CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
copper
Copper are one of the major groups of commercial metals. They
offer a wide range of properties, including excellent electrical and
thermal conductivity, outstanding corrosion resistance, good strength
and fatigue resistance, and appearance. They can be readily worked,
brazed and welded.

Copper is found as native metal and in minerals cuprite, malachite,

azurite, chalcopyrite and bornite. It is also often a by-product of silver
production. Sulphides, oxides and carbonates are the most important
ores.
Coppers are essentially commercially pure copper, which ordinarily is
very soft and ductile, containing up to about 0.7% total impurities.
These materials are used for their electrical and thermal conductivity,
corrosion resistance, appearance and colour, and ease of working. They
have the highest conductivity of the engineering metals and are very
ductile and easy to braze, and generally to weld. Typical applications
include electrical wiring and fittings, busbars, heat exchangers, roofs,
wall cladding, tubes for water, air and process equipment
Brasses are copper zinc alloys containing up to about 45% zinc, with
possibly small additions of lead for machinability, and tin for strength.
Copper zinc alloys are single phase up to about 37% zinc in the wrought
condition. The single phase alloys have excellent ductility, and are often
used in the cold worked condition for better strength. Alloys with more
than about 37% zinc are dual phase, and have even higher strength, but
limited ductility at room temperature compared to the single phase
alloys. The dual phase brasses are usually cast or hot worked. Typical
uses for brasses are architecture, drawn & spun containers and
components, radiator cores and tanks, electrical terminals, plugs and
lamp fittings, locks, door handles, name plates, plumbers hardware,
fasteners, cartridge cases, cylinder liners for pumps.
Copper(I) (cuprous) compounds are all diamagnetic and, with few
exceptions, colourless. Among the important industrial compounds of
copper(I) are cuprous oxide (Cu2O), cuprous chloride (Cu2Cl2), and
cuprous sulfide (Cu2S). Cuprous oxide is a red or reddish brown crystal
or powder that occurs in nature as the mineral cuprite. It is produced on
a large scale by reduction of mixed copper oxide ores with copper metal
or by electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium chloride using
copper electrodes. The pure compound is insoluble in water but soluble
in hydrochloric acid or ammonia. Cuprous oxide is used principally as a
red pigment for antifouling paints, glasses, porcelain glazes,
and ceramics and as a seed or crop fungicide.
Copper(II) compounds of commercial value include cupric
oxide (CuO), cupric chloride (CuCl2), and cupric sulfate (CuSO4).
Cupric oxide is a black powder that occurs as the minerals tenorite and
paramelaconite. Large amounts are produced by roasting mixed copper
oxide ores in a furnace at a temperature below 1,030 °C (1,900 °F). The
pure compound can be dissolved in acids and alkali cyanides. Cupric
oxide is employed as a pigment (blue to green) for glasses, porcelain
glazes, and artificial gems. It is also used as a desulfurizing agent for
petroleum gases and as an oxidation catalyst.
stainless steels
Stainless steels are iron based alloys containing a minimum of 12
wt % chromium and up to 25 wt % nickel with minor additions of
carbon,
nitrogen, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, niobium, copper and
selenium.
Stainless steels are a class of versatile material, which can be tailored to
exhibit a wide range of engineering properties by alloy design and
controlled
mechanical treatments to meet the demanding conditions. This
versatility has
resulted in an enhanced demand for stainless steels in a broad variety of
applications ranging from small pins to the construction of automobiles,
petrochemical, space, aeronautics, ship building industries and nuclear
power
stations. Certain grades of stainless steel, because of their
biocompatibility,
are used for the manufacture of biomedical implants.
Generally, the stainless steel family consists of hundreds of grades
with varieties of compositions and a large spectrum of mechanical
properties.
The corrosion and oxidation resistance of the stainless steels have been
significantly improved through the adjustment of chemical compositions
and
their microstructural constituents. The amendment of these two issues in
stainless steel leads to evolution of new grades in the group of stainless
steels.
Example, duplex stainless steel grade becomes super duplex stainless
steel
(SDSS) and austenitic stainless steel is known to be super austenitic
stainless
steel (SASS). The choice of stainless steel for a particular application
will
obviously depend on its strength, and other special properties such as
i) oxidation resistance, ii) resistance to pitting corrosion, iii) creep
strength
4
and iv) fatigue and structural stability at elevated temperature. To meet
out
these outstanding properties to stainless steel in the specific applications,
the
refinement of chemical composition and microstructures is being a
primary
consideration in the production of stainless steels.
Original discoveries and developments in stainless steel technology
began in England and Germany about 1910. The commercial production
and
use of stainless steel in the united states started in the 1920s, with
Allegheny
Armco, Carpenter, Crucible, Firth-Steling, Jessop, Ludlum, Republic
Rustles
and U.S. steel were among the early producers.
New refining techniques were adopted in the early 1970s that
revolutionized stainless steel melting. Most important was the argon-
oxygendecarburization
(AOD) process. The AOD and related processes, with
different gas injections or partial pressure systems, permitted the ready
removal of carbon without substantial loss of chromium to the slag.
Furthermore low carbon contents were readily achieved in 18 wt % Cr
alloys
when using high-carbon ferrochromium in furnace charges in place of
the
much more expensive low carbon ferrochromium. Major alloying
elements
could be controlled more precisely: nitrogen became an easily controlled
intentional alloying element when it is melted in vacuum. Sulfur could
be
reduced to exceptionally low levels when desired. Oxygen could also be
reduced to low levels and when coupled with low sulfur, resulted in
marking
quality improvements in steel cleanliness.
Over the years, stainless steels particularly austenitic stainless steels
have become firmly established as a potential material for several
applications
like domestic utensils, fasteners, cutlery, flatware, and architectural
hardware,
equipment for use in chemical plants, dairy, food processing plants,
health,
sanitation applications, chemical and petrochemical industries, nuclear
industries, power plants and transportation industries. Some of these
5
applications involve exposure to elevated or cryogenic temperatures as
well as
highly corrosive environments (Davis 1996).

