Engineering geology of
Stockholm, Sweden
L. Persson
Abstract The bedrock in the Stockholm area pro-
vides an excellent material for construction. The pa-
per describes the geology of the area and provides
case histories, mainly related to infrastructure devel-
opment, illustrating the use of underground con-
struction and the importance given to environmental
considerations. It discusses the research being un-
dertaken to establish data bases which will record
the geological and geotechnical information being
obtained, in a flexible and accessible system, in order
that developers may maximise the local resources
and minimise adverse effects on the environment.
Résumé Le substratum de la ville de Stockholm
fournit un excellent matériau pour la construction.
L’article décrit la géologie du secteur et donne des
exemples concernant essentiellement des infrastruc-
tures, des constructions souterraines et insiste sur
l’attention apportée aux considérations environne-
mentales. Il engage la discussion sur la recherche qui
a été entreprise pour mettre en place des vases de
données géologiques et géotechniques dans le cadre
d’un système souple et accessible, qui permette aux
maître d’ouvrages d’utiliser au mieux les ressources
locales tout en minimisant les inconvénients pour
l’environnement.
Key words Tunnel 7 Underground excavation 7
Infrastructure 7 Bedrock quality 7 3D databases 7
Stockholm
Introduction
Stockholm is located on the east coast of Sweden, 597N,
197E, where the Gulf of Bothnia joins the Baltic Sea (Fig. 1).
The city was founded in the middle of the 13th century, at
the entrance to the large east-west tidal inlet known as the
Received: 13 December 1997 7 Accepted: 9 January 1998
L. Persson
Geological Survey of Sweden, Box 670, S-751 28 Uppsala,
Sweden, e-mail: lars.persson6sgu.se
Mälaren Lake, a navigable marine waterway extending
some 100 km inland (Fig. 2). Sweden currently has a popu-
lation of 8.8 million, of whom 1.5 million live in the Stock-
holm area, the population having risen quite dramatically
in the last ninety years. The city grew initially as a commu-
nication and trade centre on the edge of the Baltic Sea. The
port and city itself extended with the development of inter-
national trade and in 1436 Stockholm became the capital
city.
Away from the sea and Mälaren Lake, the land rises such
that Stockholm itself is at the eastern end of a topographic
trough. This relief has had a major influence on the devel-
opment of the infrastructure. Much of the city adjacent to
the old harbour area is constructed on alluvial deposits,
frequently using wooden piles to support the large, impres-
sive buildings which overlook the sea. Away from the coas-
tal region, where the ground rises to some 50 m above sea
level, a thin veneer of glaciogenic deposits overlies the be-
drock.
The bedrock of the region provides excellent quality engi-
neering material and as a consequence, Sweden has a long
tradition of underground construction. Indeed, more than
one hundred kilometres of tunnel, underground storage
and caverns have been built within the Stockholm area
alone, using both conventional drill and blast methods and
tunnel boring machines. Although the rock usually forms
good aggregate for road and railway construction, it is in
part heterogeneous and includes some poorer quality ma-
FINLAND
Oslo
Stockholm
NORWAY
SWEDEN
Riga
a
DENMARK Se
c
lti
Copenhagen Ba LITHUANIA
POLAND
GERMANY
Fig. 1
Location of Stockholm on the east coast of Sweden
Bull Eng Geol Env (1998) 57 : 79–90 7 Q Springer-Verlag 79
 L. Persson

