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- An Introduction to PC Networking.
Published by
CTF Services Limited, 19 Regent St, Timaru 8601, New Zealand
Distributed by
www.ebooksctf.co.nz
PREFACE.
Welcome to the exciting world of PC Networking. This is a huge growth area
worldwide.
I hope you enjoy doing this course, and will want to learn more after you finish.
This course is arranged as follows:
Four Theory Chapters
USE the Bookmarks and Thumbnails to help you to navigate this pdf document.
My pledge to my students:
To help you with your “Learning Climb” which is like scaling the heights of
Mt Aoraki.
There are times when you will be stretched beyond your comfort zone,
and there will be other days when the upward journey seems difficult (just
like bad weather on the mountain).
Aoraki is not the easiest challenge.
There are many easier, but less rewarding climbs.
Remember the words of Winston Churchill –
"Never, ever give up."
The view from the peak is even more awe inspiring than the view from the lake.
One day, you will reach the top, if you follow the right path, and have the right
self belief.
Nick Thorne
Director of CTF Services
A. WHY NETWORK?
B. DEFINITIONS.
C. TYPES of NETWORK.
D. CABLING and TOPOLOGIES.
E. MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL.
It makes sense for a group of users to share an expensive item, such as a colour
Laser Printer. Even to share a colour laser between a group could mean that the
total printing cost is less than if each individual had a colour dot matrix -- and the
quality of the output would be a lot better.
Networking allows us to get good use out of our resources for all our users.
When you have just one computer, what you have loaded on that computer is all
you have access to. To transfer data from one computer to another, data must
be copied to a backup device, and then copied from the backup device to the
second computer. This can be cumbersome and time consuming.
It would not be necessary for users to transfer files via floppy disk, electronic
mail, hard copy or any other format. Each user could access the information they
needed. Less time would be wasted, and productivity would be improved.
GROUP ACTIVITY.
Discuss the listed "Reasons to Network".
Explain what they mean.
Can you think of any other reasons why you might network computer
resources?
Mainframe
centralised large computer
"dumb" workstations
Peer to Peer
workstations can make available their resources
no central server running a network operating system (NOS)
security is the responsibility of each workstation
each station runs compatible operating system
can still have centralised storage of data
Workstation OSs (operating systems) that support peer to peer networking
include Windows 3.11 and Windows 9x (95 and 98).
Fileserver
workstations communicate with a central server (a high end computer)
security is enforced by a network administrator from the server
resources in the workstation disk are not normally made available to the
network
server runs special networking software which may allow computers to be
connected across different platforms
NOS (Network Operating Systems) that reside on the server include Novell
NetWare, Windows NT Server (soon to become Windows 2000 Server), Unix (or
Linux) and AppleTalk.
Server does not need to be as powerful as a thin client server but needs more
power than file server.
In a client/server environment, only the data required is transferred to the client.
Additional software is run on the server to manage this (e.g. SQL Server). This
system is like a combination of the mainframe/dumb Concurrent access is
managed from the server. Processes like queries are performed on the server.
However the application program is still run on the client (unlike the mainframe
situation)
Note that the word server can refer to hardware, software or both terminal and
file server environments.
Mainframe
Mainframe Terminal
Application
Data
Presentation
Processing
File Server
Server Client
Application *
Data
Presentation
Processi ng
Client/Server
Server Client
Application
Data
Presentation
Processing
* Some applications run are loaded off the file server (e.g. MYOB) but the
processing still happens in the client.
Some texts add a definition in between the LAN and WAN - that of the MAN
(Metropolitian Area Network). This network goes beyond the 2km limit but is not
inter-city.
The main distinction between WANs and LANs is mainly the physical links
between Network resources. In general, LANs:
extend over a much shorter distance
carry a very high volume of traffic over this short distance
Equipment and circuitry is “locally” owned. Although a LAN can have
gateways to other Networks, processing is done independently of any other
Computer other than the workstation being used.