CHAPTER II

LITRATURE REVIEW
Pilhagen, Johan 2007
Volvo Aero Corporation has developed a laser welding
technique for sandwich nozzles which will have advantages in high
repeatability, only commercially available material used and flexibility
over other alternative space rocket nozzle manufacturing methods. This
master thesis is about the nitrogen strengthened high manganese
stainless steel 21-6-9 (a.k.a. Nitronic 40) and its suitability as the main
material for a sandwich nozzle and/or its parts (e.g. manifold and
stiffeners). A literature review over the alloys physical, mechanical and
process properties was performed and an experimental investigation of
weld properties regarding laser welded tensile test, x-ray diffraction
measurement on the retain delta-ferrite content and nitrogen diffusion
during TIG welding was also performed. The conclusions from this
master thesis are that the alloy 21-6-9 seems to fulfil most of the
properties for a sandwich nozzle, but the retained delta-ferrite in welds
and especially the ability of the metastable austenite to undergo strain
and stress- induced martensite transformation at low temperatures could
be described as potential “show stoppers” and must be further
investigated. Feasibility tests are proposed for an evaluation of the
possible delta- ferrite and martensite problems: • Cryogenic fracture
toughness measurements on 21-6-9 welds. • LCF measurements with
hydrogen environment or at cryogenic temperature for welded and
unwelded samples. • Examine if martensite transformation can occur in
sandwich nozzles made of 21-6-9. Other proposed and important tests: •
Evaluate the risk of solidification cracking under high degree of
restraint. • Evaluate a heat-treatment procedures for minimum grain
growth when stress-relieving and for possible delta-ferrite reduction.

