ∆H = 126 Btu/lb
hg = hrg + hcg = overall gas side heat transfer The outlet conditions are specified in Table 2 while
coefficient, Btu/h ft2 F the inlet conditions are assumed to be saturated steam
hrg = radiation heat transfer coefficient (gas at the drum pressure. Drum pressure is determined
side), Btu/h ft2 F by superheater pressure drop and is assumed here
hcg = convection heat transfer coefficient (gas based upon experience and verified later.
side), Btu/h ft2 F The heat transfer rate to the superheater is calcu-
hs = convection heat transfer coefficient lated as follows:
(steam side), Btu/h ft2 F
A = total surface area, ft2
s ∆H = 31.50 × 106 Btu/h
q = m (21)
LMTD = counterflow log mean temperature dif-
ference, gas and steam, F where
T1 = gas temperature entering superheater, F
s = 250,000 lb/h
m Table 2
T2 = gas temperature leaving superheater, F ∆H = 126 Btu/lb
T1′ = steam temperature entering superheater, F
Previous calculations determined that the super-
T2′ = steam temperature leaving superheater, F heater will receive 0.81 × 106 Btu/h furnace radiation.
m
g = mass flow of gas, lb/h Therefore, the heat transferred by convection and
cp = mean specific heat of gas, Btu/lb F intertube radiation is:
∆Tg = T1 − T2, gas temperature differential, F
m
s = mass flow of steam, lb/h qci = q − qr = 30.69 × 106 Btu/h (22)
∆H = steam enthalpy difference, Btu/lb where
Superheater steam side design conditions are: q = 31.50 × 106 Btu/h
Outlet: q r = 0.81 × 106 Btu/h
T2′ = 650F, P2′ = 450 psig, H 2′ = 1331 Btu/lb By rearranging Equation 19, the gas temperature
leaving the superheater can be determined:

T2 = T1 − qci / (m

g c p ) = 1608 F (23)
where
qci = 30.69 × 106 Btu/h
T1 = gas temperature entering superheater
= gas temperature leaving screen =1920F
m
g = 324,100 lb/h
cp = 0.303 Btu/lb F Fig. 9
Superheater log mean temperature difference is:

LMTD =
(T1 − T2′) − (T2 − T1′) = 1207F
n 1
(T − T2′)
Fig. 8 Effect of fuel, partial pressure (H2O and CO2) and mean
(T2 − T1′) (24)
radiating length on radiation heat transfer coefficient.

Steam 41 / Performance Calculations 22-9

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

where where
T1 = 1920F m
g = 324,100 lb/h
T2 = 1608F Ag = 130 ft2 Table 1
T1′ = 462F Gas side Reynolds number:
T2′ = 650F
Re = K Re Gg = 6495 (29)
The average gas side film temperature is approxi-
mated by (see Note 2 below): where
KRe = 2.6 h ft2/lb Fig. 4
Tf = (T1′ + T2′ ) / 2 + LMTD / 2 = 1160F (25) Gg = 2498 lb/h ft2
where Gas film convection heat transfer coefficient from
Equation 61 in Chapter 4:
T1′ = 462F
T2′ = 650F hcg = hc′ Fpp Fa Fd = 5.91 Btu/h ft2 F (30)
LMTD = 1207F
where
Superheater tube material and thickness are se-
lected according to the American Society of Mechani- hc′ = 69.9 Btu/h ft2 F Ch. 4, Fig. 18
cal Engineers (ASME) Code and manufacturing ca- Fpp = 0.133 Ch. 4, Fig. 19
pabilities which are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8. For Fa = 0.635 Ch. 4, Fig. 22
this example, a 2.50 in. OD carbon steel seamless tube Fd = 1.0 Ch. 4, Fig. 23
with 0.220 in. wall thickness has been selected. Thick- To obtain the gas side radiation heat transfer coef-
ness is set by tube bending limitations and is normally ficient (hrg), a factor, Fs, must be included to account
greater than that required by Code. Allowing for for the furnace radiation absorbed in the superheater.
manufacturing tolerances (+15% for pressure tubing), In the screen calculations, it was shown that 80% of
the average inside diameter (ID) of the tube is calcu- the furnace radiation was absorbed in the screen while
lated to be 1.99 in. The flow area corresponding to this 20% passed through the screen and was absorbed by
diameter is 3.12 in.2. The total steam flow area is 1.0 the superheater. Similar to the screen calculations,
ft2 (2 flow × 23 rows × 3.12 in.2 × ft2 /144 in.2 ). superheater intertube radiation will be determined by
eliminating direct furnace radiation from the radia-
Steam mass flux: tion heat transfer coefficient through the use of an
effectiveness factor:

s / As = 250, 600 lb/h ft2
Gs = m (26)
A − Ap
where Fs = = 0.986 (31)
A
m
s = 250,000 lb/h
As = 0.998 ft2 where
A = 3169 ft2
Steam Reynolds number: Ap = 0.2 (12 × 18) = 43.2 ft2 Fig. 2
Gs De Gas side radiation heat transfer coefficient:
Re = = 867, 600 (27)
µ
hrg = hr′ K Fs = 2.81 Btu/h ft2 F (32)
where
where
D e = 1.99 in. = 0.166 ft
µ = steam absolute viscosity hr′ = 9.5 Btu/h ft2 F Fig. 5
= 0.048 lb/h ft Ch. 3, Fig. 5 pr = 0.19 atm Fig. 6
G s = 250,600 lb/h ft2 L = 0.85 ft Fig. 7
K = 0.30 Fig. 8
Gas mass flux: Fs = 0.986

g / Ag = 2498 lb/h ft2
Gg = m (28) In a superheater, the resistance to heat transfer
through the steam film inside the tubes can not be
assumed to be negligible as was done with the screen.
Steam film convection heat transfer coefficient from
Chapter 4, Equation 58, corrected to the OD surface
area:
Note 2: This approximation applies when one working
fluid controls the overall heat transfer coefficient. hs = hl′ Fpp FT Di / Do = 148 Btu/h ft2 F (33)

