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the user’s confidence. It will also explain The two most common questions
some of the limitations as well as the 13. How far can a transmitter signal be traced? 17
capabilities of this important technique. 14. Accuracy of electromagnetic location technology
and Radiodetection locators 19
15. Cable Fault-Finding 21
1 Different locating techniques 2 Advantages of electromagnetic
location
Information is a most important ingredient in any Electromagnetic location combines many advantages and
undertaking. It permits planning an afternoon’s work or facilities for obtaining information from underground that
planning a multimillion dollar enterprise. are not available from any other technique or combination
of techniques.
The difficulty of obtaining information about buried
utility lines is that nothing is visible. Drawings, plans or l It can search an area from the surface to locate
information should always be obtained but they may be buried lines.
faulty or incomplete. A suitable technique has to be used l It can trace and identify a target line.
to obtain the information from underground and a number
l It can trace and identify sewers or other non-metallic
of methods are available:
ducts or pipes to which there is access; it can locate
Ground Penetrating Radar blockages and collapses.
l It can measure depth from the surface.
In some ground conditions GPR has certain advantages
over alternative techniques because of its ability to ‘see’ l It can monitor the progress of ‘No Dig’ tools and
non-metallic objects as well as metallic ones. However, instruments.
GPR products tend to be bigger and more expensive, and
l The technology can be used to provide data to steer
can require increased levels of training to get the most
equipment or tools both above ground and below
from the equipment. Surveys can also take longer than
ground, or on the sea bed.
with other methods, putting them beyond the scope of
many operators. l It can find some types of cable fault, monitor pipeline
coating condition and locate water leaks in plastic pipes.
Sonic surveying l It can pinpoint the position of joints in iron gas pipes.
Injection of sound or ultra-sonic waves into the ground or l The equipment is portable.
along a line is a technique for tracing plastic water pipes
l The equipment is easily handled and is successfully
but is not suitable for locating other buried services.
used by workers.
Note: Line is a continuous metal pipe, cable or other
l The technique works in all soil conditions; even
conductor capable of carrying an electric current.
underwater.
3
3 Basic electromagnetic theory
4
4 Earth return current, AC signals and capacitance
6i
i 2i 3i 3i 2i i
i i i i i i
5
5 Active and passive signals
A further drawback of high frequencies is the ease with There are two types of signals from buried conductors
which signals aimed at the target conductor can also be which we refer to as ‘passive’ and ‘active’ signals.
coupled by mutual induction to other conductors in the
vicinity. This often makes it more difficult to trace a target 5.1 Passive signals
conductor in a congested area.
These are ‘naturally’ present in many conductors without
any action by the user. Obvious examples are power
4.4 Practical implications of capacitance, cables which carry currents as part of their normal duty.
ground conductivity and AC frequency Less obvious perhaps is the fact that the earth is full of
Wherever there is direct electrical contact between line power system return currents, which will tend to flow
and ground, there will also be signal coupling; both forms along the convenient paths of lower resistance provided
of coupling will be reduced if the ground conductivity by metal pipes and cable sheaths. Even less obvious are
is low, e.g. dry sandy soil. This is not just because the radio frequency currents resulting from long wave radio
higher resistance reduces the current flowing via electrical transmissions which penetrate the ground and again flow
contact; it also reduces the capacitance effect, because along buried pipes and cables, whether electrically live or
while one side of the capacitor (the line) is a good dead. Passive signals therefore enable conductors to be
conductor, the surrounding surface presented to it is a poor located, but not identified, because the same signals may
conductor, so that a much lower ‘charge’ can be stored at appear on any conductor.
any moment than the equivalent volume of wet soil. But there are one or two points to note particularly about
While the conductivity of a point of contact between line passive power signals which may not be immediately
and ground is not affected by frequency, the fact that obvious. The first one relates to voltage on the line; the
the effective impedance of the line to the signal is a signal strength has nothing whatever to do with voltage.
combination of resistance and capacitance (as well as a Referring to 3.1, it is the current flowing which produces
little inductance, which can be ignored at this point) means the magnetic field, which is then detected by the locator.
that it is always easier to couple a high frequency signal If the line is live at high voltage, but its load is switched
into a given line than a low frequency one. off, there is nowhere for current to flow, and therefore no
detectable power signal, but it remains a potential danger.
The second point is that the relationship between load
current and signal strength is not direct: any well-designed
cable attempts to minimise the strength of radiated
electromagnetic field by so twisting the cores that the ‘go’
and ‘return’ current fields largely cancel out.