Poulami Maji et al (2009) explained that metal matrix composites

reinforced with particulates or discontinuous fibers are potential
candidate fora variety of applications. The importance of these
composites could beattributed to their high stiffness, superior
room/elevated temperature strengths, and improved wear resistance.
Although the production of MMCs by the liquid metal processing route
has received greater attention, such composites suffer from drawbacks,
such as the non uniform distribution of particulates or fibers due to
agglomeration and dendritic segregation, and undesirable chemical
reactions at the interface. This drawback could be minimized by using
the P/M route, which lends itself well to mass production
of components.

According to Anish Upadhyaya (1995), dispersionstrengthened

copper has the ability to retain most of its properties at elevated
temperatures. Among various processes, the P/M preparation route is
ideal 54because of its efficient dispersion of fine particles. The growth
of P/M over the past four decades reflects the advancements in
materials, compaction,
sintering technologies and other related fields. However, there are many
other fields in which copper based P/M parts are being used such as
sliding wear, electrode applications, household appliances, industrial
motors, hydraulic applications etc., and they satisfy close dimensional
tolerance requirements for parts.
Kovalchenko et al (2012) explained that the P/M involves the
fabrication of a preform by the conventional processing technique and
gives the preform to its final shape with substantial densification with
minimum cost.
This chapter presents a comprehensive overview of the earlier
research work carried out in the area of copper P/M, mechanical
behavior of copper based composite and prediction methods using RSM
and ANNs. The literature is the platform for the successful completion of
the present investigation. It is mainly aimed to focus on the studies
involving perform preparation, mechanical and prediction behavior of a
cold compacted P/M preforms.

Mordike et al (1991) explained that among various reinforcements

We is well known for its very little solubility into Cu and its very high
meltingpoint. The P/M method is widely used for the manufacturing of
Cu–W materials. On adopting the P/M route, the mechanical properties
of Cu are improved as dispersing hard and stable particles of W can
strengthen the matrix. The various P/M processing routes include
pressing and sintering, extrusion, and rolling. Depending upon the
applications and compositions of electrical contact materials, they are
produced in various shapes.

Fevzi Bedir (2007) found that P/M is the most common production
technique for MMC’s. One of the advantages of P/M when compared to
casting is it’s having better control on the microstructure, where better
distribution of the reinforcement is possible. Hot pressing of powders is
a more effective consolidation method for producing particulate
composites than the other producing techniques because of improving
wettability which gives sound parts without pores.
 Mehdi Rahimian et al (2009) explained that a review in the
existing literature indicates that little attention has been made to uniaxial
pressing 57 although it is the most economical production technique.
Hence, solid state diffusion plays a major role in the formation and
growth of inter particle bonding, thus diffusion bonding has a major
effect on microstructure and mechanical properties.

Shorowordi et al (2003) concluded that diffusion itself is

dependent on sintering temperature and time. However, extrusion can be
employed where better mechanical properties are needed. Total porosity
and pore size are important factors that control the behavior of P/M
materials and the bonds may be formed by mutual dissolution or reaction
between particulates andmetal matrix. On adopting the P/M route the
mechanical properties of Cu are improved as dispersing hard and stable
particles of W which can further strengthen the matrix.

Kang (2004) explained that the traditional P/M manufacturing

process is to press the refractory tungsten, sinter the pressed compact at
a high temperature, and infiltrate with copper. All this is done under
closely controlled conditions. Despite many years of experience with
these materials, studies of their properties proceed within the system
concerned in connection with the improved technical possibilities to
control the material composition, dispersion and distribution of the
refractory component in the product volume.

Yoshiyasu et al (1996) and Hori et al (1997) also developed a

sintering and infiltration technique to manufacture functionally gradient
materials. The technique consisted of two steps viz. making sintered
tungsten with gradient pore distribution and infiltrating molten copper
into the pores. In this technique, capsule-free hot isostatic pressing
treatment was effectively
used for fully densifying the surface tungsten layer and for eliminating
only closed pores in the other layers. Capsule HIP treatment was found
effective to fully infiltrate molten copper into the open pores of the
sintered tungsten. This gradient material was found to have excellent
ability to reduce thermal stress and had good thermal conductivity from
the tungsten layer to the copper.

