UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA SABAH

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRAM

SEMESTER 1, 2010 / 2011

KC 20503 CHEMICAL PROCESS PRINCIPLES

TITLE :
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Assignment 1

Pressure Measurements Devices

GROUP 1 MEMBERS : Kenny Then Soon Hung (BK09110098)

Chin Chung Fui (BK09110026)

Scott Biondi R Valintinus (BK09110151)

Jenefer Tan Phaik Yee (BK09110120)

Ermieza Sinin (BK09160211)

Clarice Vencislaus Binjinol (BK09110005)

Norhayati Binti Asgan (BK09110204)

DATE : 18th October 2010

LECTURER : Dr. S.M. Anisuzzaman

TABLE OF CONTENTS :

Contents Page

1.0 Elastic-element method

(a) Aneroid Gauge

(b) Bourdon Gauge

(c) Diaphragm Gauge

2.0 Liquid Column method

(a) Barometer

(b) Manometer

(c) McLeod Gauge

3.0 Electric method

(a) Dead Weight Tester

(b) Piezoelectric

(c) Strain Gauge

4.0 References
ASSIGNMENT 1 :

Show images / pictures of pressure measurement devices and explain how they work.

1.0 Elastic-element method

(a) Aneroid Gauge

Aneroid means “with no fluid” which means aneroid gauges can be used for liquid or
gas pressure measurement even without the presence of liquid itself. They are based on a
metallic pressure sensing element which flexes elastically under the effect of a pressure
difference across the element. Another name for aneroid gauge is mechanical gauge. 1

Although aneroid gauges are mostly

known as mechanical gauges in the
modern world, they are still basically the
same thing.

Aneroid gauge does not affected by the type of gas that is being measured and less
probable to contaminate the system. There are many types of pressure sensing element for
aneroid gauges such as Bourdon tube, a diaphragm, a capsule, or a set of bellows which has
different function according to the desired region. 2

An example of aneroid gauge with a

bourdon type of pressure sensing element

The pressure sensing element is connected with a needle as an indicator which it

moves when the pressure sensing element deflected as a result of a pressure change and this

1
Aneroid. 1st October 2010. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aneroid
2
Pressure Measurement. 2nd October 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_measurement
deflection is mechanically amplified, by using a suitable gear and linkage mechanism, and
indicated on the calibrated dial. 3

The needle deflects to the corresponding

pressure making pressure measurement easier.

Some may have a secondary transducer; a device that converts one type of energy to
another. The most popular secondary transducers in current vacuum gauges evaluate a
change in capacitance due to the mechanical deflection. 4

The cuff interface connects may connect to

many pressure measurement resources such
as secondary transducers, pressure bladder,
gas connector etc.

3
Aneroid Gauge. 1st October 2010. http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/civil/articles/43777.aspx
4
Aneroid Gauge. 1st October 2010. http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/skylab/appAIc8.html
(b) Bourdon Gauge

Figure 1: The Bourdon Gauge

The Bourdon gauge is shown in figure 1.  It works on the same principle as that of the
snakelike, paper party whistle you get at a New Year party, which straightens when you blow
into it. Within the Bourdon gauge is a thin-walled metal tube, somewhat flattened and bent
into the form of a C.  Attached to its free end is a lever system that magnifies any motion of
the free end of the tube. On the fixed end of the gauge is a fitting you thread into a boiler system.
As pressure increases within the boiler, it travels through the tube. Like the snake like paper
whistle, the metal tube begins to straighten as the pressure increases inside of it.  As the tube
straightens, the point moves around a dial that indicates the pressure in psi.
(c) Diaphragm Gauge

Diaphragm gauges is a device generally used to measure air pressure in the space
between the inner and outer boiler casings. It used a diaphragm with a known pressure to
measure pressure in a fluid. Diaphragm  gauges  are  very  sensitive  and  give reliable
indication  of  small  differences  in  pressure. Thus, it has many uses, such as monitoring
pressure of a canister of gas, measuring atmospheric pressure, or recording the strength of
the vacuum in a vacuum pump.