have radiometric ages varying between 2000 and 1750 mil-

lion years (Stålhös 1969). The oldest rocks, arenites and ar-
gillites, are of supracrustal origin and include volcanic
rocks. These rocks have been intensely metamorphosed to
form veined gneisses and migmatites. The oldest plutonic
Uppsala rocks, which range from gabbros to granites and include
diorites and tonalites, are also deformed and affected by
metamorphism. The youngest plutonic rocks are usually
Västerås grey or reddish, fine to medium grained, massive granites
Lake Mälaren of the so-called “Stockholm Type”, which are usually asso-
Stockholm ciated with pegmatites. Thin amphibolitic and deformed
Eskilstuna dykes occur frequently. Dolerite dykes of Jotnian age inter-
sect the Stockholm bedrock, mainly with WNW to NW
trends but also with a NNW orientation (Stålhös 1968,
a 1969; cf. Persson 1995a; Persson and Antal 1996).
Se Figure 3 shows the areas where bedrock is exposed in the
c
a lti Stockholm region. It also shows an interpretation of the
B main lineament features in Stockholm, formed either by
joints or faults. Figure 4 shows the main structural trend of
Norrköping the bedrock geology together with the main rock types.
The most important geological directions are E-W, WNW
Fig. 2 and NW. Hildebrand (unpubl. paper) undertook an inves-
Stockholm and Lake Mälaren area, the distance between tigation of the joints and joint sets and using the 336
Uppsala and Stockholm is about 75 km points measured, produced the stereogram given in Fig. 5.
As seen from the figure, in central Stockholm the NW to
WNW and ENE to NE and N-S directions are the most
dominant. The geology and tectonics from an engineering
terial. With the increasing demand for high quality aggre- geological point of view have been described by Morfeldt
gate and the national decision to re-use as much excavated (1993).
material as possible, extensive investigations are required
to ensure that suitable material is obtained from the pro-
jects and that the benefits of the resource are maximised.
Full documentation of all geological and engineering geo-
logical information from the different projects is being
stored to form a valuable data base. This will help develop-
ers of future projects to obtain the quality of material they
require and at the same time, reduce their costs.
This paper outlines the geology of the Stockholm area and
discusses some of the more recent subsurface projects
which have been and/or are currently being undertaken.
Details of some of the geotechnical parameters determined
for the various works are given. The paper draws attention
to the necessity of obtaining sufficient information on the
geological and hydrological conditions in order that the
projects can be constructed as efficiently and economically
as possible, whilst both protecting the environment and
maximising the natural resources. The way in which this
information is collected and stored is described, highlight-
ing the value of providing a flexible and accessible data-
base which can be continually enhanced to meet the needs
of the present and future generations.

Outline geology Outcrop

N
0 5 km
Lineament
Most of the bedrock in Sweden consists of the crystalline
pre-Cambrian rocks of the Baltic Shield. The rocks of the Fig. 3
Stockholm region belong to the Svecofennian Orogeny and Outcrops and lineaments of the Stockholm area

80 Bull Eng Geol Env (1998) 57 : 79–90 7 Q Springer-Verlag

 Engineering geology of Stockholm, Sweden

In the 1970s an engineering geological map of Stockholm

was compiled at a scale of 1 : 10,000 by Stockholm City
(Stadbyggnadskontoret 1997).
To complement the regular bedrock maps, new thematic
maps indicating the bedrock quality are now being pro-
duced by the Geological Survey of Sweden at a scale of
1 : 50,000. The research, development and methodology has
been undertaken in co-operation with the Swedish Nation-
al Testing and Research Institute (Persson and Schouen-
borg 1996). The main purpose of these maps is to facilitate
the evaluation of the different rocks as resources, e.g. ag-
gregates for road and railway construction and the produc-
tion of concrete. The first map (Bergkvalitetskartan 11I
Uppsala SV) was published in 1998 and it is anticipated
that in the near future these thematic maps will be pro-
duced for the whole of the Stockholm region. Considerable
importance is attached to this mapping, in view of the ex-
tensive infrastructure activities currently being undertaken
in the capital. At a later date, it is planned to investigate
other densely populated areas in a similar manner, eg. the
Göteborg region.
Dolerite Amphibolite
The underground projects produce large quantities of ex-
cavated rock hence the material must be classified in terms
Granite Veined gneisses N of its potential use, e.g. for road sub-base/pavements, rail
Gneiss granite Form line
0 5 km track or concrete aggregate (Persson and Schouenborg
1992a, 1992b, 1995, 1996). The compilation of the bedrock
Fig. 4 quality maps is based on field identification of the main
Main structural trend of the bedrock geology together with the rock units. The orientation of the joints and joint sets is
main rock types measured and the number of joints per metre estimated.
Technical analyses are undertaken, including point load
testing.
N The bedrock quality maps also include structural data
measured in the field and lineaments interpreted from
anomalies identified on the magnetic and electro-magnetic
(VLF) surveys. The very low frequency maps distinguish
electrically conductive horizons in the bedrock, e.g. water-
or graphite-bearing zones. The structural trends of the
schistosity are shown on the maps together with the radia-
tion measured on different rock types at each location.
Rocks for laboratory testing are collected from the field,
usually from quarries or construction sites although at
times it is necessary to sample in situ exposures. The ma-
terial is generally crushed through a gyratory crusher with
a 30-mm exit aperture and then passes through a laborato-
ry jaw-crusher with a 16-mm exit aperture. The Geological
Survey undertake Nordic tests for studded tyres on the
Fig. 5 11.2- to 16-mm-sized fraction while the Los Angeles tests
Pole contours of joints and joint sets from central Stockholm are performed at the Swedish National Testing and Re-
(np336). Every point corresponds to 0.3% and the darkest field search Institute. The stone material is crushed and
is 5.06% screened using a flake sorting sieve with a 5.6 mm width in
order to obtain flakiness indices (Swedish) of about
1.3–1.4. The Los Angeles values are determined using an
analysed fraction of 10–14 mm, as recommended by the
Bedrock quality investigations European Standard (currently in preparation).
Cores with a diameter of 45 mm are drilled from boulders
Stockholm City Planning Administration has been collect- and tested in a BEMEK rock tester in order to establish the
ing geotechnical information since the 1950s. This includes point load index. The Geological Survey undertake this
the records of 60,000 boreholes, 1500 ground water meas- testing parallel and perpendicular to the foliation. Approx-
urements and subsidence measurements from 2000 houses. imately ten measurements are made in each direction.