Jankovic et al (2008) explained that composite materials based on

copper and tungsten, exhibit a number of unique physical, mechanical,
chemical, technological and performance characteristics. Tungsten
reinforcement provides high heat-resistance, hardness, erosion,
electricerosion resistance, resistance against micro-welding, high
thermal, electrical conductivity and low contact resistance. Composite
materials of this type have been obtained by the methods of powder P/M
(Li et al 2003 andVenugopal et al 2007).

Zhou and Kwon (2005) have concluded that the wear resistance of
composite can also be affected by extrinsic factors such as applied load,
distance, test temperature, counter face material and counter face surface
condition (as in dry or lubricated). The other significant extrinsic factor,
ofteno verlooked in various studies, is the cleaning of the wear debris
from the wear track to avoid three body wear, while all the extrinsic
factors can have a significant individual or combined effect on the wear
resistance of thecomposite.
Tschiptschin et al (1996) studied that the nitrogen alloyed
austenitic stainless steels have been successfully used in application
involving pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion
cracking in hot chloride solutions. Bahrami et al (1995) reported that
high solutionising temperature will be required to obtained a super
saturated solid solution of nitrogen bearing steel. They also studied the
effect of nitrogen content on heat-treated microstructure in different
conditions using SEM and XRD. The stable precipitates of CrN, VN and
Cr2N occurred at tempering temperature of 400-500 C from metastable
martensitic alloys during tempering. Strength and hardness increased
linearly with increasing nitrogen content upto 0.45wt % nitrogen content
and superior properties were observed on tempering. Other Investigators
observed the secondary hardening effect and very fine precipitates on
nitrogen alloyed martensitic stainless steels during tempering
(Berns and Krafft 1990).
 Mohamed Nazirudeen et al (2003) studied that the solubility of
nitrogen content in martensitic stainless steel can be varied depending on
thepercentage of Cr, Mo and V content in conventional melting route.
They also 8 derived thermodynamic equation to find out the solubility of
nitrogen for stainless steel by substituting alloy elements. They also
reported the effect of Thermo Mechanical Treatment (TMT) on nitrogen
alloyed martensitic stainless steels with different reduction in thickness
and subsequently hardness and tempered. The results of TMT clearly
revealed higher mechanical and corrosion properties than in the as-cast
conditions. However limited literatures are available on high nitrogen
steels.
Kobayashi et al (1971) reported that NO gas was generated in the
arc, and analyzed NO gas in arc atmosphere.
Blake (1979) and Den Ouden (1977) also reported that generation
of NO gas, and then iron oxides formation, [FeO]

Stainless Steel - Grade 316 (UNS S31600)

Chemical Formula
Fe, <0.03% C, 16-18.5% Cr, 10-14% Ni, 2-3% Mo, <2% Mn, <1% Si,
<0.045% P, <0.03% S

Grade 316 is the standard molybdenum-bearing grade, second in

importance to 304 amongst the austenitic stainless steels. The
molybdenum gives 316 better overall corrosion resistant properties than
Grade 304, particularly higher resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion
in chloride environments. It has excellent forming and welding
characteristics. It is readily brake or roll formed into a variety of parts
for applications in the industrial, architectural, and transportation fields.
Grade 316 also has outstanding welding characteristics. Post-weld
annealing is not required when welding thin sections.
Grade 316L, the low carbon version of 316 and is immune from
sensitisation (grain boundary carbide precipitation). Thus it is
extensively used in heavy gauge welded components (over about 6mm).
Grade 316H, with its higher carbon content has application at elevated
temperatures, as does stabilised grade 316Ti.

The austenitic structure also gives these grades excellent toughness,

even down to cryogenic temperatures.

Properties of stainless steels

These properties are specified for flat rolled product (plate, sheet and
coil) in ASTM A240/A240M. Similar but not necessarily identical
properties are specified for other products such as pipe and bar in their
respective specifications.
Corrosion Resistance
Excellent in a range of atmospheric environments and many corrosive
media - generally more resistant than 304. Subject to pitting and crevice
corrosion in warm chloride environments, and to stress corrosion
cracking above about 60 °C. Considered resistant to potable water with
up to about 1000 mg/L chlorides at ambient temperatures, reducing to
about 500 mg/L at 60 °C.