6
6 Passive signals
7
7 Active signal application
7.2 Induction
The rectangular coil in a signal transmitter fed with the
output AC voltage sets up a magnetic field through the
Here is the result of spectrum analysis of the range of coil, returning through the earth below.
frequencies detectable on a typical buried telephone cable,
A conductor AB lying parallel to the coil is linked by this
the vertical scale showing the relative signal strength at
field, and therefore has a voltage induced in it. If the
the frequency shown horizontally. While there is a general
conductor is oriented across the coil in position CD there
broad scatter of frequencies, the two peaks at 16 and 19.6
will be no linkage and no voltage. Correct alignment of
kHz provide clear tracers for detection by appropriately
coil with target conductor is therefore essential, and the
tuned receivers.
field will be concentrated in a narrow band below the coil.
Laying the coil horizontal produces a much less localized
field spread, useful for ‘blanket’ signal application, but
there is no coupling to a line directly below the coil.
8
7.3 Clamping a signal to a line
Clamping uses the induction principle to give a similar
result to direct connection, but without electrical contact
to the line. The output from the signal transmitter is
effectively coupled to a particular line by clamping round it
with a split toroidal magnetic core, which carries a primary
winding magnetising the core with the AC signal. The line
becomes the secondary of a transformer, and will carry a
strong signal, provided that it has good coupling to ground
on each side.
9
8 Tracing non-metallic pipes
33kHz
This higher frequency is easily applied by induction to
most lines, so is very useful for initial search. It travels well
on small diameter lines.
but
10
9 Detection and location of signal sources
9.1
A coil suspended in a space produces an AC voltage
proportional to any alternating field or signal passing
through it, because of the induction principle (section 3.2).
11
10 The twin aerial antenna
and depth estimation
However, it gives no indication of line direction, so is much The detection of a single buried conductor in a green field
less suited to normal location and tracing duties. It can be situation is simple and can easily be done using a single
useful for cross checking accuracy when pinpointing with a aerial instrument. However, buried pipes and cables are
horizontal aerial instrument. usually adjacent to other conductors and they are often
situated under overhead power lines or other sources of
9.4 Sonde signal characteristics electromagnetic interference. Results from using a single
aerial instrument in these situations can become confusing
A transmitting sonde (section 8) produces a field distribution
or the interference may render the instrument ineffective.
which is not simply cylindrical as with a line, but is roughly
sausage shaped in the direction of the core. As a sonde Radiodetection technology and equipment is based on the
is approached with a horizontal aerial, a rising signal will twin-aerial, using two horizontal aerials about 400mm (16”)
be detected as it comes within range. This will then fall apart to detect the same signal, with the following benefits:
off again to null, so giving the impression that it has been
passed. But if the traverse is continued, the signal will rise
again to a much higher level, the peak of which is above
the sonde. It will then fall to null again, followed by a small
rise, and then fade away. The small peaks either side of
the nulls may therefore mislead the unwary; it is essential
to find the higher peak between the two nulls to pinpoint
the sonde position. The reason for the two nulls is that the
field reverses its direction through the aerial core at each
end of the traverse, as the illustration shows; at the point of
reversal the field crosses the core at right-angles, so there
is no signal (null) at these points. The distance between the
nulls increases with depth of the sonde. A vertical aerial,
10.1 Narrow response for accurate location
however, will produce a single null over the sonde but this We have seen how the receiver response rises and falls
null will exist anywhere along a line extending to both sides as a buried signal source is traversed. It is the change in
of the pipe. response that enable the instrument user to recognise
the location of the conductor below the point at which the
response is maximum. If the signal is weak or the source
deep, the rate of change will be reduced, and the maximum
response point much less clearly defined.
12
11 CM Current Measurement
13
12 CD Current Direction
14
12.3 How does CD work? 12.4 Relative direction of flow
As mentioned before, AC signals do not have a direction. The special circuitry in Radiodetection’s CD receivers
But they do have a characteristic known as phase which is (and transmitters) is configured so that the receiver can be
similar to direction. RESET to ‘remember’ the direction of current flow at one
point so that any signal detected later can be compared
If an AC transmitter is connected to a pipe, it may cause a
with it.
current to flow initially from South to North, then from North
to South and so on. This can be represented on a graph The RESET function enables the user to define in which
which shows the direction (and magnitude) of current flow direction the CD arrows will point. When reset the receiver
at different points in time. will adjust the display to show the CD arrow pointing
away from the user. This is defined as the direction of
current flow. The convention normally adopted is that the
current flows along the service away from the transmitter
and returns on all adjacent services. This is achieved by
resetting the receiver over the target line facing away from
the transmitter.