Coaxial cable in a bus system has two ends (terminated with resistors to stop the
signal from reflecting i.e. the signal is absorbed). When a signal is transmitted, it
travels in both directions (full duplex system) from the station until it reaches the
resistors. Every station receives the signal but only the station that the data is
addressed to copies the data.
A station listens to see if the bus is busy (called contention)- if some other station
is using the bus then it waits a predetermined length of time and listens again.
When the bus is not busy, the station transmits. If two stations transmit at the
same time, there is a collision - each station waits a random period of time before
trying again.
This access method is called CSMA/CD - Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection.
BUS
Several resources connected in a line, and hang off that main feeder (Bus)
A bad link can be bypassed
Mesh
Used often for WANs to give extra reliability - there are multiple routes between
computers in case of telecommunications failure - you can't afford the whole
network to go down if a cable across the Tasman Sea is cut.
Real networks are usually combinations of topologies - e.g. a network with some
coax (bus system) and some TP (star system). In this case the network will still
be CSMA/CD with the star portion acting as a logical bus.
Every workstation is interconnected
Complex and expensive
The signal is transmitted around the ring in one direction - each station receives
the signal from the station before it and repeats it to the next station. When a
station transmits, it gives the data the address of some other station in the ring -
it passes from station to station and is copied by the one it is addressed to. When
the signal returns to the originating station, it is removed from the ring. The
system can check to see if the data has been received by using a status bit.
A station can only transmit when it is in possession of the token (which it can
have only for a limited period of time).
Technically the token ring MAC is a logical ring - in reality token ring calls for a
central hub. Token ring is a lot more technically sophisticated than the Ethernet
bus but handles heavy traffic better. Everything is more expensive than Ethernet
- cable, NICs, etc.
Twisted Pair cable (UTP and STP) has the following characteristics:
The most economical wiring system
It may already be installed in the form of the telephone system
It is susceptible to some outside interference
Token Passing.
Used mainly with IBM Token Ring Networks. A token, consisting of an ALL
CLEAR message, is circulated continuously on the ring. A Work Station wishing
to send a message will use the circulating token. The token’s message code
changes to IN USE, and attaches the message, along with the address (to and
from) and an error checking code.
Only one message can be circulated at a time. Each node (network resource or
junction point, capable of communicating with the other network devices)
includes a Repeater, which regenerates the Token to maintain it’s signal
strength.
Each node will inspect the IN USE token, to see if the token contains the node’s
address. The intended node will copy the message, and return the message to
the originating node. The message is cleared, and the ALL CLEAR signal is
restored.
Polling.
Ideally suited to a Star Topology. The server continually polls each workstation in
turn, asking if it wishes to use the network. In a Star Network, the message is
then directed (via the server, if Star) to the address required.
If a Workstation is monopolizing the network, the messages will be broken up
into smaller pieces. Only so many pieces (bytes) will be accepted with each poll.
FDDI.
Fibre Distributed Data interface - a MAC that employs a pair of fibre optic rings
and tokens. Can support very high data transfer rates over long distances.
The IEEE 802 standards correspond to the Physical and Data-Link layers of the
widely accepted ISO Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model, but they divide
the Data-Link layer into 2 sublayers (Logical Link Control and Media Access
Control).
1. Topology means:
6. Describe the media access method for the logical ring topology.
8. Some networks can support IBM compatibles and Apple Mac PCs - true or
false? How can this happen?
A. A NETWORK MODEL.
B. NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS.
C. HARDWARE and PERIPHERALS.
D. The NETWORK INTERFACE CARD.
E. INTERCONNECTION.
F. CLASS EXERCISE.
STANDARDS describe how things should be. Typically, they outline the
minimum level of performance.
PROTOCOLS are sets of rules and agreements, that describe how various
elements interact.
These early Local Area Network (LAN) architectures tended to combine inflexible
hardware specifications with strict protocol descriptions. Specific types of cable,
cable connectors, topologies and software were required to satisfy each LAN
definition. Interoperability was not easy, and to be successful at installation, it
paid to stick to consistent equipment throughout the LAN.