22-10 Steam 41 / Performance Calculations

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

where where
hl′ = 687 Btu/h ft2 F Ch. 4, Fig. 13 ∆Pf = frictional pressure drop (fL/Di)
Fpp = 0.33 Ch. 4, Fig. 16 ∆Pe+e = entrance (1/12) and exit (0.5/12)
FT = temperature factor = 0.82 Ch. 4, Fig. 17 pressure drop
Di = 1.99 in. ∆Pb = bend loss (Nb /12)
Do = 2.50 in. G = steam mass flux
= 250,600 lb/h ft2
Overall heat transfer coefficient: f = 0.012 Ch. 3, Fig. 1
L = length of one continuous
U =
hg hs
=
(hrg + hcg ) hs superheater tube from steam
hg + hs hrg + hcg + hs drum to superheater outlet
(34) header = 130 ft
= 8.23 Btu/h ft2 F Di = 1.99 in.
υ = average steam specific volume
where = 1.15 ft3/lb
hrg = 2.81 Btu/h ft2 F Nb = bend loss factor = 2.8
hcg = 5.91 Btu/h ft2 F The superheater is a two-flow design. Steam side
h s = 148 Btu/h ft2 F pressure drop will be determined for the steam path
Overall heat transfer rate: with the highest bend loss factors which, in this ex-
ample, is the path with three short radius 180 degree
q = U A ( LMTD ) = 31.48 × 106 Btu/h bends. A composite bend loss factor for this path is
(35)
determined as follows:
where Nb: Three 180 degree bends,
U = 8.23 Btu/h ft2 F R/D = 0.81, 3 × 0.6 = 1.80 Ch. 3, Fig. 9
A = 3169 ft2 Table 1 Two 180 degree bends,
LMTD = 1207 F R/D = 2.44, 2 × 0.28 = 0.56 Ch. 3, Fig. 9
Two 90 degree bends,
Because this agrees with 31.50 × 10 Btu/h from 6
R/D = 2.44, 2 × 0.22 = 0.44 Ch. 3, Fig. 9
Equation 21, no iteration is required. If these heat Composite Nb = 2.80
transfer rate calculations do not agree, then the steam
outlet temperature or the superheater surface must Drum pressure and saturation temperature can
be re-estimated and the calculations repeated until now be determined and verified. The steam drum pres-
agreement is achieved. sure is equal to the outlet steam pressure plus the
superheater pressure loss calculated above, plus the
Draft loss steam separation equipment loss. Note, the steam
Superheater gas side draft loss is determined by separation equipment loss is manufacturer specific.
combining Equations 52 and 56 in Chapter 3.
Superheater outlet pressure 450 psig Table 2
2 Superheater-to-terminal + 0 psi (assumed)
 30   T + 460   G  pipe loss
∆P = ( f N Fd )    5  3 
 B   1.73 × 10   10  Superheater pressure drop + 8 psi
(36)
Steam separation equipment + 2 psi (assumed)
= 0.06 in. wg
Drum pressure 460 psig
where Sat. temperature (at 460 psig) 462 F
f = 0.06 Ch. 3, Fig. 15 This saturation pressure is in agreement with that
N = 12 Table 1 originally assumed.
Fd = 1.0 Ch. 3, Fig. 14
B = 30 in. Hg Boiler bank
T = 0.95 (T1 + T2)/2 = 1676F
G = 2498 lb/h ft2 Heat transfer
Steam pressure drop The function of the boiler bank, like the screen
Superheater steam side pressure drop is the sum tubes, is to boil water, and the governing heat trans-
of friction or straight-flow losses, entrance and exit fer equations defined for the screen are also applicable.
losses, and bend losses. Equations 47 and 51 in Chap- Heat is transferred by convection, intertube radiation,
ter 3 can be combined as follows: and radiation from the rear cavity. In this example
there are no cavities in the screen or superheater;
∆P = ∆Pf + ∆Pe + e + ∆Pb however, in many applications cavities exist to accom-
modate sootblowers. Whenever cavities surround a
 fL 1.5 Nb   G 
2
bank of tubes, whether front or rear, the impact of the
=  + + υ = 8.24 psi (37) cavities on heat transfer must be considered (see dis-
 Di 12 12   105  cussion on cavity heat transfer).

Steam 41 / Performance Calculations 22-11

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Calculations begin by assuming the gas tempera- Gas side radiation heat transfer coefficient:
ture leaving the boiler bank to be 818F based upon
prior experience. The log mean temperature difference hrg = hr′ K Fs = 0.83 Btu/h ft2 F (44)
is calculated from Fig. 1, Case I:
where
LMTD =
(T1 − T2 ) = 676F = 4.0 Btu/h ft2 F Fig. 5
hr′
T − Ts′ (38) pr = 0.19 Fig. 6
n 1
T2 − Ts′ L = 0.47 ft Fig. 7
K = 0.212 Fig. 8
where Fs = 0.98
T1 = gas temperature entering the boiler bank Combined heat transfer coefficient:
= gas temperature leaving the superheater
= 1608F hg = hcg + hrg = 9.29 Btu/h ft2 F (45)
T2 = assumed bank exit temperature = 818F
Ts′ = saturation temperature = 462F where
Gas mass flux: hcg = 8.45 Btu/h ft2 F
hrg = 0.83 Btu/h ft2 F

g / Ag = 3813 lb/h ft2
Gg = m (39)
Overall heat transfer rate assuming negligible wall
where and boiling resistances:
m
g = 324,100 lb/h q = U A ( LMTD ) = 72.4 × 106 Btu/h (46)
Ag = 85 ft 2
Table 1
Gas film temperature: where
U = hg = 9.29 Btu/h ft2 F
Tf = Ts′ + LMTD / 2 = 800F (40) A = 11,545 ft2 Table 1
where LMTD = 676F