Bull Eng Geol Env (1998) 57 : 79–90 7 Q Springer-Verlag 81

 L. Persson

Thin sections of all rock types are studied to assess the po-
tential for alkali silica reaction (ASR). The deformation of
the quartz crystals has been studied (cf. West 1996). Four
classes have been used:
1. no risk;
2. probably no risk – a few strained crystals;
3. small risk – the deformation of some crystals is obvious;
and
4. clear risk – most crystals are severely deformed.
The thin sections are also used to establish the petrograp-
hic nature of the rock, including its mineralogy and the
modal contents. Grain sizes are also determined and the
nature of the grain boundaries studied. Particular attention
is paid to identifying the presence of sulphides or graphite,
especially in the quartz- and mica-rich lithologies. In view
of the high sulphide contents in some of the strata, the
concentrations must be established before the materials
are used as concrete aggregate. A scintillometer and spec-
trometer are used to establish the radiation of the different
rock types, measuring uranium, thorium and potassium.
The total gamma radiation from the outcrops is recorded
and the radium index calculated; attention being drawn to
values in excess of one.
Areas are zoned in terms of their overall rock quality and
distinguished as good (Class 1), average (Class 2) and less
suitable (Class 3) based on the results of the studded tyre
test and the recommendations of the Swedish National
Road Administration. To date more than 200 Nordic stud-
ded tyre tests, 100 Los Angeles tests and some 60 point
load values, both perpendicular and parallel to the schis-
tosity, have been undertaken. Some of the results are given
in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1
Nordic studded tyre tests and Los Angeles values for rocks from the Stockholm region

Rock Type Nordic studded tyre test values (weight %) Los Angeles values (weight %)

Mean No. of Lowest Highest Mean No. of Lowest Highest

value tests value value value tests value value

Sedimentary
gneisses 15.5 60 7.0 39.5 19.0 34 9 29.7
Fine grained
foliated 9.2 10 3.5 14.4 13.2 3 12.1 14.1
granitoids
Greenstones 17.2 16 10.8 30.1 16.7 9 12.2 21.7
Gneissic 97
granites 12.1 6.7 18.9 18.3 48 13.8 29.0
Younger
granites 11.4 25 5.5 15.4 21.4 12 13.2 28.0
Pegmatites 16.4 2 16.1 16.6 29.6 1 29.6 29.6

Table 2
Point load tests on rocks from the Stockholm region

Rock Type Parallel Perpendicular Is(50)

Aniso-
Is(50) Nr. of Lowest Highest Is(50) Nr. of Lowest Highest tropy
Mean tests value value Mean tests value value Mean
value value value
MPa MPa

Sedimentary
gneisses 6.7 12 2.6 8.8 8.7 12 5.8 11.8 1.40
Fine grained
foliated 7.1 3 6.1 8.6 9.8 3 6.6 14.1 1.42
granitoids
Greenstones 6.2 6 5.2 7.7 9.6 6 6.3 11.5 1.58
Gneissic
granites 6.9 32 3.5 9.9 8.2 32 5.1 12.4 1.26
Younger
granites 7.7 4 5.7 8.6 9.1 4 8.1 10.1 1.21