Due to Industry and Market demand, standards today are a lot more flexible, and
do allow more mixing and matching. While the move to purely Open Protocols
(protocols that do not favour a single manufacturer) has lost some momentum
compared with the 1980s, the idea was good. Today (the 1990s), the emphasis
is more on the tried and proven protocols, but with the development of more tools
and programs to enable different computers eg IBM PC and Apple MacIntosh to
link effectively and interoperate.
Also, there has been considerable development with Software, as well as with
Hardware, and with the above mentioned development of interoperability with
standards and protocols. Workgroup productivity programs, and Workflow
software have come to be. This makes it easier to search for data, organise data
and link data (and even embed it). Sharing now means more than queuing up for
a file or a printer.
The NOS consists of a family of programs that control the operation of the
network. Some of these programs provide the ability to share files and hardware
devices.
Servers are computers that share their resources. This is software controlled.
Clients are programs that give a user the ability to use the shared resources
provided by the server.
It is quite common today to have client and server software running in the same
Computer. This enables you to use resources on another Computer, and for
other users to use resources on your Computer.
These are Hardware peripherals, such as printers and modems, which have
special internal processors that run networking server software. They don’t have
to be directly attached to a computer. Different computers eg IBM and Apple,
providing they have the appropriate client application program can use these
networked peripherals, and the effect is that it looks as though they are locally
attached (even though they aren’t).
The low-powered digital signals inside a computer are not powerful enough to
travel long distances, without fading.
The Network Interface Card:
Changes the signals that come from inside the computer into more powerful
signals that can be transmitted down a network cable ie Amplification.
Packages the data for transmission.
Controls access to the shared network cable (the cable is shared by the
linked workstations).
The software allows you to connect various machines with different operating
systems within a building or over a wide area. The technology involved in
networking is improving and expanding every day leading toward intelligent
houses and buildings. It is estimated that within the next twenty years, only one
fibre optic communication cable will enter your house. Your TV, computer and
telephone will all run off the same system.
Servers are computers that share their hard-disk drives, attached peripherals
such as printers and CD-ROM drives and communication circuits. A request for a
service is made to the server. The server will inspect the request for proper
authorisation, check for any conflicts and then, providing the checks are passed,
provide the requested service.
File Servers store files created by application programs, or may store the
application program itself. The file server must have a large enough hard-disk to
store enough to store the data. File servers also allow more than one workstation
simultaneous access to the same file. Access can be controlled ie who can
access what, and when. Excellent system for shared Databases eg an Airline
Booking System.
Workstations
Depending on your network, these may be of one or more platforms.
Hubs
Not needed with thinnet. Also known as concentrators. Provides good fault
tolerance because all workstations are attached separately to the hub. Able to
connect four, eight, sixteen or twenty four PCs.
Switches
Used to reduce congestion on the network. The network is broken up into
sections so that traffic that has no business on parts of the network are not sent
there.
Printers
Network or personal. Network printers are more robust, print faster and hence
cost more than personal printers. Printers can be connected in the following
manners:
On a workstation for local use only.
On a workstation shared with the network.
On a dedicated workstation set up as a print server (old XT or 286).
On a print server box.
On the file server.
Direct onto the network (if printer is capable).
Bridges filter and forward packets by using the physical address of the network
cards on the nodes - they operate at the OSI Data Link Layer.
Router
Device to connect physically separate networks of different types (e.g. a bus to a
token ring network). Has software and a processor to enable it to connect
different protocols and topologies; is able to find all other hardware on the
network and route according to use and traffic. Can be simply a computer with
several NICs and software to enable routing.
Routers are able to interconnect between different network types since they filter
traffic by logical address rather than physical address.
Brouter
A brouter is a device that can function both as a bridge and a router.
Not many around these days – switches or routers are more the norm.
Gateway
Used to connect a LAN to a WAN (e.g. a Novell network to the internet)
DISCUSSION:
The NIC must also buffer the data between the computer and the cable. The
computer is typically a lot faster than the network. The NIC must also change the
form of the data from a wide parallel stream (within the computer) to a narrow,
one bit at a time, serial data stream (outside the NIC).