316 is usually regarded as the standard “marine grade stainless steel”,

but it is not resistant to warm sea water. In many marine environments
316 does exhibit surface corrosion, usually visible as brown staining.
This is particularly associated with crevices and rough surface finish.

Heat Resistance
Good oxidation resistance in intermittent service to 870 °C and in
continuous service to 925 °C. Continuous use of 316 in the 425-860 °C
range is not recommended if subsequent aqueous corrosion resistance is
important. Grade 316L is more resistant to carbide precipitation and can
be used in the above temperature range. Grade 316H has higher strength
at elevated temperatures and is sometimes used for structural and
pressure-containing applications at temperatures above about 500 °C.

TYPES OF STAINLESS STEELS

Stainless steels can be divided into five families. Four are based on
the characteristics crystallographic structure and microstructure of the
alloys
in the family: Ferritic stainless, Martensitic, Duplex, and Austenitic. The
fifth
family, the precipitation-hardenable alloys, is based on the heat
treatment
used than the microstructure (Baldev Raj et al 2010).

Martensitic stainless steels

Martensitic stainless steels (MSS) are essentially alloys of

chromium (12-16 wt %) and carbon (0.06-0.15 wt %) that possess
martensitic
structure of body centered tetragonal (BCT) crystal in the hardened
condition.
They are ferromagnetic, hardenable by heat treatment and they are
generally
less resistance to corrosion than some other grades of stainless steels.
Elements such as niobium, silicon, tungsten, and vanadium can be added
for
MSS to modify the tempering response after hardening. Small amounts
of
nickel may also be added to improve the toughness. Sulfur or selenium
is
added to some grades to improve the machinability. Based on the ASTM
standard, the grades of martensitic stainless steels are referred as A410,
A420,
etc. Martensitic stainless steels are specified when the application
requires
good tensile strength, creep and fatigue strength in combination with
moderate corrosion resistance and heat resistance up to approximately
650oC.
Martensitic stainless steels are also used in petrochemical equipment,
stream
turbine, gas turbine, etc,

Ferritic stainless steels

Ferritic stainless steels (FSS) normally contain high chromium

content (11 to 30 wt %), with carbon content in the range of 0.04 to
0.12 wt %. Apart from the basic elements, other alloying elements are
added
to ferritic stainless steels to improve the corrosion resistance or other
special
properties. Ferrite stainless steels, because of their low carbon content
and
high chromium content, do not undergo the austenite to ferrite
transformation,
and therefore they are not considered for hardening treatment.

Precipitation-hardening stainless steels

Precipitation hardening stainless steels usually containing chromium

10 to 30 wt %, nickel 4 - 7 wt % along with small amounts of
molybdenum
(1-3wt %). Precipitates in these alloys are formed by additions of small
amount of Cu, Al, Ti and Nb additions. These alloys generally have high
mechanical strength without significant loss of corrosion resistance due
to the
presence of precipitates. These steel are used in various application,
where
high strength along with corrosion resistance are needed. Precipitation
hardening stainless steels can be grouped into three types namely
martensitic,
semi-austenitic and austenitic based on their martensite start and finish
temperatures and resultant behavior upon cooling from a suitable
solutiontreatment
temperature.

Duplex stainless steels

Duplex stainless steels are a mixture of ferrite and austenite crystal

structures. The percentage of each phase is a dependent on the chemical
composition and the heat treatment. Most duplex stainless steels are
intended
to contain around equal amounts of ferrite and austenite phases in the
annealed conditions. The primary alloying elements are Cr, Ni, Mo and
N.
Duplex stainless steel has similar corrosion resistance to austenitic
stainless
steels except that they typically have better stress corrosion cracking
7
resistance. Duplex stainless steels generally have greater tensile and
yield
strengths, but poorer toughness than austenitic stainless steels (Martins
et al
2009). The higher amount of ferrite content in the duplex stainless steels
enhances the resistance to stress corrosion cracking (Fargas et al 2009).