82 Bull Eng Geol Env (1998) 57 : 79–90 7 Q Springer-Verlag


The studded tyre tests indicate that the fine-grained fol-
iated granitoids have the best values, despite variations in
mica contents. The younger granites, which are generally
fine to medium grained and massive, also have low values.
The gneissic granites are less good whereas the greenstones
and sedimentary gneisses, being heterogeneous, provide
both good and poor values in the studded tyre tests. In
contrast, the very strong quartz and feldspar-rich grey-
wackes are frequently as good as the fine-grained grani-
toids, which also yielded the best Los Angeles values.
Point load testing frequently highlights the heterogeneity
of the materials when tests are undertaken parallel and
perpendicular to the structure of the rock. The younger,
generally massive granites displayed a low anisotropy and
good Is values of between 7.7 and 9.1 MPa were recorded.
The fine-grained foliated granitoids, greenstones and sedi-
mentary gneisses showed a high degree of anisotropy with
the foliated, mica-rich rocks producing a high strength
perpendicular to the foliation.
The research being undertaken as part of the development
of rock engineering and explosives technology at SveBeFo
(Swedish Rock Engineering Research; 1997) comprises
mainly:
1. subsurface planning, legislation and environmental im-
pact,
2. risk decision analysis in underground design and con-
struction,
3. smooth blasting technology,
4. rock fragmentation,
5. rock reinforcement, function and durability,
6. grouting techniques, and
7. explosive technology.
Of particular importance in Stockholm is the understand-
ing and control of ground water. For all underground pro-
jects it is essential that the effect on the ground water re-
gime is established, as changes in the ground water condi-
tions could adversely affect many properties which are not
constructed directly onto bedrock. As a consequence, the
monitoring and control of ground water leakage has been
an ongoing concern for some 30 years (Morfeldt 1993).
Geological information modelling
(GIM)
The Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) decided to re-
investigate the surface geology of the Stockholm region
commencing in 1993. All available geological information
is now being stored in databases. The underground geolog-
ical and engineering geological data for some projects are
digitally stored, e.g. the Snake Tunnel, the caverns under
the Royal Library, the Arlanda Link tunnel and stations
and the Sundbyberg and Saltsjö tunnels (see below). From
this computerised data, a 3D model can be created allow-
ing comparisons to be made between the the subsurface
information and that observable at the surface. A Micro-
Station 3D-CAD system with GIS analytical capabilities is
Engineering geology of Stockholm, Sweden
used. This Geotechnical Information Modelling (GIM) was
developed in co-operation with Mineconsult AB and Pror-
ok AB. The rock class and rock support class is docu-
mented such that the information can be speedily passed
to the operators involved with the installation of rock bolts
and shotcreting, to assist in optimising the design of sup-
port systems. Using the GIM, it is also possible to illustrate
the influence of the Q value, which may well allow a reduc-
tion in the investment in rock support. The technique may
also assist with establishing the likely vibration measure-
ments and hence in the future, it is hoped it will aid safer
construction and help reduce maintenance costs.
Examples of infrastructure
projects
In 1991, it was decided to take steps to create a better en-
vironment, including improving accessibility and planning
for future conditions – the so-called Dennis Agreement.
This Agreement involved new traffic links, including roads,
railways, tramways and subways, some of which have al-
ready been completed.
It was planned to spend about 6 billion US$. Investments
were made in railway lines north and south of Lake Mälar-
en, “Svealandsbanan”, “Mälarbanan” and the Arlanda link
– the railway and shuttle link between Stockholm city and
the international airport of Arlanda. The first project is
complete while the Arlanda link is planned to be opera-
tional in 1999 and it is hoped Mälarbanan may be finalised
in 2001. Unfortunately the plans for the ring road (Ringen)
around the central part of Stockholm have had to be re-
duced and altered.
Road network
The Ringen road project (Fig. 6) consists of southern,
northern and eastern links; the western part (Essingeleden)
having already been built. Most of the additional parts of
Ringen, some 12 km in length, will be constructed in tun-
nels 12.5 m wide with an effective height of 4.7 m. The con-
struction of Ringen will result in a decrease in the car traf-
fic in the inner city area, improve transportation between
the different parts of the region and provide better access
for public transport and the delivery of goods (Ringen
1992). In addition, it will reduce exhaust fume emissions
from traffic, considered to be the largest source of air pol-
lution in Stockholm. The reduction in surface traffic will
also reduce noise levels.
An important part of the investigation for the subsurface
works was the establishment of ground water levels as
there is a significant risk of damage to existing buildings if
the ground water level is allowed to drop. Of particular
concern were such areas as the eastern part of Södra Länk-
en where significant damage could occur.
The construction of Österleden involved a submerged tun-
nel under Saltsjön founded at a depth of 40 m (Ringen
1992). Another network, Yttre Tvärleden, is partially com-
Bull Eng Geol Env (1998) 57 : 79–90 7 Q Springer-Verlag 83
 L. Persson
Fig. 6
Location of Ringen relative to
the city of Stockholm
plete. This comprises two projects: Västerleden which links
Fors (south of Stockholm) to the north of Tumba (south-
west of Stockholm) is generally in tunnel but includes a
limited length of surface roads and three bridges while
Rösa extends from Hjulsta to Vallentuna (northwest to
north of Stockholm) and continues north to Söderhall.
In view of the large amount of material to be excavated
during the tunnel construction, a bedrock quality investi-
gation was made to evaluate the exploitable potential of
the arisings. The technical analyses obtained are shown in
Tables 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 (Vägverket Region Stockholm 1994).
Point load indices from Norra Länken were obtained by
Itasca Geomekanik AB following the recommendations of
the National Swedish Road Administration. Rock cores of
46-mm diameter from Österleden were also tested. Al-
84 Bull Eng Geol Env (1998) 57 : 79–90 7 Q Springer-Verlag
though a few Is values were below 4 MPa, most exceeded
10 MPa and the highest was 24 MPa. This would indicate
an equivalent UCS strength of about 100 to 240 MPa (Pro-
jekt Österleden 1993).
Railway network
The construction of railways, tramways and subways was
also proposed under the Dennis Agreement (Karlsson
1993) together with a third rail track to cross over Riddar-
holmen in central Stockholm. The commencement of the
railway projects has been delayed however, as considera-
tion is being given to sub-surface rather than surface con-
struction. This re-appraisal was expanded to include the
roads in the nearby area (Centralbron). Another controver-
sial railway project is that between Kallhäll and Kungsäng-
 Engineering geology of Stockholm, Sweden