Ts′ = 462F Checking the gas temperature leaving the boiler bank:
LMTD = 676F
T2 = T1 − q / (m

g c p ) = 818F (47)
Gas Reynolds number:
where
Re = K Re Gg = 10,700 (41)
T1 = 1608F
where q = 72.4 × 106 Btu/h
KRe = 2.8 h ft2/lb Fig. 4 m
g = 324,100 lb/h
Gg = 3813 lb/h ft2 cp = 0.283 Btu/lb F Fig. 9
Gas film heat transfer coefficient: This agrees with the original outlet temperature as-
sumption and therefore no recalculation is required.
hcg = hc′ Fpp Fa Fd = 8.45 Btu/h ft F 2
(42) Otherwise, T2 would be used in Equation 38 and the
where calculations repeated.

hc′ = 90.7 Btu/h ft2 F Ch. 4, Fig. 18 Draft loss

Fpp = 0.118 Ch. 4, Fig. 19
Fa = 0.79 Ch. 4, Fig. 22 The governing equation for the gas side draft loss
Fd = 1.0 Ch. 4, Fig. 23 in the boiler bank is:

For the screen, it was determined that 80% of the 2

direct furnace radiation is absorbed in a two-row bank.  30   T + 460   G 
∆P = ( f N Fd )    5  3 
It can be shown that all rear cavity radiation is ab-  B   1.73 × 10   10  (48)
sorbed in the boiler bank because it is 28 rows deep.
To calculate intertube radiation, an effectiveness fac- = 1.03 in. wg
tor must again be determined:
where
A − Ap f = 0.27 Ch. 3, Fig. 15
Fs = = 0.98 (43)
A N = 28 Table 1
Fd = 1.0 Ch. 3, Fig. 14
where B = 30 in. Hg Table 2
A = 11,545 ft2 Table 1 T = 0.95 (T1 + T2)/2 = 1152F
Ap at 100% = 12 × 18 = 216 ft2 Fig. 2 G = 3813 lb/h ft2

22-12 Steam 41 / Performance Calculations

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Pressure drop where

As with the screen tubes, the boiler bank is inte- U = hrg = 2.28 Btu/h ft2 F
gral to the furnace circuitry. Pressure loss to the steam- A = 12 × 18 = 216 ft2 Fig. 2
water flow is discussed in Chapter 5. LMTD = 355F
Radiation to the economizer follows the same logic.
Cavity between boiler bank
and economizer LMTD = (T1 + T2 ) / 2 − T2′ = 535F (53)
where
Heat transfer
T1 = gas temperature entering the cavity
Heat is transferred from each cavity to the cooler = 818F
banks which form its boundaries. Cavity radiation is T2 = gas temperature leaving the cavity
most significant at higher gas temperatures. In this = 815F
example, cavity radiation has little impact on the over-
all results, but is included to illustrate the procedure T2′ = assumed economizer water outlet temperature
for evaluating other configurations. = 282F
Assume the gas temperature leaving the cavity,
entering the economizer to be 815F and the water tem- hrg = hr′ K = 1.90 Btu/h ft2 F (54)
perature leaving the economizer to be 280F. Both as- where
sumptions are verified later. Consider cavity radiation
to the boiler bank first. hr′ = 2.0 Btu/h ft2 F Fig. 5
Log mean temperature difference is approximated by: pr = 0.19 atm Fig. 6
L = 7.1 ft
K = 0.95 Fig. 8
LMTD = (T1 + T2 ) / 2 − Ts′ = 355F (49)
q = U A ( LMTD ) = 121, 900 Btu/h (55)
where
where
T1 = gas temperature entering the cavity
= gas temperature leaving the boiler bank U = hrg = 1.90 Btu/h ft2 F
= 818F A = 12 × 10 = 120 ft2 Fig. 2
T2 = 815F (assumed) LMTD = 535F
Ts′ = saturation temperature = 462F
Total heat transfer is the sum of the rates to the
By definition, mean radiating length: boiler bank and economizer, or 296,500 Btu/h. Check-
ing the gas temperature leaving the cavity:
VL
L = 3.4 = 7.1 ft (50)
A T2 = T1 − q / (m

g c p ) = 815F (56)
where
where
VL = volume of the cavity T1 = 818F
= 12 ft × 18 ft × 10 ft = 2160 ft3 Fig. 2
q = 296,500 Btu/h
A = area = 2 (12 × 18 + 12 × 10 + 10 × 18)
= 1032 ft2 Fig. 2 m
g = 324,100 lb/h
cp = 0.27 Btu/lb F Fig. 9
Gas side radiation heat transfer coefficient:
This is the same as the assumed value and further
hrg = hr′ K = 2.28 Btu/h ft2 F (51) iteration is not needed. Otherwise, T2 from Equation
56 would be used in Equation 49 and the calculations
where repeated. Verification of the economizer water outlet
temperature is shown in the next section.
hr′ = 2.4 Btu/h ft2 F Fig. 5 The total boiler bank absorption can now be deter-
mined. Absorption due to convection and intertube
pr = 0.19 atm Fig. 6
radiation is 72.4 × 106 Btu/h (Equation 46) while that
L = 7.1 ft
from cavity radiation is 0.17 × 106 Btu/h (Equation 52)
K = 0.95 Fig. 8 (Extrapolated)
for a total boiler bank absorption of 72.6 × 106 Btu/h.
Because radiation is the only significant mode of
heat transfer in the cavity, the overall heat transfer
coefficient U = hrg. The overall heat transfer rate to Economizer
the boiler bank is then: The next component in the direction of flue gas flow
is the economizer. The economizer heats the feedwater
q = U A ( LMTD ) = 174, 600 Btu/h (52) before it enters the steam drum.