Austenitic stainless steels

 Austenitic stainless steels are essentially ternary Fe-Cr-Ni alloys
containing a minimum of 16 wt % Cr and 7 to 20 wt % Ni. They also
contain
small amounts of Mo (2-4 wt %) and N (0.1-0.2 wt %). These alloys are
called austenitic stainless s since their structure remain austenitic
(FCC, -iron type) at all normal heat treated condition. The most widely
used
austenitic stainless steels are the 300 series wrought material (304, 316,
317
etc.) and their cast counterparts (CF8, CF8M, CG8M etc.). They are
widely
used in the various applications like nuclear, power plant, petro-chemical
industries and paper-pulp industries. Because of their versatile properties
such
as i) outstanding strength and toughness, ii) superior corrosion
resistance,
iii) ease of fabrications and iv) good weldability, they are mainly
considered
for many engineering applications (Marshal, 1984). However, there are
applications where they do not have sufficient corrosion resistance in the
environments containing hot concentrated chlorides and strength at the
elevated temperatures, that is, above 400oC. To overcome these
problems,
alloys with high nickel and high molybdenum contents have been
developed
for such a high critical applications. Alloy 20 containing high Ni content
is
commonly used for these applications (Davison et al 1983).

Super Austenitic Stainless Steels (SASS)

The definition of super-austenitic stainless steel (SASS) is not so

precise. Over the past one decade, this has been used primarily in
referring to
the new austenitic steel containing 6 % Mo and minimum PREN value
of 45
(Padilha 2002). They have more Cr, Mo and N and less Ni than the Ni-
based
alloys / superalloys. This new alloys offer significant resistance to
corrosion
than that of the conventional AISI 300 series austenitic stainless steels,
as
reported by Phillips et al (1999). Further, they reported that the cost of
the
super-austenitic stainless steels is generally intermediate between the
300 series austenitic grades and the nickel based alloys, while corrosion
resistance, in some cases, challenging that of the nickel based alloys
(Alloy 20
or Alloy 825 grade). The current interpretation of SASS is an austenitic
steel
composition that containing high amounts of chromium, nickel,
molybdenum
and nitrogen resulting in iron content close to or less than 55 wt (Mats
Liljas
1995). Several grades of 6 wt% Mo and 0.2 wt% N SASS, including 254
SMO and AL6XN were developed. These grades provide fully resistant
to
corrosion in stagnant seawater.

COMPOSITION OF SASS

Super austenitic stainless steels are a group of austenitic stainless

steels that contain high amounts of Cr, Mo, Ni and N. In addition, the
minor
alloying elements like Cu, Mn and Nb are considered in the design of
superaustenitic stainless steels. Based on the earlier literatures (Kim et al
2008), the composition of various grades of SASS steels are presented in
Table 2. 2. The purpose of alloying additions to SASS is to improve the
i)
Strength, ii) corrosion resistance and iii) formability. Of these three
properties, resistance of the alloys to corrosion can be controlled directly
by
alloying elements. The effect of alloying elements on pitting corrosion
can be
assessed by PREN value (Rearns 1985). It can be defined as
PREN = % Cr + 3.3 (% Mo) +30 (% N) (2.1)
The PREN is the measurable value of pitting resistance for stainless
steel and nickel based alloys. In general, higher the PREN value, higher
the
resistance to pitting corrosion. Kim et al (2008) stated that the PREN
value
for SASS is reported to be greater than 45 and less than 60. From the
Equation (2.1), nitrogen contributes the highest pitting resistance, which
is
measured by coefficient of 30 times higher than that of Cr and 10 times
higher
than that of Mo content.
Copper

Copper and its alloys possess a very wide range of properties that make
them invaluable for many applications. Each of the thousands of uses
employs a combination of these properties to help ensure material that is
ideally suited for the purpose. Good conductivity of electricity and heat
is combined with strength, ductility and excellent corrosion resistance, to
mention just a few of the properties that copper and its alloys offer.

illustrates the main reasons for using copper. The figure is based on
results of a survey of the primary properties required when copper is
being selected for the manufacture of products.