Phase
Transmitter Measurement
15
12.6 CD signal application As signal gradually ‘leaks’ through a buried line’s
capacitance, so the phase angle of the signal remaining
The CD technique works best at low signal frequencies
on the line gradually changes. The effect is like a time
and can be used with direct connection and current clamp
delay but is not actually due to time delay - a 500Hz signal
injection methods.
would have to travel a distance of some 300km (200 miles)
to experience time delay equivalent to a reversal of phase
(or direction).
This diagram shows the same two graphs (waveforms) In Radiodetection’s CD terms, the direction has shifted
as before and illustrates that exactly the same current from forwards to backwards. At the intermediate point
flow pattern is achieved if the signal is simply delayed for (D), the current flow is indeterminate. In this position the
a period ‘t0’. If the frequency is, for instance, 500Hz, the arrows flicker.
full waveform (positive and negative sections) is repeated
In most cases, the loss of direction information does
500 times a second. In this case, a time delay of 1/1000th
not occur until many km/miles from the transmitter.
of a second shifts the waveform forwards and causes it
The situation is easily overcome by returning to the
to appear to be upside-down. It therefore appears to be a
last point at which a CD reading was achieved (C) and
signal flowing in the opposite direction.
operating RESET CD. This will have the effect of making
Time delays such as this are normally referred to as the response at C equivalent to that at A. The ‘no CD’
phase-shifts. A shift of phase can occur whenever an AC message then does not occur until point F.
signal is flowing in a system of conductors which have a
significant capacitance or inductance. It is the capacitance
between an insulated line and ground that causes the
gradual reduction of signal strength along a buried line.
16
13 How far can a transmitter signal be traced?
This is a question most locator users want to ask, and It is in this gradual slope at low values that we are
most manufacturers wish to avoid answering! This is not interested, where small changes in level make significant
through deviousness, but simply because there is no changes in distance, so it is therefore necessary to expand
way of discovering the answer other than by empirical this part of the curve. This is done by changing the vertical
experiment for any given line, for the reasons discussed axis to a logarithmic scale, i.e. by substituting its logarithm
earlier. A more practical question is, ‘How can the location for the original value. Decibels are simply standard
distance from a transmitter be increased or maximized?’ logarithms multiplied by 20 for convenience, and express
the ratio between levels. For example, an increase of 6dB
The distance over which a signal starting with a given
represents a doubling, a decrease of 6dB a halving of
current strength will effectively reduce to zero will depend
level. The effect is to change the curve to a straight line,
upon the Rate of Signal Loss for that line. The most distant
making level comparisons more visually obvious.
point at which this signal will still be detectable will be a
function of Receiver Sensitivity; for the receiver to detect it,
some current must be present, and its signal distinguishable
above spurious and interfering signals, termed noise. The
higher the current, the easier it is to detect.
The possibilities for increasing detection distances are 13.1 Reducing the rate of signal loss
therefore: Clearly it is not possible to alter the characteristic
1. Reduce the rate of signal loss properties of the line itself. However, one can try and tailor
2. Increase the signal current the transmitter signal to give it the best chance of travelling
3. Increase the receiver sensitivity furthest, and this is where choice of signal frequency is
Let us examine each of these in turn. First it is necessary important. Generally, a lower frequency will travel further
to appreciate the necessity of using a logarithmic or than a higher, because the latter leaks away quicker via
decibel scale for any graph of rate of signal loss along a capacitance to ground. In the graph below, the distances
line, if meaningful information is to be conveyed. at which the same signal current will have fallen to 0 dB
are represented by D33, D8 and D1 for 33kHz, 8kHz and
512Hz signals respectively.
17
The background noise level will also differ for different Whatever means is adopted, the effect of increasing signal
frequencies, particularly within the power frequency harmonic current with a given line and frequency will be to increase
range, and receiver sensitivities may also be affected. There distance. The effect of doubling the transmitter current is
is likely to be an optimum frequency band for any particular typified in the graph below, in which the 0dB current level
line and situation, best established by experiment. point distance increases from D1 to D2.
18
14 Accuracy of electromagnetic
location technology and
Radiodetection locators
It is therefore apparent that receiver sensitivity is an 14.1
extremely important factor in detection range. Achieving
Accuracy of a locator, that is to say a locator’s ability to
a low noise threshold is not only a function of high
find the correct position of a buried line and its depth, is
amplification or gain. The quality of filtering, i.e. rejection
difficult to define and is often ignored.
of signals at frequencies other than the transmitter signal
frequency, is a vital element. The graph below repeats the Electromagnetic locators do not locate pipes and cables;
comparison of doubling signal current, but this time shows they locate alternating magnetic fields.
that the same increase of detection distance from R1 to
Errors of accuracy can arise from two factors:
R2 is achievable by halving the receiver noise threshold
from T1 to T2 as by doubling the signal current. l The locator’s capability to measure the precise point at
which a magnetic field is at a maximum (or minimum)
and to correctly measure a field gradient.
l The cylindrical magnetic field around a line can be
deformed or distorted so that the maximum value is
no longer directly above the target line and the field
gradient is not suitable for making an accurate depth
measurement.