Steam 41 / Performance Calculations 22-13

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Heat transfer where

Economizer heat transfer follows the same formu- T1 = economizer inlet gas temperature
lations established for the superheater: = 815F
T2 = economizer outlet gas temperature
q = U A ( LMTD ) (57) = 635F
T1′ = economizer water inlet temperature

g c p (T2 − T1 )

g c p ∆Tg = m
q = m (58) = 220F Table 2

∆H T2′ = economizer water outlet temperature
q = m (59)
= 282F
where the terms are generally defined after Equations Average gas film temperature is approximated by (See
17 to 20 except the tube side fluid is water instead of previous Note 2):
steam.
Economizer outlet water temperature was previ- Tf = (T1′ + T2′ ) / 2 + LMTD / 2 = 487F (64)
ously assumed to be 282F. It was also established that
121,900 Btu/h is transferred from the cavity preced- where
ing the economizer. The total heat transfer rate to the
economizer is calculated to be: T1′ = 220F
T2′ = 282F

∆H = 15.70 × 106 Btu/h
q = m (60) LMTD = 472F
Gas mass flux:
where

g / Ag = 7780 lb/h ft2
Gg = m (65)
m
= 250,000 lb/h Table 2
T2′ = 282F where
H2 = 252 Btu/lb Ch. 2, Table 3 m
g = 324,100 lb/h Table 3
T1′ = 220F Table 2 Ag = 42 ft2 Table 1
H1 = 189 Btu/lb Table 2
∆H = H2 − H1 = 63.0 Btu/lb Reynolds number:

The heat transfer by convection and intertube ra- Re = K Re Gg = 23,300 (66)

diation is:
where
6
qci = q − qr = 15.58 × 10 Btu/h (61) KRe = 3.0 h ft2 /lb Fig. 4
Gg = 7780 lb/h ft2
where
Gas film heat transfer coefficient:
q = total heat transfer rate = 15.70 × 106 Btu/h
q r = cavity radiation = 121,900 Btu/h
hcg = hc′ Fpp Fa Fd = 13.14 Btu/h ft2 F (67)
As can be seen from this result, cavity thermal radia-
tion at low temperatures is not usually significant. where
By rearranging Equation 58, the gas temperature
leaving the economizer can be determined: hc′ = 152.6 Btu/h ft2 F Ch. 4, Fig. 18
Fpp = 0.105 Ch. 4, Fig. 19
Fa = 0.82 Ch. 4, Fig. 22
T2 = T1 − qci / (m

g c p ) = 635F (62) Fd = 1.0 Ch. 4, Fig. 23
where As for the preceding components, an effectiveness
factor based on the total economizer surface area is
qci = 15.58 × 10 Btu/h
6
determined:
m
g = 324,100 lb/h Table 3
cp = 0.268 Btu/lb F Fig. 9 A − Ap
Fs = = 0.951 (68)
T1 = 815F A
From Fig. 1, Case III, for counterflow heat ex- where
changer, the log mean temperature difference is:
A = 2456 ft2 Table 1
Ap at 100% = (12 ft) (10 ft) = 120 ft2 Fig. 2
LMTD =
(T1 − T2′) − (T2 − T1′) = 472F Gas side radiation heat transfer coefficient:
(T − T2′)
n 1 (63)
(T2 − T1′) hrg = hr′ K Fs = 0.30 Btu/h ft2 F (69)

22-14 Steam 41 / Performance Calculations

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

where Water side pressure drop

hr′ = 1.6 Btu/h ft2 F Fig. 5 In this example, the economizer tubes are 2 in. OD
with 0.148 in. wall thickness. Considering the manu-
pr = 0.19 Fig. 6 facturing tolerance of plus 15% in the pressure tub-
L = 0.30 ft Fig. 7 ing wall thickness, the tube inside diameter is 1.66 in.
K = 0.20 Fig. 8 Water flow area is 2.16 in.2/tube and the total flow area
Fs = 0.951 is 0.706 ft2 (2.16 in.2/tube × 47 tubes × 1.0 ft2 /144 in.2).
The water film and tube wall resistances are negligible Water mass flux is:
so the total heat transfer coefficient is:

/ A = 354,100 lb/h ft2
G = m (74)
2
U = hg = hcg + hrg = 13.44 Btu/h ft F (70)
where
where m
= 250,000 lb/h
hcg = 13.14 Btu/h ft2 F A = 0.706 ft2
hrg = 0.30 Btu/h ft2 F
Water side Reynolds number:
Overall heat transfer rate:
GDi
Re = = 98, 000 (75)
q = U A ( LMTD ) = 15.57 × 10 Btu/h
6
(71) µ

where where
U = 13.44 Btu/h ft F 2
G = 354,100 lb/h ft2
A = 2456 ft2 Table 1 Di = 1.66 in. = 0.138 ft
LMTD = 472F µ = 0.5 lb/h ft Ch. 3, Fig. 3
After adding cavity radiation (121,900 Btu/h), the Economizer pressure drop is the sum of friction losses,
total heat transfer rate to the economizer is 15.69 × entrance and exit losses, and bend losses.
106 Btu/h.
Verifying the water outlet temperature assumption,  fL 1.5 Nb   G 
2

the outlet enthalpy is evaluated from: ∆P =  + +  υ  5  = 0.36 psi (76)