Remember, though, that besides the principal property, it is always a

combination of properties that are important for selection of the most
suitable, cost-effective, material in every application.
Copper has made possible the continued, efficient development of the
electrical industry because it has the highest conductivity of the
commercial metals. In addition, it has favorable mechanical properties at
low, ambient and elevated temperatures, is easily fabricated or cast to
shape and can be readily machined. Copper also has excellent resistance
to oxidation and corrosion. The thin oxide layer that does form is
conductive; meaning that properly made connections will have a long
service life and will not deteriorate over time. From high voltage
transmission cables to microcircuits, and from megawatt generators to
computers, in every aspect of electrical generation, transmission and use,
copper is the essential, energy-efficient metal.
Modern electronic and computer technology has created requirements to
meet extremes of service conditions that demand very special materials.
For example, tensile strengths greater than 200 ksi (1400 MPa) can be
achieved in heat-treatable alloys such as beryllium coppers; therefore
such materials are often selected for heavy-duty industrial and military
electrical connectors
Copper's high electrical conductivity is matched by excellent thermal
conductivity, which makes copper the first choice for heat exchanger
applications. Good examples are the recently developed brazed copper-
brass automobile radiators that are fully competitive with aluminum
counterparts in terms of thermal efficiency and light weight, and are
significantly more durable.
Copper and its alloys represent 6 - 9% by weight (or approximately 50 -
55 lb, 23-25 kg) of the content of a typical automobile. Copper itself is
essential for the full wiring harness, alternator and starter motor
windings and other motors and actuators. Copper alloys are used for
conductive spring clips, terminals and connectors. Copper alloys are also
used for bearings, gears and valve guides, radiators, hydraulic tubing,
and fasteners. Small, machined components can be made cheaper in
brass than in steel, and, for automotive applications, generally do not
need expensive protection against corrosion. Copper is also an essential
component of aluminum alloys used for engine blocks, cylinder heads
and other automotive castings. And, copper is beginning to play an
important role in electric and hybrid vehicles, in starter
motor/generators, drive motors, circuitry and as the cathode in recently
commercialized nickel-metal hydride batteries. In all, the copper content
of future vehicles may be three times that used today.

Product
Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29.
Copper is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical
conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed
surface has a reddish-orange color. Copper metal is used as a conductor
of heat and electricity, a building material, and a constituent of various
metal alloys.

The major applications of copper are in electrical wires (60%), roofing

and plumbing (20%) and industrial machinery (15%). Copper is mostly
used as a pure metal, but when a higher hardness is required it is
combined with other elements to make an alloy (5% of total use) such as
brass and bronze.
We presently offer Copper Metal in powder form to welding electrode
manufacturers and Powder Part Manufacturers.

Chemical Specification of Copper Metal as specified by London Metal

Exchange.