Table 3
Technical analyses of sedimentary gneisses from Ringen

Density Water Studded Flakiness Shape Los Angeles Micro-

(g/cm 3) absorption tyre test index index value Deval
(wt %) (wt %) (%) (wt %) value
(wt %)

2.61 0.6 12.3 1.48 53 21 7.3

2.64 0.5 19.2 1.40 55 22 11.6
2.66 0.5 13.9 1.44 50 20 10.0
2.68 0.5 17.0 1.43 50 21 11.5
2.69 0.6 18.3 1.43 50 20 14.2
2.70 0.4 14.2 1.45 47 18 10.0
2.72 0.5 13.4 1.48 47 15 9.8
2.72 0.4 14.4 1.43 49 25 9.7

Table 4
Technical analyses of greenstones from Ringen

Density Water Studded Flakiness Shape Los Angeles Micro-

(g/cm 3) absorption tyre test index index value Deval
(wt %) (wt %) (%) (wt %) value
(wt %)

2.66 0.4 11.4 1.43 52 21 7.8

2.77 0.4 15.2 1.44 45 16 11.2
2.80 0.3 15.7 1.47 45 14 12.5

Table 5
Technical analyses of gneissic granites from Ringen

Density Water Studded Flakiness Shape Los Angeles Micro-

(g/cm 3) absorption tyre test index index value Deval
(wt %) (wt %) (%) (wt %) value
(wt %)

2.65 0.4 10.9 1.41 49 18 6.0

2.68 0.4 12.9 1.45 50 19 7.4
2.72 0.5 14.0 1.41 48 17 10.1

Table 6
Technical analyses of younger granites from Ringen

Density Water Studded Flakiness Shape Los Angeles Micro-

(g/cm 3) absorption tyre test index index value Deval
(wt %) (wt %) (%) (wt %) value
(wt %)

2.62 0.4 15.4 1.39 58 28 8.6

2.62 0.4 11.5 1.45 51 21 7.0
2.63 0.3 10.8 1.48 54 19 6.4
2.64 0.4 11.2 1.56 52 17 6.2
2.65 0.3 12.4 1.41 53 23 8.0
2.66 0.4 11.4 1.43 52 21 7.8

Bull Eng Geol Env (1998) 57 : 79–90 7 Q Springer-Verlag 85

 L. Persson

Table 7
Mean values of point load indices from different rock types: Norra Länken, Ringen (standard deviation shown in italics)

Rock type UCS Equiv. Sdv Young’s Sdv Poisson’s Sdv

(MPa) mod (GPa) Ratio

Granites 220.2 71.2 82.3 3.8 0.26 0.05

Gneisses 120.9 51.5 81.0 7.2 0.21 0.06
Pegmatites 171.3 36.9 78.3 9.9 0.22 0.07
Amphibolites 137.2 81.0 64.3 25.0 0.28 0.08
Migmatite gneisses 198.0 47.7 82.0 4.4 0.25 0.01
Gneissic granites 229.0 26.0 84.3 2.5 0.22 0.01