 Di 12 12   10 

= 252 Btu/lb or T2′ = 282F
H 2 = H1 + q / m (72)
where
where
f = 0.018 Ch. 3, Fig. 1
q = 15.69 × 106 Btu/h L = 101 ft
m
= 250,000 lb/h Di= 1.66 in.
H1 = 189 Btu/lb Nb= nine 180 degree 0.79 R/D bends
= 9 × 0.61 = 5.49 Ch. 3, Fig. 9
From steam tables at an enthalpy of 252 Btu/lb, the υ = specific volume = 0.017 ft3/lb Ch. 2, Table 3
water temperature is verified to be 282F. Therefore, the G = 354,100 lb/h ft2
total economizer absorption is 15.69 × 106 Btu/h.
The total pressure drop (economizer inlet to the
Draft loss steam drum) must include the static head of water for
that elevation difference (25 ft) plus fittings and fric-
Economizer gas side draft loss is calculated from tion losses. Assuming the feedwater pipe diameter is
Chapter 3, Equations 52 and 56. large and fitting losses are negligible (∆Ppiping = 0), then
2
the static head is calculated by:
 30   T + 460   G 
∆P = ( f N Fd )    5   3 
 B   1.73 × 10   10  ∆Z
(73) ∆Pstatic = = 10.0 psi (77)
= 1.57 in. wg 144υ

where where
f = 0.39 Ch. 3, Fig. 15 ∆Z = elevation between drum center-
N = 10 Table 1 line and economizer inlet header
Fd = 1.0 Ch. 3, Fig. 14 = 25 ft
B = 30 in. H2O υ = 0.0173 ft3/lb Ch. 2, Table 3
T1 = 815F
T2 = 635F Total pressure drop from economizer inlet to drum is:
T = 0.95 (T1 + T2)/2 = 689F
G = 7780 lb/h ft2 ∆P = ∆Peconomizer + ∆Pstatic + ∆Ppiping = 10.4 psi (78)

Steam 41 / Performance Calculations 22-15

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

where film temperatures are approximated by the following

calculations.
∆Peconomizer = 0.36 psi
∆Pstatic = 10.0 psi
Gas: Tf = (T1 + T2 ) / 2 − LMTD / 4 = 448F (82)
∆Ppiping = 0 (assumed)
where
Air heater T1 = 635F
T2 = 390F
Heat transfer LMTD = 260F
The air heater is the last heat transfer component
before the stack. In the overall heat and material bal- Air: Tf = (T1′ + T2′ ) / 2 + LMTD / 4 = 288F (83)
ances, the air heater exit gas temperature is assumed
to be 390F. The air heater, when sized properly, will where
have sufficient surface to provide the required air tem- T1′ = 80F
perature to the fuel equipment (burners, pulverizers,
etc.) and lower the gas temperature to that assumed T2′ = 366F
in the combustion calculations. For the air heater, the LMTD = 260F
heat transfer rate is determined as follows: The flue gas flows through 1363 tubes (29 rows of
47 tubes per row). The air heater tubes are electric re-

g c p (T1 − T2 ) = 21.09 × 106 Btu/h
q = m (79) sistance welded (ERW), 2.25 in. OD with a 0.083 in.
wall thickness. Allowing for manufacturing tolerances
where (9% for nonpressure tubing), the average tube inside
m
g = 324,100 lb/h Table 3 diameter is 2.07 in. Gas flow area is 3.36 in.2/tube for
a total of 31.8 ft2. The gas mass flux is:
cp = 0.265 Btu/lb F Fig. 9
T1 = gas temperature entering the air heater
g / Ag = 10,185 lb/h ft2
Gg = m (84)
= gas temperature leaving the economizer
= 635F where
T2 = assumed air heater exit temperature
= 390F
g = 324,100 lb/h
m Table 3
For the air side, the temperature rise is: Ag = 31.8 ft 2

Gas Reynolds number:

T2′ = T1′ + q / (m

a c p ) = 366F (80)
Re = K Re Gg = 30, 600 (85)
where
where
T1′ = 80F Table 2
KRe = 3.0 h ft2/lb Fig. 4
q = 21.09 × 106 Btu/h Gg = 10,185 lb/h ft2
m
a = 302,500 lb/h Table 3
cp = 0.244 Btu/lb F Fig. 10 Gas film heat transfer coefficient is the sum of the
convection heat transfer coefficient from the longitu-
The tubular air heater in this example is a crossflow
design. The log mean temperature difference is deter-
mined from Fig. 1, Case IV. This requires not only the
two inlet and two outlet temperatures, but also a
crossflow correction factor, F:

LMTD =
(T1 − T2′) − (T2 − T1′) × F = 260F
(T − T2′)
n 1 (81)
(T2 − T1′)
where
T1 = 635F
T2 = 390F Fig. 3
T1′ = 80F
T2′ = 366F
F = crossflow correction factor
= 0.90 Ch. 4, Fig. 26
In an air heater, gas and air film heat transfer co-
efficients are approximately equal. For this example, Fig. 10 Mean specific heat, cp, of air at one atmosphere.