19
Magnetic field distortion the lines are closer together. If the lines are closer than
2d there will be a single null in the centre of the lines
14.5 rather than two separate indications.
Most of the problems of accurate location of buried lines Horizontal antenna. Locator indicates lines are
in the highway are due to situations that distort magnetic closer together but separate indication of each line is
fields. While there are an almost infinite number of ways possible down to separation of 1.2d when error will be
that fields may be distorted by other lines at various angles up to 60%. Accuracy of better than 10% is possible if
and carrying various signals, a useful analysis of accuracy separation is twice depth or greater.
can be obtained by considering just two specific situations: Twin horizontal antenna. Error of 50% at a separation
l A 90° bend in the line. is greater than 1.5d.
l Two close parallel lines carrying equal signals or b. If similar strength signals on parallel lines run in
currents. Equal signal currents are, of course, an opposite directions the following may be expected:
unlikely eventuality but the example serves as a Vertical aerial. The locator will show two positions
useful reference for comparison. outside the actual position of the lines. It will still show
two separate responses even if lines are almost touching
14.6 and error will be 100%. Accuracy better than 10% is only
possible if the two lines are nearly 10d apart.
Distortion close to a 90° bend: a locator starts giving
faulty information as it comes under the influence of the Horizontal aerial. The locator gives response outside
magnetic field of the perpendicular part of the target line. the true positions but with maximum error of 60%. Error
falls to 10% when lines are 1.7d apart. There is a sharp
Error is expressed as a percentage of the depth d of
null response between lines.
the line. Relevant distances are expressed in units of d.
Measurement of two types of error are useful; maximum Twin horizontal aerial. Similar response to the single
degree of plan location error and the length of line along horizontal antenna but a maximum error of 50%
which location error exceeds 10% of depth. reducing to 10% error when separation is 1.2d.
Vertical aerial. A null locator traces a path that is
outside the actual bend. The only point where the 14.8 The above data indicates several
reading is correct is exactly over the point of the right conclusions:
angle bend. Maximum error is at a point 0.7d from the The vertical aerial locator gives responses unacceptably
bend and amounts to 33%. 10% error band extends 5d wide from the actual position of lines when more than one
either side of the bend. line with the same signal is present in a small area.
Horizontal aerial. The locator traces a path that cuts Twin horizontal aerial system provides the best and the
across the inside of the bend. Maximum error occurs at most useful response.
the point of the bend and is 25%. 10% error band only
extends 0.5d from the bend. Comparison of responses from vertical and horizontal
aerials can be used to determine if interference fields are
Twin horizontal aerials. Similar to the single horizontal affecting accurate location. Interference is present if the
aerial locator, it traces a path to the inside of the bend responses from the two systems do not coincide.
with a maximum error of 16% and the band of the 10%
error is only 0.33d. This comparison permits multi-aerial instruments such as
Radiodetection Precision locators to check if a response
is accurate and if the signal is suitable for making an
14.7
accurate depth measurement.
Distortion due to parallel lines buried close together:
20
15 Cable Fault-Finding
15.1 Reason for using Fault Finding The principle is based on the direction of flow of ground
currents.
Cables have outer insulating jackets as a means of
preventing water or moisture from getting into the cable. Consider a battery connected across a faulty sheath and
Water needs to be kept out because it creates noise on ground and all deliberate ground/sheath connections
telephone lines and potential faults on power cables. The removed, the path of the current flow will be along the cable
main problem is not that the water itself causes electrical sheath to the fault, through the fault to ground and then
failure – the internal conductors of the cable have their through the ground back to the other terminal of the battery.
own insulation which should prevent this – but that ground
water is frequently slightly acidic. This acid may eventually
damage the insulation of individual conductors.
21
The polarity (negative or positive) of the meter deflection All that is required to home in on the exact fault location
then shows whether the sheath fault is ahead or behind is to turn the meter through 90 degrees and search along
the position of the voltmeter. the defined narrow strip until the meter again flips. Turn
through 90 degrees again to zero-in exactly (thus allowing
Note that the meter does not indicate directly the direction
for the curved path of the ground currents) and soon a
of the fault. Imagine a line drawn through the centre of the
point is reached where any movement of the meter in
meter, the meter deflection indicates which side of the line
any direction causes the meter indication to flip. The
the fault is.
position of the fault is then isolated to within a few square
centimetres/inches.
22
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Radiodetection is a leading global developer and supplier of test equipment used by utility companies to help install, protect
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