en where again an underground construction is being con- system of rock bolts with shotcrete of between 150 and
sidered (Malmsten 1993). 250 mm in thickness was used for the final support.
The Dennis Agreement also involved an improvement of In the Arlanda area, there are two main rock types: mica
the railway tracks from Älvsjö (south of Stockholm) to schist and granodiorite. The mica schists are of poor qual-
Västerhaninge and further south to the town of Nynä- ity with an average Q value of 7 (Forhaug 1997) while that
shamn (Banverket östra regionen 1993). Not included in of the granodiorite is 10.5. However, the range of Q values
the Agreement was a railway from central Stockholm in a assessed from the material was between 1 and 40. The
SW to W direction to the town of Södertälje – the so-called studded tyre test of the granodiorite is 8.7% and of the
Grödingebanan – which was opened for traffic in 1995. mica schist 22.6%. The mean value of point load indices is
This project involved 31 km of double track, 29 bridges 9.0 MPa for the granodiorite and 6.2 MPa (parallel) and
and a total of 16 tunnels, the longest of which was the 10.9 MPa (perpendicular) for the mica schist (M. Görans-
1785 m Lidatunneln. The longest bridge was Igelstabron son pers. comm.). Horizontal rock stress measurements
(Igelsta bridge 1991), some 2045 m long and with a height showed values between 3 and 9 MPa. The k0 values ob-
of 48 m. It was constructed on 57 pillars founded on veined tained were above 1; the vertical stresses clearly indicating
gneiss with zones of mica and graphite. Banverket (1990) heavier vertical loading in the past.
reported the technical tests undertaken on cores from the At Arlanda, the airport terminal buildings are on rock
western beach at Igelstaviken. It showed the unconfined foundations although most of runways 1 and 2 were con-
compressive strengths varied between 30 and 150 MPa. structed over clay; the allowable settlement here being
The porphyritic gneissic granite from the Lidatunneln was 10 mm. The contract specified that the maximum water
assessed for use as aggregate. Stenlid (1996) gave the fol- leakage into the tunnels was 5 l/min over a 100 m length
lowing results: (Tollerup and Forhaug 1996).
Nordic tests for studded tyres 9.3
Los Angeles value on 32–63 mm material 13.4 Saltsjö tunnel
Los Angeles value on 16–32 mm material 12.9 The 7.5-km long Saltsjö tunnel extends from the sewage
Los Angeles value on 10–14 mm material 16.3 plant at Solna to the Baltic Sea. This plant converts the
Shape index for 11–16 mm material 43.7 heat generated in the purification process and converts it
Shape index for 8–11 mm material 38.8 into electrical energy. It then transfers the cleaned water
The values obtained indicate a good quality rock for use as via the Saltsjö tunnel beneath central Stockholm to Kastell-
aggregate. holmen and a discharge point on the edge of the Baltic Sea.
The tunnel was driven through gneissic granites, gneisses
Arlanda link and younger granite with semi-horizontal joints which are
The Arlanda link involves the improvement of railway frequently water-bearing (Lundström and Ryback 1989).
lines to northern Sweden and the construction of shuttle The most important joint direction is NW (Hahn and
tracks from central Stockholm to the international airport Tenne 1989).
at Arlanda. Of the 17.5 km of new railway, 8 km has been
constructed in tunnel with the excavation of 0.8 million m 3 Table 8
of rock. The work started in 1995 and is programmed to be Rock mechanics information from the Saltsjö tunnel (Hahn and
completed in 1999. The three underground stations, each Tenne 1989)
10 m high and with a span of some 22 m, will be between
250 and 355 m long. Generally the rock cover is between 8 Granite Gneiss
and 15 m, although in one area there is as little at 5 m.
The construction commenced with two 7-m-wide openings Uniaxial Compressive Strength (MPa) 150–220 65–180
Point load index (MPa) 5–9 1–7
using drill and blast techniques, leaving an 8-m-wide pillar. Penetration test (kN/mm) 20–32 15–27
The removal of the central pillar was always at least 5 m Fracture toughness (MN/m 1.5) 2.2–3.0 2.3–3.3
behind the advance of the side openings (Tollerup and Wear and tear, CA1 3.0–5.5 1.9–5.9
Forhaug 1996; see also Persson 1995b for a summary). A