22-16 Steam 41 / Performance Calculations

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

dinal gas flow inside the air heater tubes and a small where
gaseous radiation component from within the tube.
The gas convection heat transfer coefficient hcg is cal- FFR = 0.90
culated from Equation 58 in Chapter 4. However, hcg = 9.91 Btu/h ft2 F
recognize that these coefficients do not account for hrg = 0.18 Btu/h ft2 F
fouling. To properly account for the ash layer inside h ca = 11.50 Btu/h ft2 F
the tubes, the gas side heat transfer coefficients will The cleanliness or fouling resistance factor, FFR, is
be multiplied by a cleanliness factor in the overall heat empirically derived from field test data; 0.9 is repre-
transfer calculation, Equation 91. sentative of bituminous coal. The total heat transfer
rate for the air heater is:
hcg = hl′ Fpp FT Di / Do = 9.91 Btu/h ft2 (86)
where q = U A ( LMTD ) = 20.69 × 106 Btu/h (92)

hl′ = 52.6 Btu/h ft2 F Ch. 4, Fig. 13 where

Fpp = 0.188 Ch. 4, Fig. 14 U = 5.07 Btu/h ft2 F
FT = 1.09 Ch. 4, Fig. 17 A = 15,656 ft2 Table 1
Di = 2.07 in. LMTD = 260F
Do = 2.25 in. Table 1
Air heater exit gas temperature is calculated to be:
Gas side radiation heat transfer coefficient:

hrg = hr′ K = 0.18 Btu/h ft2 F (87) T2 = T1 − q / (m

g c p ) = 390F (93)

where where

hr′ = 1.0 Btu/h ft2 F Fig. 5 T1 = 635F

q = 20.69 × 106 Btu/h
pr = 0.19 Fig. 6
L = 0.17 ft Tube ID m
g = 324,100 lb/h
K = 0.18 Fig. 8 cp = 0.26 Btu/lb F Fig. 9
From Table 1, the air side free flow area is 62 ft2, hence which is in agreement with the temperature assumed.
the air mass flux is calculated to be: Otherwise, T2 would be substituted into Equation 81
and the calculations repeated.

a / Aa = 4866 lb/h ft2
Ga = m (88)
Draft loss (gas inside tubes)
where
Air heater draft loss is comprised of friction (∆Pf )

a = 302,500 lb/h
m Table 3 plus entrance and exit losses (∆Pe+e ). Modifying and
Aa = 62 ft2 combining Chapter 3, Equations 47 and 52 for aver-
age gas temperatures, draft loss can be expressed as
Air Reynolds number: follows:
Re = K Re Ga = 17, 000 (89)
 fL   30 
where ∆P = ∆Pf + ∆Pe + e = 12 + 1.5   
KRe = 3.5 Fig. 4  Di  B 
2
Ga = 4866 lb/h ft2  T + 460   Gg  (94)
×  5  3 
= 2.35 in. wg
The crossflow convection heat transfer coefficient for  1.73 × 10   10 
air is obtained from Chapter 4, Equation 61.
where
hca = hc′ Fpp Fa Fd = 11.50 Btu/h ft2 F (90)
f = 0.024 Ch. 3, Fig. 1
where L = 19.5 ft Table 1
Di = 2.07 in.
hc′ = 109.4 Btu/h ft2 F Ch. 4, Fig. 18 T1 = 635F
Fpp = 0.104 Ch. 4, Fig. 20 T2 = 390F
Fa = 1.01 Ch. 4, Fig. 21 T = (T1 + 2T2)/3 = 472F (Note 3 below)
Fd = 1.0 Ch. 4, Fig. 23 Gg = 10,185 lb/h ft2
Assuming negligible wall resistance, the overall heat B = 30 in. Hg
transfer coefficient is:

FFR ( hcg + hrg ) hca

U = = 5.07 Btu/h ft2 F (91)
FFR ( hcg + hrg ) + hca Note 3: An approximation used for mean gas temperature.

Steam 41 / Performance Calculations 22-17

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Air resistance (air crossflow over tubes) where

The draft loss due to air flow across the air heater tubes m
a = 302,500 lb/h Table 3
is calculated from Chapter 3, Equations 52 and 56. Aa = 10 × 12 = 120 ft2 Fig. 1
2 Reynolds number:
 30   T + 460   Ga 
∆P = ( f N Fd )    5   3  Ga De
 B   1.73 × 10   10  (95) Re = = 4.4 × 105 (97)
µ
= 1.52 in. wg
where
where Ga = 2520 lb/h ft2
f = 0.55 Ch. 3, Fig. 15 De = hydraulic diameter
N = 29 Table 1 = 4 × area/perimeter
Fd = 1.0 Ch. 3, Fig. 14 = 4 × 120/44 = 10.9 ft
B = 30 in. Hg µ = 0.062 lb/h ft Ch. 3, Fig. 4
T1′ = 80F The air resistance from windbox inlet to air heater
T2′ = 366F outlet is:
T = 1/0.95 (T1 + T2)/2 = 235F (Note 4 below) 2
Ga = 4866 lb/h ft2  fL   30   T + 460   Ga 
∆P =  +N    5   3 
D
 e   B   1.73 × 10   10  (98)
Boiler thermal performance summary
= 0.0
04 in. wg
Fig. 11 summarizes thermal performance. This fig-
ure illustrates the relative component absorption and where
temperature profiles. The furnace and boiler bank f = 0.0134 Ch. 3, Fig. 1
absorb the most heat. The furnace, screen and boiler
L = 25 ft
bank are utilizing the heat available to generate satu- De = 10.9 ft
rated steam. The superheater raises the steam tem- B = 30 in. Hg
perature to the desired outlet condition. The econo-
T = 366F
mizer is controlling gas temperature. The air heater Ga = 2520 lb/h ft2
is providing hot air for combustion and together with
the economizer, is minimizing the flue gas tempera-
ture to the stack, reducing the sensible heat loss and 4500
increasing overall boiler efficiency. Absorption