This mechanism consists of a tough, pliable, neoprene rubber membrane connected to

a metal spring that is attached by a simple linkage system to the gauge pointer. The
diaphragm has a flexible membrane with two sides. One side is an enclosed capsule
containing air or some other fluid at a predetermined pressure. The other side can be left
open to the air or screwed in to whatever system the gauge is meant to measure. Besides
that, the diaphragm also attaches to some sort of meter, which shows the intensity of
pressure. - When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, it moves and, through a linkage
system, moves the pointer to a higher reading on the dial.5

A fluid in contact with a flexible membrane pushes on that membrane, bending it. The
pressure is a measure of how hard it pushes. When the outside preference is low, the
reference pressure bends the membrane out. However, as the outside pressure increases, it
pushes back on the membrane, bending it back the other way. By measuring how far the
membrane bends, the gauge can detect the outside pressure.

5
Diaphragm Gauge. 5th October 2010. http://www.tpub.com/content/fc/14104/css/14104_234.htm
 Actually, there are many different ways to measure the pressure from a dynamic
pressure gauge.The simplest ones is to attach a needle to the gauge. As the pressure
increases, it pushes on the needle, moving it up and down along a dial which shows the
pressure. Another way is to use an electric resistance strain gauge. An electric resistance
strain gauge uses a long strip of an electric resistor (a device that resists the flow of
electricity). The resistor is attached to the diaphragm. When the diaphragm bends, it stretches
out the resistor, increasing the resistance. The resistor has an electric current running through
it. The more the diaphragm bends and increases the resistance, the more the current drops.
By measuring the electric current, the gauge can determine how far the diaphragm has bent,
and thus, how much pressure the outside air is creating.6

6
Diaphragm Pressure Sensors. 5th October 2010.
http://www.efunda.com/DesignStandards/sensors/diaphragm \
diaphragm_intro.cfm
2.0 Liquid Column method
(a) Barometer
A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. It can measure
the pressure exerted by the atmosphere by using water, air, or mercury. Pressure tendency
can forecast short term changes in the weather. Numerous measurements of air pressure are
used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, high pressure systems, and
frontal boundaries.

There are two main types of barometers. The most widely available and reliable
Mercury Barometers, or the newer digital friendly Aneroid Barometer.

The classic mercury barometer is typically a glass tube about 3 feet high with one end
open and the other end sealed. The tube is filled with mercury. This glass tube sits upside
down in a container, called the reservoir, which also contains mercury. The mercury level in
the glass tube falls, creating a vacuum at the top. The first barometer of this type was devised
by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. 7

The barometer works by balancing the weight of mercury in the glass tube against the
atmospheric pressure just like a set of scales. If the weight of mercury is less than the
atmospheric pressure, the mercury level in the glass tube rises. If the weight of mercury is
more than the atmospheric pressure, the mercury level falls.

Atmospheric pressure is basically the weight of air in the atmosphere above the
reservoir, so the level of mercury continues to change until the weight of mercury in the glass
tube is exactly equal to the weight of air above the reservoir.

In areas of low pressure, air is rising away from the surface of the earth more quickly
than it can be replaced by air flowing in from surrounding areas. This reduces the weight of
air above the reservoir so the mercury level drops to a lower level. 8

In contrast, in areas of high pressure, air is sinking toward the surface of the earth
more quickly than it can flow out to surrounding areas. There is more air above the reservoir,
so the weight of air is higher and the mercury rises to a higher level to balance things out.

Changes in atmospheric pressure are one of the most commonly used ways to forecast
changes in the weather because weather patterns are carried around in regions of high and

7
Barometer. 3rd October 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barometer
8
Barometer. 4th October 2010. http://weather.about.com/od/weatherinstruments/a/barometers.htm
low pressure. Weather maps use lines of equal pressure called isobars to indicate areas of
equal pressure. (Learn more about weather map symbols).
A slowly rising atmospheric pressure, over a week or two, typically indicates settled
weather that will last a long time. A sudden drop in atmospheric pressure over a few hours
often forecasts an approaching storm, which will not last long, with heavy rain and strong
winds. 9