The jobs that the NIC performs means that it needs special on board processors.
These processors can have their own RAM added, and can also include a
special transceiver to handle the electrical interface to the cable.
Some NICs have a socket for a special Boot ROM. This allows a PC to start
DOS from a file on a server, eliminating the need for an Internal Hard Disk Drive.
You must choose a NIC that matches your computer’s data bus and the network
cable. EISA or PCI adapters prove their worth in servers. Most workstations still
use the ISA adapters. If you use adapters that use EISA, IBM PS/2s MCA or PCI
buses, you can also choose products that use bus-mastering. Bus Mastering can
move data to and from RAM without interrupting the computer’s processor,
hence lightening the load.
On the Network Cable side, the LAN adapter performs 3 important functions:
Generates the electrical signals that travel over the network cable.
Follows the rules controlling access to the cable.
Makes the physical connection to the cable.
Adapters for Ethernet and Token-Ring use the same basic system of electrical
signalling over the cable. A technique called MANCHESTER ENCODING
provides a way to transmit 0s and 1s using DC (Direct Current) Voltage pulses
ranging from -15 Volts to +15 Volts. The LAN adapters translate each change in
voltage level as a character in the ASCII data alphabet.
Try to find some examples of Network Interface Card, and (if possible) LAN
Cabling (especially for the Practical Exercises)
NIC or network adaptor. Connector required for thinnet is BNC; for 10BaseT, RJ-
45. A combo card has both connectors installed. If you have a Pentium PC with a
PCI bus, then it is advantageous to use a 32 bit PCI NIC. Some of the functions
of the NIC include:
Converts data that is sent down the Computers Bus in parallel form into the
serial form required for the LAN cabling.
Provides buffering.
Amplifies signals.
Provides addresses for each work station.
Obeys the rules of the Network Operating System and the Media Access
Control method being used. Forms the data into frames.
Question?
Which cabling system would you use for a small network say at home?
Or multi-mode
Fibre optics has several advantages over traditional metal communication lines:
Fibre optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables including
coax). This means that they can carry more data (at speeds of about 1Gbps).
Fibre optic cables are less susceptible than metal cables to interference.
Fibre optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires.
Data can be transmitted digitally (the natural form for computer data) rather
than analogically.
Wireless
Can be radio waves or light - generally used for slower speeds (<10Mbps). Light
usually requires a close to line of sight situation to work. Radio LANs generally
use very high frequencies (approximately 18 GHz).
In your groups (in the time allowed), produce a design for the following situations:
Consider exactly what you need to have in each Network (Price is not a problem)
and how you would go about things.
Appoint a spokesperson (you will be required to do a Group Presentation to the
class).
Appoint a recorder.
Some Peer-to-Peer networks run file server networking software as well as Client
Networking Software, Application Programs and, of course, an underlying
Operating System consistent across the network. This type of peer-to-peer
networking software is part of MS Windows 95, MS Windows for Workgroups
Version 3.11 and the Apple Macintosh Operating Environment.
Not all of the Computer Resources are automatically available to every user on
the network. The person using a particular PC can decide what files, directories,
drives and peripheral devices (such as printers) can be shared with other
networked computers. It is also possible to combine Peer-to-Peer Networking
with a Server-based architecture.
In a LAN, software that routes workstation (client) requests for data to the server.
In an MS Windows network, the redirector program is added to the PC to
intercept requests for files and printers and direct them to the appropriate remote
device if applicable. Starting with Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0, the
redirector recognizes UNC names as well as drive letters that have been mapped
to remote servers. The counterpart in NetWare is known as the Requester.
Under the SNMP Architecture, small management programs (in all sorts of
networked devices) monitor network devices and gather data. These small
management programs are called AGENTS.
The data collected by the agents comes in a special format, known as MIB
(rhymes with rib). MIB = Management Information Base. A central program
(MANAGEMENT CONSOLE PROGRAM) polls the agents regularly, and the
contents of their MIBs are downloaded. These Management Console Programs
typically displayed detailed graphical information (e.g. green / orange / red bar
graphs to indicate performance compared to thresholds) to a display screen
(console). They can also send detailed statistical data to specialized analytical
database programs.