4000
Flues, ducts and stack Furnace
Performance calculations are not yet complete. Com-
ponent draft loss and air resistance calculations have 3500
been made, but air and gas side performance still re- Air Screen
quires the evaluation of flues, ducts and stack effects. Heater
Once these are established, the designer can evalu- 3000
Economizer
Superheater
(SH)
ate forced draft and induced draft fan conditions. Boiler
Temperature, F

Bank
Temperature
Air side loss – forced draft fan outlet 2500 Profiles
to furnace
Air resistance calculations for forced draft fan out- 2000
let to windbox inlet are considered first. Static pres-
sure at the windbox for this example is set at 5 in. wg. Flue Gas
Windbox pressure is normally a function of the burner 1500
or fuel equipment design and is specified to assure
proper operation. Starting at the windbox and work-
ing toward the forced draft fan: 1000

Air mass flux: Superheated

Steam

a / Aa = 2520 lb/h ft2

Ga = m (96) 500
Saturated Steam Saturated Water
and Water Steam and Air
Water
0
Furnace Screen SH Boiler Econ Air
Bank Heater
Note 4: Under most conditions, this equation is a good Heat Transfer Surface
approximation for effective air temperature. Fig. 11 Example boiler thermal performance summary.

22-18 Steam 41 / Performance Calculations

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

N = Nbend + Nexpansion = 1.41 mined to be 0.04, 0.06 and 1.03 in. wg, respectively.
Nbend = 1.32 Ch. 3, Fig. 10 The net static pressure at the boiler bank outlet is:
Nexpansion = 0.09 Ch. 3, Fig. 7
The frictional component of this equation (fL/De) is neg- Pboiler outlet bank = Pfurnace − ∆Pscreen − ∆Psuperheater
ligible. The draft loss from the air heater inlet to the forced − ∆Pboiler bank = −1.23 in. wg (102)
draft fan transition outlet, neglecting friction, is:
where
2
 30   T + 460   Ga  Pfurnace = −0.10 in. wg
∆P = N    5   3 
= 0.03 in. wg (99)
 B   1.73 × 10   10  ∆Pscreen = 0.04 in. wg
∆Psuperheater = 0.06 in. wg
where ∆Pboiler bank = 1.03 in. wg
N = Ncontraction + Nbend = 1.54 The calculations for the boiler bank outlet flue to
Ncontraction = 0.22 Ch. 3, Fig. 6 the economizer inlet are handled the same as those
Nbend = 1.32 Ch. 3, Fig. 10 for the air resistance calculations.
B = 30 in. Hg
T = T1′ for the air heater = 80F Table 2 Gas mass flux:
Ga = 2520 lb/h ft2

g / Ag = 2700 lb/h ft2
Gg = m (103)
The net static pressure at the forced draft (FD) fan
outlet transition is then: where
Ptotal = Pwindbox + ∆Pwindbox to air heater + ∆Pair heater to FD fan m
g = 324,100 lb/h
(100) Ag = 120 ft2 Fig. 2
+ ∆Pair heater = 6.59 in. wg
Reynolds number:
where
Gg De
Pwindbox = 5.0 in. wg (set by burners) Re = = 368, 000 (104)
∆Pwindbox to air heater = 0.04 in. wg µ
∆Pair heater to FD fan = 0.03 in. wg
∆Pair heater = 1.52 in. wg where
Gg = 2700 lb/h ft2
Gas side loss – furnace to stack
De = hydraulic diameter
The draft loss calculations begin at the furnace exit = 4 × area/perimeter
and work their way back to the induced draft fan. = 4 × 120/44 = 10.9 ft
However, the net ID fan conditions must also include µ = 0.08 lb/h ft Ch. 3, Fig. 4
the draft loss for the downstream flues and the stack
effect. The static pressure at the furnace exit in bal- Draft loss:
anced draft boilers is controlled to be slightly nega- 2
tive; a value of − 0.1 in. wg is used in this example.  fL   30   T + 460   Gg 
Although it doesn’t affect the ID fan size evalua- ∆P =  +N    5   3 
tion, there may be a need to determine the furnace  De   B   1.73 × 10   10  (105)
pressure at the burner level. The calculation that fol- = 0.0
07 in. wg
lows is provided for information and illustrates stack
effect. Stack effect for the furnace is determined from where
methods developed in Chapter 25 as follows: f = 0.014 Ch. 3, Fig. 1
∆PSE = SE × Z = − 0.58 in. wg (101) L = 15 ft
De = 10.9 ft
where N = 1.35 Ch. 3, Fig. 10
Z = centerline of furnace exit to T = 1/2 (818 + 815) = 817F
centerline of windbox = −50 ft Fig. 2 Gg = 2700 lb/h ft2
SE = stack effect B = 30 in. Hg
= 0.0116 in. wg/ft Ch. 25, Eq. 3 From the economizer component calculations, draft
and Ch. 25, Table 3 loss was calculated to be 1.57 in. wg. Stack effect from
T1 = adiabatic temperature the boiler bank outlet to economizer outlet is:
= 3560F Table 3
T2 = furnace exit gas temperature = 2000F ∆PSE = SE × Z = 0.11 in. wg (106)
By controlling the furnace outlet to −0.1 in. wg, the
where
net static pressure in the furnace at the burner eleva-
tion is approximately −0.68 in. wg. SE = 0.0071 in. wg/ft Ch. 25, Eq. 3
From screen, superheater, and boiler bank compo- and Ch. 25, Table 3
nent calculations, gas side draft losses were deter- Z = 15 ft