Element MAC-Cu-99
Cu Base
Maximum Allowable Total of Impurities 0.0065 %

Chemical description

 Atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus): 29

 Atomic symbol (on the periodic table of elements): Cu
 Atomic weight (average mass of the atom): 63.55
 Density: 8.92 grams per cubic centimeter
 Phase at room temperature: solid
 Melting point: 1,984.32 degrees Fahrenheit (1,084.62 degrees
Celsius)
 Boiling point: 5,301 degrees F (2,927 degrees C)
 Number of isotopes (atoms of the same element with a different
number of neutrons): 35; 2 stable
 Most common isotopes: Cu-63 (69.15 percent natural abundance)
and Cu-65 (30.85 percent natural abundance)
Methods
The concentration of copper in ores averages only 0.6%, and most
commercial ores are sulfides, especially chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), bornite
(Cu5FeS4) and, to a lesser extent, covellite (CuS) and chalcocite
(Cu2S). These minerals are concentrated from crushed ores to the level
of 10–15% copper by froth flotation or bioleaching. Heating this
material with silica in flash smelting removes much of the iron as slag.
The process exploits the greater ease of converting iron sulfides into
oxides, which in turn react with the silica to form the silicate slag that
floats on top of the heated mass. The resulting copper matte, consisting
of Cu2S, is roasted to convert all sulfides into oxides
2 Cu2S + 3 O2 → 2 Cu2O + 2 SO2
The cuprous oxide is converted to blister copper upon heating:
2 Cu2O → 4 Cu + O2
The Sudbury matte process converted only half the sulfide to
oxide and then used this oxide to remove the rest of the sulfur as
oxide. It was then electrolytically refined and the anode mud
exploited for the platinum and gold it contained. This step exploits
the relatively easy reduction of copper oxides to copper
metal. Natural gas is blown across the blister to remove most of
the remaining oxygen and electrorefining is performed on the
resulting material to produce pure copper
Cu2+ + 2 e− → Cu

Alloys
Numerous copper alloys have been formulated, many with important
uses. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze usually refers to
copper-tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium
bronze. Copper is one of the most important constituents of silver
and carat gold and carat solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying
the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys Some lead-
free solders consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and
other metals.
The alloy of copper and nickel, called cupronickel, is used in low-
denomination coins, often for the outer cladding. The US five-cent coin
(currently called a nickel) consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel in
homogeneous composition. The alloy of 90% copper and 10% nickel,
remarkable for its resistance to corrosion, is used for various objects
exposed to seawater, though it is vulnerable to the sulfides sometimes
found in polluted harbors and estuaries. Alloys of copper with
aluminium (about 7%) have a golden color and are used in
decorations. Shakudō is a Japanese decorative alloy of copper containing
a low percentage of gold, typically 4–10%, that can be patinated to a
dark blue or black color.
Binary compounds
As with other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binary
compounds, i.e. those containing only two elements, the principal
examples being oxides, sulfides, and halides. Both cuprous and cupric
oxides are known. Among the numerous copper sulfides, important
examples include copper(I) sulfide and copper(II) sulfide.
Cuprous halides (with chlorine, bromine, and iodine) are known, as are
cupric halides with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine. Attempts to prepare
copper(II) iodide yield only cuprous iodide and iodine.
2 Cu2+ + 4 I− → 2 CuI + I2

A sample of copper(I) oxide.

See also: Category:Copper compounds
Copper forms a rich variety of compounds, usually with oxidation
states +1 and +2, which are often called cuprous and cupric,
respectively.[42]
Binary compounds
As with other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binary
compounds, i.e. those containing only two elements, the principal
examples being oxides, sulfides, and halides. Both cuprous and cupric
oxides are known. Among the numerous copper sulfides, important
examples include copper(I) sulfide and copper(II) sulfide.
Cuprous halides (with chlorine, bromine, and iodine) are known, as are
cupric halides with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine. Attempts to prepare
copper(II) iodide yield only cuprous iodide and iodine
2 Cu2+ + 4 I− → 2 CuI + I2
Coordination chemistry
Copper forms coordination complexes with ligands. In aqueous
solution, copper(II) exists as [Cu(H2O)6]2+. This complex exhibits the
fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligands attaching and
detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex. Adding
aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of light blue
solid copper(II) hydroxide.
Organocopper chemistry
Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known as
organocopper compounds. They are very reactive towards oxygen to
form copper(I) oxide and have many uses in chemistry. They are
synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard
reagents, terminal alkynes or organolithium reagents in particular, the
last reaction described produces a Gilman reagent. These can
undergo substitution with alkyl halides to form coupling products; as
such, they are important in the field of organic synthesis. Copper(I)
acetylide is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions
such as the Cadiot-Chodkiewicz couplingand the Sonogashira coupling.
Conjugate additionto enones and carbocupration of alkynes can also be
achieved with organocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms a variety of
weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide, especially in the
presence of amine ligands.