By carefully watching the pressure on a barometer, you can forecast local weather
using these simple guidelines. The decrease in barometric pressure indicates storms, rain and
windy weather, whereas the rise in barometric pressure indicates good, dry, and colder
weather. For slow, regular and moderate falls in pressure, it may suggest a low pressure area
is passing in a nearby region. Marked changes in the weather where you are located are
unlikely. A small rapid decreases in pressure indicate a nearby change in weather. They are
usually followed by brief spells of wind and showers. As quick drop in pressure over a short
time occur, it indicates that a storm is likely in 5 to 6 hours. A long period of poor weather is
forecast by large, slow and sustained decreasing pressure. The weather will be more
pronounced if the pressure started rising before it began to drop. Contrast to that, a rapid rise
in pressure, during fair weather and average, or above average pressure, indicates a low
pressure cell is approaching. The pressure will soon decrease forecasting poorer weather. Last
but not least, quickly rising pressure, when the pressure is low, indicates a short period of fair
weather is likely while, a large, slow and sustained rise in pressure forecasts a long period of
good weather is on its way. 10

Burch, David F. The Barometer Handbook; a modern look at barometers and applications of barometric pressure.
9

Seattle: Starpath Publications (2009), ISBN 978-0-914025-12-2.

Middleton, W.E. Knowles. (1964). The history of the barometer. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. New edition
10

(2002), ISBN 0801871549.

Fig 1.1 Mercury barometer measures atmospheric pressure by balance the weight of mercury
in a glass tube against the weight of air in the atmosphere.

Fig 1.2 Modern aneroid barometer

Fig 1.3 Old aneroid barometer

(b) Manometer
A manometer is a device employed to measure pressure. There are a variety of manometer
designs. A simple, common design is to seal a length of glass tubing and bend the glass tube
into a U-shape. The glass tube is then filled with a liquid, typically mercury, so that all trapped
air is removed from the sealed end of the tube. The glass tube is then positioned with the
curved region at the bottom. The mercury settles to the bottom. 11

After the mercury settles to the bottom of the manometer, a vacuum is produced in
the sealed tube. The open tube is connected to the system whose pressure is being
measured. In the sealed tube, there is no gas to exert a force on the mercury (except for
some mercury vapor). In the tube connected to the system, the gas in the system exerts a
11
Manometer. 9th October 2010. http://www.chm.davidson.edu/vce/gaslaws/pressure.html
force on the mercury. The net result is that the column of mercury in the left (sealed) tube is
higher than that in the right (unsealed) tube. The difference in the heights of the columns of
mercury is a measure of the pressure of gas in the system. 12

For example, let’s say the top left is the sealed end of the tube and the top right is the
unsealed end of the tube. If the top of the left column of mercury corresponds to 875 mm on
the scale and the top of the right column of mercury corresponds to 115 mm, the difference in
heights is 875 mm - 115 mm = 760. mm, which indicates that the pressure is 760. mm Hg or
760. torr. 13

This method for measuring pressure led to the use of millimeters of mercury (mm Hg)
as a unit of pressure. Today 1 mm Hg is called 1 torr. A pressure of 1 torr or 1 mm Hg is
literally the pressure that produces a 1 mm difference in the heights of the two columns of
mercury in a manometer. 14

To understand how the height of a column of mercury can be used as a unit of

pressure and how the unit of torr is related to the SI unit of pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m 2), consider
the following mathematical analysis of the behavior of the manometer.

The force exerted by the column of mercury in a tube arises from the gravitational
acceleration of the column of mercury. Newton's Second Law provides an expression for this
force:

F=mg

In this equation, m is the mass of mercury in the column and g = 9.80665 m/sec2 is
the gravitational acceleration. This force is distributed over the cross-sectional area of the
column ( A ). The pressure resulting from the column of mercury is thus

mg
P=
A

The mass of mercury is given by the product of the density of mercury ( dHg ) and the
volume of mercury ( V ). For a cylindrical column of mercury, the volume of mercury is the

12
Pressure Measurement. 7th October 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_measurement
13
Manometer. 8th October 2010. http://www.efunda.com/formulae/fluids/manometer.cfm
14
Beckwith, Thomas G.; Roy D. Marangoni and John H. Lienhard V (1993). "Measurement of Low Pressures".
Mechanical Measurements (Fifth ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 591–595. ISBN 0-201-56947-7.
product of the cross-sectional area and the height of the column ( h ). These relationships
produce the following equation.

mg g hg
P= =d hg V =d hg V =d hg V g
A A A

This equation clearly shows that the height of a column of mercury is directly proportional to
the pressure exerted by that column of mercury. The difference in heights of the two columns
of mercury in a manometer can thus be used to measure the difference in pressures between
the two sides of the manometer. 15

The relation between torr and Pa is also clearly evident. Using dHg = 13.5951 g cm-3,
one finds that 1 torr = 133 Pa or 1 atm = 760 torr = 101 kPa.