REMOTE ACCESS.
In remote control, only keystrokes and mouse movement are sent from the
remote machine, and only screen changes are sent back to the remote. All
application processing takes place in the local computer.
In contrast, a remote node setup is the normal way remote users log onto the
company network. All data flows to the remote machine as if it were a local PC.
With high-speed connections, remote node is the preferred method; however, if
an enormous amount of data on the network must be processed by a remote
user who has only a dial-up connection or perhaps a slow computer, the remote
control method can be used. Instead of passing all the data to the remote PC, the
user's unattended local PC performs the processing under the control of the
remote PC. The remote user will not have the actual data files, but will have the
results of the processing on the remote screen, which can be captured and
saved.
A. PROTOCOLS.
B. IEEE 802 STANDARDS.
C. LINKS BETWEEN LANs.
D. REPEATERS, BRIDGES and ROUTERS.
Communicating data from computer to computer takes many steps. Suppose you
are sending a file from one computer to another. The file must be broken into
pieces. The pieces have to be grouped in a certain fashion. Information must be
added to tell the receiver where each group belongs in relation to others. Timing
information and error correcting information must be added.
The existence of many protocols often causes confusion. Novell does it one way.
3Com does it another. DEC does it a third way. IBM does it another way. And
since the transmitter and the receiver have to 'speak' the same protocol, these
four can't talk directly to each other. That's where protocol standards and the OSI
model fit in.
A protocol standard is a set of rules for computer communication that has been
widely agreed upon and implemented by many vendors, users, and standards
bodies. Ideally, a protocol standard should allow computers to talk to each other,
even if they are from different vendors. Computers don't have to use an industry-
standard protocol to communicate, but if they use a proprietary protocol then they
can only communicate with equipment of their own kind.
There are many standard protocols, none of which could be called universal.
Protocol for formatting a letter (i.e. precede with address, date, then greeting.
Break into sentences - capitals and full stops).
The OSI model is a concept that describes how data communications should
take place. It divides the process into seven layers. Into these layers fit protocol
standards developed by the ISO and other standards bodies, including the
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), and the Comittee Consultatif Internationale de
Telgraphique et Telephone (CCITT) (now called ITU-T)
The OSI model is not a single definition of how data communications actually
takes place in the real world. Numerous protocols may exist at each layer. The
OSI model states how the process should be divided and what protocols should
be used at each layer. If a network vendor implements one of the protocols at
each layer, its network components should work with other vendors' offerings.
The OSI model is modular. Each successive layer of the OSI model works with
the one below it. At least in theory, you may substitute one protocol with another
at the same layer without affecting the operation of layers above and below. For
example, Token Ring or Ethernet hardware should operate with multiple upper-
layer services, including the transport protocols, network operating system, inter
network protocols, and applications interfaces. However, for this interoperability
to work, vendors must create products to meet the OSI model's specifications.
Application The final layer is the interface between the software running
Layer in the computer and the network. It supplies functions to the
software in the computer, such as electronic mail or file
transfer. Note that this layer is not the applications
themselves! Protocols here include FTP, POP, SMTP, HTTP
and SHTTP.
Presentation The sixth or presentation layer is concerned with the
Layer presentation of data while in transit and performs code
conversion. It is the translator of the network, making sure the
computer is talking in the right language for the network (e.g.
EBCIDIC to ASCII conversion).
Session Layer The session layer decides when to turn communication on
and off between two computers. It coordinates the interaction
between them. Unlike the network layer, it deals with the
processes running in each machine to establish
conversations between them. Can provide for full or half
duplex operation.
Transport The fourth layer ensures data is sent successfully between
Layer the two computers in an orderly manner. If data is sent
incorrectly, this layer has the responsibility to ask for
retransmission of the data.
Network Layer The third layer establishes, maintains, and terminates
connections. The network layer is responsible for translating
logical addresses, or names, into physical addresses and
providing network routing. Makes sure a packet gets to it's
destination in a reasonable period of time. Is concerned with
routing.