Steam 41 / Performance Calculations 22-19

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

The net static pressure at the economizer outlet is then A straight flue runs from the induced draft fan out-
calculated: let to the stack breaching. Friction again is negligible;
however, an expansion loss at the stack breaching is
Peconomizer outlet = Pboiler bank outlet − ∆Pboiler bank to economizer included:
(107)
− ∆Peconomizer − ∆PSE = − 2.98 in. wg 2
 30   T + 460   Gg 
where ∆P = N    5   3 
= 0.22 in.wg (112)
 B   1.73 × 10   10 
Pboiler bank outlet = −1.23 in. wg
∆Pboiler bank to economizer = 0.07 in. wg where
∆Peconomizer = 1.57 in. wg N = 1.0 Ch. 3, Fig. 7
∆PSE = 0.11 in. wg B = 30 in. Hg
The flue gas resistance from the economizer outlet to T = 390F
the air heater is due to friction only. However (fL/De) Gg = 6750 lb/h ft2
for this flue run is small, hence the resistance is neg- For the stack, two components must be determined:
ligible. Air heater gas side draft loss was previously stack draft and stack resistance. For standard air with
calculated to be 2.35 in. wg. Referring to Fig. 2, the 0.013 lb wg/lb dry air (υ = 13.70 ft3/lb at 80F and 30
flue cross-section from the air heater outlet to the in- in. Hg) and a typical flue gas (υg = 13.23 ft3/lb at 80F
duced fan inlet decreases from 120 ft2 to 48 ft2. Again, and 30 in. Hg), Chapter 25, Equation 3 and the ideal
as discussed above, frictional losses are negligible. gas law (Chapter 3, Equation 16a) can be combined
The mass flux is: to calculate the stack draft, ∆PSD:

g / Ag = 6750 lb/h ft2

Gg = m (108) ∆PSD = 7.84 Z ( 0.00179 − 1 / T )( B / 30 )
(113)
where = 0.45 in. wg

m
g = 324,100 lb/h Table 3 where

Ag = 6 ft × 8 ft = 48 ft2 Fig. 2 Di = stack diameter = 8 ft Fig. 2
Draft loss: Z = stack height = 100 ft Fig. 2
T1 = stack inlet gas temperature
2 = 390F
 30   T + 460   Gg  T2 = stack exit gas temperature
∆P = N    5   3 
= 0.07 in. wg (109)
 B   1.73 × 10   10  = 340F Ch. 25, Fig. 11
T = (390 + 340)/2 = 365F = 825R
where B = 30 in. Hg
N = 0.30 Ch. 3, Fig. 6 The stack resistance is calculated from Chapter 25,
B = 30 in. Hg Equation 7.
T = T2 for the air heater = 390F Gas mass flux:
Gg = 6750 lb/h ft2
The stack effect from the economizer outlet to the
g / Ag = 6449 lb/h ft2
Gg = m (114)
induced draft (ID) fan inlet is determined to be:
where
∆PSE = SE × Z = 0.30 in. wg (110) m
g = 324,100 lb/h
Ag = π Di2/4 = 50.3 ft2 Table 3
where
Reynolds number:
SE = 0.0059 in. wg/ft Ch. 25, Eq. 3
Z = 50 ft Fig. 2 Gg Di
Re = = 8.9 × 105 (115)
The net static pressure at the induced draft fan inlet µ
is calculated:
where
PID fan inlet = Peconomizer outlet − ∆Peconomizer to air heater − ∆Pair heater Gg = 6449 lb/h ft2
− ∆Pair heater to ID fan inlet − ∆PSE = − 5.69 in. wg (111) Di = 8 ft
µ = 0.06 lb/h ft Ch. 3, Fig. 4
where Stack resistance:
Peconomizer outlet = −2.98 in. wg 2
∆Peconomizer to air heater = 0.0 in. wg 2.76 T  m
g   fL 
∆PSR = 4   + Ne 
∆Pair heater = 2.35 in. wg B Di  105   D  (116)
∆Pair heater to ID fan inlet = 0.07 in. wg
∆PSE = 0.30 in. wg = 0.22 in. wg

22-20 Steam 41 / Performance Calculations

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

where
Table 4
B = 30 in. wg Fan Operating Conditions
T = (390 + 340)/2 = 365F = 825R
Di = 8 ft Fans
m
g = 324,100 lb/h Table 3 Net design conditions Units Forced draft Induced draft
f = 0.012 Ch. 3, Fig. 1
L = 100 ft Fig. 2 Flow lb/h 302,500 324,100
Ne = stack exit loss = 1.0 Static pressure rise in. wg 6.59 5.70
Inlet temperature F 80 390
The net static pressure at the induced draft fan out-
let is calculated:
PID fan outlet = ∆PSD − ∆PID fan outlet tobreaching − ∆PSR Summary
(117) This chapter is intended to be an introduction. The
= 0.01 in. wg
approach is to give the reader a realistic yet basic over-
where view of boiler performance calculations. Although
∆PSD = 0.45 in. wg there are many variables in these calculations, the
∆PID fan outlet to breaching = 0.22 in. wg designer must pay particular attention to fuel ash
characteristics. Ash laden fuels will degrade heat
∆PSR = 0.22 in. wg
transfer, increase draft loss and promote erosion. The
The net operating conditions for the fans are sum- principles presented in this chapter are sound but the
marized in Table 4. impact of ash can dramatically change a given result.
Fan purchasing specifications add test block factors Whether analyzing existing equipment or sizing new,
to each net condition to accommodate deviations from be sure to understand the slagging and fouling char-
design. See Chapter 25 for further discussion. acteristics of the specified fuel. (See Chapter 21.)

Steam 41 / Performance Calculations 22-21

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Midwest power station burning bituminous coal.

22-22 Steam 41 / Performance Calculations