Fig 2.1 Manometer pressure. The difference in fluid height in a liquid column manometer is
proportional to the pressure difference.

15
Robert M. Besançon, ed (1990). "Vacuum Techniques" (3rd edition ed.). Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
pp. 1278–1284. ISBN 0-442-00522-9.
 Fig 2.2 This manometer is design to measure relative pressure under water.

(c) McLeod Gauge

A McLeod gauge is a scientific instrument used to measure very low pressures, down to 10-
6
 mbar. It was invented in 1874 by Herbert G. McLeod (1841–1923). McLeod gauges were
once commonly found attached to equipment that operates under a vacuum. Today, however,
these gauges have largely been replaced by electronic vacuum gauges. Compared to digital
gauges, the McLeod gauge is somewhat unwieldy to use. Its use requires some calculation,
and a liquid nitrogen bath may be required to prevent interference from the mercury's vapor
pressure.

A glass McLeod Gauge, drained of mercury McLeod Gauge symbol

 The design of a McLeod gauge is somewhat similar to that of a mercury
column manometer. Typically it is filled with mercury. If used incorrectly, this mercury can
escape and contaminate the vacuum system attached to the gauge. A slug of mercury moving
in a tube is used to isolate a volume of gas at the pressure to be measured. The gas in the
volume is then compressed by a known amount, and the final pressure is obtained with a
manometer16.
In order to take a pressure reading of a vacuum chamber, the McLeod gauge must
take in a sample from the chamber. Caution during this operation is crucial, as errors could
cause accidental release of the mercury into the test chamber. After the gauge takes in the
sample volume of gas, it is tilted again such that the mercury applies pressure to the gas. A
manometer then measures the pressure applied by the gas using movement of mercury in the
manometer. Using the final pressure, final volume, and initial volume, the initial pressure can
be calculated with the help of Boyle's Law. Boyle's law states that p 1V1 = p2V2. The McLeod
gauge calculates pressure in absolute terms, rather than relative (relative pressure is
difference from atmospheric pressure)17.

The calibration of the gauge is based upon Boyles/Charles physical chemistry gas laws
p1V1 = p2V2 and therefore measurement of the volume of the glass bulb and the volume per unit
length or bore of the capillary tubes is made with high precision.  It is based upon dimensions
during manufacture so that once it is correct, very little can go wrong to change its calibration,
and so it can be reliably used as a reference standard.

A McLeod gauge is an absolute pressure standard to which many other vacuum gauges
are calibrated.  It will accurately measure the total pressure of non-condensable permanent
gases (i.e. hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, etc.) in a vacuum system, but will not correctly measure
condensable vapors if present.  Many condensable vapors will be condensed during compression
of the gas sample in the capillary tube and not contribute to depression of the gauge liquid. If
condensable vapors may be present while calibrating a vacuum gauge against the McLeod
gauge, then a liquid nitrogen cold trap should be used to ensure that only non-condensable
gases are being measured18.

16
Boyes Walt, Low Pressure Measuring, Butterworth: Heinemann, 2008, pg 113.
17
Robert M. Besancon, Vacuum Techniques, New York: Van Nostrand, 1990, pg. 45.
18
Callen Herbert, The Dynamics of Pressure, London: Leeds & Sons, 1995, pg. 165.
 Operating Schemes of McLeod Gauge

McLeod gauge is substantially less accurate for compressible gases than for
incompressible ones. This is because Boyle's law assumes an incompressible gas. Condensable
gases, such as water vapour, ammonia, carbon dioxide and pump oil vapors, may be in
gaseous form in the low pressure of the vacuum chamber, but will condense when
compressed by the McLeod gauge. The result is an erroneous reading, showing a pressure
much lower than actually present.