86 Bull Eng Geol Env (1998) 57 : 79–90 7 Q Springer-Verlag

 Engineering geology of Stockholm, Sweden

The main rock mechanics properties along the line of the latively unjointed and where present, the apertures are
tunnel are given in Table 8. This was the first full-faced generally less than 1 mm. As a consequence, they showed
TBM tunnel constructed in hard rock in Sweden (Hahn et little evidence of weathering. The joint width is generally
al. 1989; Sundin et al. 1989; Morfeldt 1993) – an Atlas Cop- less than 1 mm.
co Foro 900 was used. Technical analyses were undertaken on the drill core mate-
rial not only to assess excavatability but also to establish
Käppala sewage plant the quality of the rock for subsequent use (J&W Bygg &
One of the largest underground sewage plants in Sweden Anläggning AB 1994). It was planned that the arisings from
(Project Käppala 2001) is currently undergoing restoration the excavation should be exported to areas around the Bal-
and extension. The plant was originally built between 1959 tic Sea and other parts of Europe and hence density, flaki-
and 1969 to treat the foul water from nine municipalities ness index, shape index and studded tyre tests were under-
with a total population of some 45,000 people. By the year taken on the core samples (Table 9). In addition to the in-
2020, an increased capacity to serve 700,000 people will be formation provided in Table 9, Los Angeles values of 21.8,
required (Byggindustrin 1995, see Niland 1996 for a sum- 22.4, 25.1 and 25.4 were obtained on the 10–14 mm frac-
mary). This project is part of an agreement to minimise tion. The test results and cost comparisons indicated that
pollution in the Baltic Sea by reducing the nitrate concen- the arisings could not be used as Class I material hence
trations by at least 50%. export by sea was not economically viable. In view of this
As part of the upgrading of the sewage plant, five new rock and the lack of sufficient planning time, as well as other
caverns were constructed, each 280 m long and 16 m wide. factors, permission was obtained to dump the material in
Modern drilling and blasting techniques were used (e.g. the sea nearby.
Nonel detonators and laser guided computer steering on
rock drills). In spite of this, the excavation of the Water storage tunnels
450,000 m 3 of rock resulted in strong vibrations being ex-
perienced by existing structures above the rock chambers Snake tunnel
(Morfeldt and Persson 1997). In the Stockholm area, both the stormwater and foul water
By using the geological and geotechnical information avail- pass through the waste water treatment plant at Henrriks-
able for the site, it was possible to classify the different dal in the south-eastern part of the city. The network cur-
parts of the rock walls and roofs using the Q value model rently transports approximately 180 million m 3 of foul and
(Barton, Lien and Lunde 1974; Barton 1976; Bieniawski storm water per year. In the past, when the system was
1974, 1976; Hoek and Brown 1994). On the basis of this, it unable to cope with excessive flows, up to 0.8 million m 3 of
was possible to reduce the bolting required to stabilise the water has been allowed to outflow into Lake Mälaren. To
rock caverns (Persson and Morfeldt 1996; Morfeldt and reduce the adverse effects of this, the Snake Tunnel was
Persson 1997). built between 1990 and 1993 to provide temporary stor-
The investigation consisted of four horizontally drilled age.
cored boreholes with lengths of between 40 and 150 m. The A full faced Atlas Copco Foro 900 tunnelling machine with
main rock types are sedimentary and granitic gneisses with a diameter of 3.5 m excavated the 2.8 km tunnel which now
minor younger granites and pegmatites. The rocks are re- provides a storage volume of 35,000 m 3. The tunnel is
60–70 m below ground level and as many of the buildings
in lowland Stockholm are founded on wooden piles, it was
Table 9 particularly important that it should be watertight. Any
Technical analyses undertaken on rock material from the Käp- lowering of the ground water level would pose a serious
pala underground sewage plant (J & W Bygg & Anläggning risk of instability or settlement damage to the structures.
1994) The maximum acceptable leakage was 2 l/min per 100 m of
tunnel. The ground water levels were assessed by measure-
Sample Density Flakiness Shape Studded ments taken in 110 boreholes along the length of the tun-
(g/cm 3) index index tyre test
(%) (wt %)
nel (Mineconsult AB 1992; Morfeldt 1993; Nordmark and
Bergdahl 1996).
1 2.697 1.31 51 13.5
2 2.829 1.31 57 12.0
3 2.673 1.30 51 14.0 Table 10
4 2.653 1.31 51 10.9 Rock mechanics data from the Snake tunnel (Nordmark and
5 2.693 1.37 55 15.4 Bergdahl 1996)
6 2.657 1.35 47 10.5
7 2.643 1.36 49 11.1 Granite Gneiss
8 2.699 1.34 50 14.0
9 2.705 1.36 54 16.7 Axial compression strength (MPa) 150–220 65–180
10 2.707 1.37 56 16.3 Point load (MPa) 5–9 1–7
Mean value 2.676 1.34 52 13.4 Fracture toughness (MN/m 1.5) 2.2–3.0 2.3–3.3
Standard deviation 0.028 0.03 3.25 2.26 Wear and tear, CA1 3.0–5.5 1.9–5.9