Data-Link The second, or data-link, layer of the OSI model is
Layer responsible for getting data packaged and onto the network
cable. It manages the physical transfer, providing the blocks
of data, synchronization, error control, and flow control. The
data-link layer is often subdivided into two parts. These are
the Logical Link Control (LLC), which is designed to provide
a consistent level of service to the network layer regardless of
which MAC is used, and the Medium Access Control
(MAC), which is media dependent, and checks that the media
is free, encapsulates data into frames and checks for data
integrity using CRC.
Physical Layer The first, or physical layer, of the OSI model conveys the bits
that move along the cable (or media which can include radio).
It is responsible for making sure that the raw bits get from one
place to another, no matter what shape they are in. It deals
with the mechanical and electrical characteristics of the cable
and connectors. Signaling specifications are defined at this
level.
Interestingly not all protocols fit the OSI model - for example, Internet Protocols
(TCP/IP) does not.
<http://webopedia.internet.com/TERM/I/IEEE_802_standards.html>
TCP/IP was developed in the late 1970s for the Dept of Defense's ARPA
network. It is becoming even more common. Originally with UNIX, and Microsoft,
Apple and Novell use it as their native protocol now.
Due to a need to move data over greater distances than, say, 1 km, several
techniques have been developed for linking and extending LANs. The techniques
used to link LAN segments depend on:
Distance and speed needed.
Network Communication Protocols being used.
Cost.
Signal degradation and accumulated interference (eg noise) limit the distance
that a high transmission speed cable can extend. LAN to LAN connections move
data more slowly than Local Area Connections, and more technical equipment
and more quality checks are required.
To lease a circuit to link LAN segments is costly. It makes sense to have good
Network Portal Devices for both ends of the link, so that the expensive circuits
can be used to maximum efficiency.
A PORTAL is the point where networks meet or connect. If you like, they are like
a shipping port (or dock). Portal devices (REPEATERS, BRIDGES and
ROUTERS) extend and segment the Local Area Network’s high-speed link. Each
device offers a different degree of data handling capability, discrimination and
directing capability.
Network Traffic typically follows specific paths, and travels within a group of
computers with common interests (a Workgroup). However, some traffic must
flow between Workgroups. If all Workgroups were linked on the same cable, and
allowed to communicate with each other without restrictions, the resources of the
cable would be severely extended.
Bridges are more complex than repeaters. A BRIDGE will read the Station
Address of each Ethernet Packet, or of each Token-Ring frame. This is the
outermost envelope around the data. You might recall the HDLC frame from
DC100:Data Communications lessons:
F FCS DATA C A F
This determines the destination of the message. The bridge does not look inside
the package or frame to read NetBIOS, IPX or TCP/IP addresses (i.e. lower
layers of the Data Communications model).
A BRIDGE is a network portal device used to link Workgroup LANs. The bridge
can control what traffic is passed between LAN cable segments --- unlike a
REPEATER which passes all data between cable segments. The 2 purposes of a
BRIDGE are to extend the network, and to isolate network traffic.
A ROUTER is a more complex portal device than a bridge. They are more
expensive, and require more attention than a bridge. However, they are a lot
more efficient in examining and directing traffic, and also in doing Protocol
conversion between different types of LAN.
It digs deeper into the envelopes that surround the data, to find the destination
for the data packet. The router will read the information in each packet or frame,
and by a complex process will determine the appropriate network destination.
The outer envelopes are discarded, and the data is repackaged and
retransmitted. Accordingly, it doesn’t matter too much what type of hardware or
protocols are being used in each LAN segment, because the router handles the
conversion process in it’s repackaging.
THANK YOU.
I hope you have enjoyed your journey with this course PC Networking Level 5.
May this be a significant step in your journey of success? Success might be
defined as “the progressive realization of worthwhile goals”. We are very pleased
to be able to work with you.
Published by
CTF Services Limited, 19 Regent St, Timaru 8601, New Zealand
Distributed by
www.ebooksctf.co.nz