It has the advantage that it is simple to use and that its calibration is the same nearly
for all non-condensable gases. Modern electronic vacuum gauges are simpler to use, less
fragile, and do not present a mercury hazard, but their reading is highly dependent on the
chemical nature of the gas being measured and their calibration is unstable. For this reason
McLeod gauges continue to be used as a calibration standard for electronic gauges.
Example of McLeod Gauge - HyVac Oil McLeod Gauge
3.0 Electric method
(a) Dead Weight Tester

1 - Handpump
2 - Testing Pump
3 - Pressure Gauge to be calibrated
4 - Calibration Weight
5 - Weight Support
6 - Piston
7 - Cylinder
8 - Filling Connection

One of the pressure measurement devices is deadweight tester. First of all, what is
deadweight tester? Deadweight tester actually can be considered as a master gauge which is
used to calibrate pressure gauges. In the aspect of instrumentation, a deadweight tester
(DWT) is a calibration standard which uses a piston cylinder on which a load is placed to make
an equilibrium with an applied pressure underneath the piston. Deadweight tester is also
known as primary standards. It is due to the pressure measured by a deadweight tester is
defined through other quantities, such as the length, mass and time. The deadweight tester
was invented by Albert Einstein. A deadweight tester is being called as deadweight tester
because it uses those cylinders weights which are called dead weights. At dead weight, the
mass cannot move, it is constant. Opposite of that is a living weight which is any weight that
could change.
Nowadays, the deadweight testers are more accurate and more complex, but the
essential operating principles are the same as the one used before. In the United States, the
National Institute of Standards & Technology (NIST) provides certified weights and calibrates
laboratory piston gauges by measuring the diameter of the piston. Deadweight testers can be
used to calibrate at pressure levels as low as 5 psig (35 kPa) and as high as 100,000 psig (690
MPa). NIST calibrated deadweight testers can be accurate to 5 parts in 100,000 at pressures
below 40,000 psig (280 MPa). For an industrial quality deadweight tester, error is typically
0.1% of span.
How dead weight tester work ? Firstly, the testing pump (2) is connected to the
instrument to be tested (3), to the actual measuring component and to the filling socket.
Then, a special hydraulic oil or gas such as compressed air or nitrogen is used as the pressure
transfer medium. The measuring piston is then loaded with calibrated weights (4). The
pressure is applied via an integrated pump (1) or, if an external pressure supply is available,
via control valves in order to generate a pressure until the loaded measuring piston (6) rises
and 'floats' on the fluid. This is the point where there is a balance between pressure and the
mass load. The piston is rotated to reduce friction as far as possible. Since the piston is
spinning, it exerts a pressure that can be calculated by application of a derivative of the
formula P = F/A. 19

In a deadweight tester, there consists of a pumping piston with a screw that presses it
into the reservoir, a primary piston that carries the dead weight, and the gauge or transducer
to be tested. It works by loading the primary piston with the amount of weight. Then, more
fluid is pressed into the reservoir cylinder which will result in the pumping piston pressurizes
the whole system. It is done until the dead weight lifts off its support. Finally, the pressure
can be calculated. 20

The formula on which the design of a DWT is based basically is expressed as follows :

p = F/A [Pa]

19
Instruments Of Dead Weight Tester. 10th Ocober 2010. http://www.sensorland.com/HowPage001.html
20
Dead Weight Tester. 12th October 2010. http://www.minervaipm.com/
 There are many types of deadweight tester. According to AMETEK calibration
instruments, there are MODEL PK II, MODEL RK, MODEL HK, T&R Hydraulic, T&R Hydraulic
Dual Column and HydraLite (HL) portable deadweight tester series.

For the PK II tester, it is used for low pressure applications up to 30 psi (2 bar). It is
available in 7 engineering units: psi, g/cm2, kPa, bar, inH 2O, cmH2O, and mmHg. This industry
standard has an accuracy of up to ±0.015% of reading.  It is put in a rugged case made for
'closed case' operation to protect from wind conditions. It is used for optional tripod and also
available for medical applications with oxygen. 21

For RK, it is accurate up to ±0.015%  of indicated reading. This primary standard is

ideal for pressure ranges from 1 to 300 psi (0.01 to 20 bar). It provides incremental pressures
down to only 0.1 psi (1 mbar).  It is also available in seven different engineering units. It
features a cast metal base with quick leveling for field or laboratory use. Same as PK II, it also
operates with cover closed.