Bull Eng Geol Env (1998) 57 : 79–90 7 Q Springer-Verlag 87

 L. Persson

Fig. 7
Location of projects discussed
in the paper

The
Sundbyberg
tunnel
Käppala
The Saltsjö The Snake
tunnel
KB

Söder-
sjukhuset
N
0 3000 m

The tunnel was driven through bedrock consisting of are equivalent in height to a five storey building, was only
veined gneisses, younger granites and pegmatites with 15 m below the basement of the library. The total volume
some dolerite dykes trending in a NW direction. The main of rock excavated was 110,000 m 3.
rock mechanics data obtained are given in Table 10. The main rock types are sedimentary veined gneisses and
minor amounts of intrusive younger granites and pegma-
Sundbyberg tunnel tites.
This waste water tunnel is under construction in Sundby- As the nearby buildings are founded on wooden piles, it
berg between Lilla Alby and Rissne with connections to the was important to establish the ground water level and ac-
Järva tunnel of Stockholm (Fig. 7) at an estimated cost of ceptable vibrations for blasting during construction (Nord-
8.5 million US$. The effluent is transported to the Bromma mark and Bergdahl 1996). According to Lindblom, Green
sewage plant and until the tunnel is completed in 1998, at and Manell (1995), the main problems anticipated were:
times of heavy rainfall the excess effluent flows to the Bäll- 1. ground vibrations – causing structural damage to adja-
sta Stream. The 3.5 km tunnel, with a storage capacity of cent buildings;
50,000 m 3, is being excavated in metasedimentary veined 2. shock waves from blasting – damaging windows etc.;
gneisses containing arenitic, argillitic and amphibolitic 3. minimal rock cover – with possible collapse of the cav-
layers. The gneisses have been intruded by fine-grained ern roof;
granites and associated pegmatites. 4. falling rock blocks – damaging the concrete structure;
5. draw-down of ground water – affecting adjacent struc-
Södersjukhuset tures;
This project involved the construction of culverts and tun- 6. inflow of ground water.
nels beneath the hospital at Södersjukhuset, Södermalm, The horizontal stresses were measured between 15 and
just south of the centre of Stockholm. As part of the sche- 39 m and gave values of 4.0–5.5 MPa, more than four times
me, a new system of culverts in the rock tunnels under the the vertical overburden pressure (Klasson and Ljunggren
site was installed and links made to access an air raid shelt- 1992; Lindblom et al. 1995). The grouting process is de-
er constructed in the early 1940s. Between 1990 and 1994, scribed by Anderson (1994) who concluded that more effi-
1.8 km of tunnel were built and 50,000 m 3 of rock excav- cient grouting could have been achieved in the permeable
ated; the main rock type being gneissic, porphyritic gran- zones if microcement had been used instead of ordinary
ite. The Nordic test for studded tyres gave a value of 12.7 cement.
and the Los Angeles test 24. These are somewhat lower val-
ues than would be obtained elsewhere in the gneissic gran-
ites of Sweden where the megacrysts have been recrystal-
lised and intergrown with the matrix. Conclusions
Drill and blast techniques were satisfactorily used only
10 m beneath the hospital. At this level, a maximum ac- In view of the generally high quality bedrock beneath the
ceptable vibration velocity was specified for the buildings city of Stockholm, underground construction is used for
(Nordmark and Bergdahl 1996). much of the infrastructure, including communications,
drinking and foul water distribution, services such as elec-
Underground extension of the Royal Library tricity, storage areas and parking etc.
In 1992–93, two caverns, 50 m long, 15 m wide and 19 m The creation of large underground projects in populated
high were constructed, in each of which a concrete struc- areas has a significant environmental impact, particularly
ture was built to store books. One of these caverns, which as large quantities of rock material may be excavated dur-

88 Bull Eng Geol Env (1998) 57 : 79–90 7 Q Springer-Verlag


ing a short period of time. It is a requirement that the rock
material is classified for its potential use as road, rail and
concrete aggregate and that the usable material is stored at
appropriate locations.
For all underground projects, engineering geological inves-
tigation is now playing a highly significant role both at the
planning stage and during and after construction. Consid-
erable effort is being made to ensure the knowledge ob-
tained is available for decision-makers in the community
now and for future generations.
Data bases are being created which will be capable of ac-
commodating future information as well as that currently
available from ongoing construction works. As these data-
bases are continually updated, they will in time facilitate
the production of urban underground maps and assist in
the planning and use of resources so that adverse effects on
the environment are minimised. In addition, it is hoped
that in the future, accessibility to 3D information during
the planning and construction phase will reduce the errors
made during the works and minimise the additional costs
frequently incurred during underground construction.
Acknowledgements The author thanks Daniel Morfeldt, Mine-
consult AB, for his valuable information and his discussions, help
and constructive criticism during the preparation of the text and
Björn Schouenborg, SP for valuable discussions. Mattias Görans-
son and Sven Lundqvist of SGU are thanked for producing the
technical analyses (Tables 1 and 2) and for valuable discussions
and constructive criticism and Malin Pamnert (SGU) for produc-
ing the computer based maps. The author is also grateful to Kjell
Torsteinsrud (National Swedish Railway Administration, Sundby-
berg) who provided information from Igelstabron and Grödinge-
banan and to Per-Olov Karlsson and Bertil Lind (National Swe-
dish Road Administration) for data concerning Ringen.
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