For HK, it is a high pressure tester up to 1,500 psi (100 bar), AMETEK HK series testers
operate in the same easy manner as the Model PK II and RK testers. It features an accuracy
up to ±0.025% and a repeatability up to ±0.005% of reading.  It is only available in psi,
kg/cm2, kPa and bar engineering units.  

21
Dead Weight Tester. 12th October 2010. http://www.euramet.org/index.php?id=calibration-guides
  

For T&R Hydraulic, it is an ideal tester for laboratory or field use. It uses distilled water
or fluid compatible with 300 series stainless steel and MONEL. It is suitable for applications up
to 15,000 psi (1,000 bar). 

For T&R Hydraulic Dual Column, it provides separate columns for high and low
pressure measuring piston/ cylinder assemblies. Its range changes are achieved using a built-
in crossover valve. It allows three-point calibrations to be performed in seconds. 

For HydraLite (HL), it is designed for pressure ranges from 10-200 psi (1-15 bar) up to
50-3,000 psi (5-225 bar).  Its accurate reading is up to ±0.05%. The weights and piston
assemblies are interchangeable. It is design in 9 x 9 x 10 in (23 x 23 x 24.5 cm).

According to Mensor, there are Pneumatic, Hydraulic, Portable Hydraulic, Automatic

Calibrator Unit, Piston / Cylinder Assembly and Masses.
 For Pneumatic Deadweight Tester from Mensor, it operates on clean gas for ranges up
to 1500 psi. The ConTectTM System allows quick and easy cleaning and range changes without
the need for special tools.

For Hydraulic Deadweight Tester from Mensor, it operates with a hydraulic fluid media
producing ranges up to 15,000 psi. The ConTect TM System works the same way as the
pneumatic system.

For Portable Hydraulic Deadweight Tester from Mensor, it uses a hydraulic fluid media
producing ranges up to 15,000 psi with an accuracy up to 0.025%. Its masses stacked directly
on the base making it suitable for fields use.

For Automatic Calibrator unit, it is used to achieve the ultimate performance with
either the pneumatic or the hydraulic Deadweight Testers. The unit automatically calculates
the pressure based on current environmental influences such as gravity, piston / cylinder
temperature, Barometric Pressure, ambient temperature and relative humidity.
 For Piston / Cylinder Assembly, it utilizes a unique design for the piston / cylinder. This
system protects the piston / cylinder in a housing. This enables the user to quickly change
ranges while protecting the piston and cylinder from accidental damage.

For Masses, they are manufactured from non-magnetic Series 303 Stainless Steel for
long term stability and durability. It is designed with a bell mass to lower the center of gravity
and improving stability. In order to generate very low pressures, an aluminum plate allows
small masses to be applied directly to the top of the piston.

There are two main source of error which is the weight combination and gravity
variations. To eliminate those errors, order it calibrated to local gravity when buying a new
tester. Besides, find the local gravity and calculate the corrected pressure values for each
weight combination. 22

As a conclusion, deadweight testers are used to measure the pressure exerted by gas
or liquid. They can also generate a test pressure for the calibration of numerous pressure
instruments. This pressure measurement device works by placing the known weight on a
rotating plate on top of a calibrated piston. It is then connected by tubing to the pressure
sensor and is being tested. This puts a known force (weights) on a known surface area
(piston). The rotation eliminates any static friction that would affect the reading.

(b) Piezoelectric
22
Instruments Of Dead Weight Tester. 10th Ocober 2010. http://www.dhinstruments.com/
Piezoelectric pressure sensor are designed to measure pressure changes in liquids and gases
such as in shock tube studies, in-cylinder pressure measurements, field blast tests, pressure
pump perturbations and in other pneumatic and hydraulic processes 23. It consists of naturally
occurring crystals such as quartz. The quartz generates an electrical charge when they are
strained. The piezoelectric pressure sensors do not require an external excitation source but
requires charge amplification circuitry. The obtained electrical charge is converted into actual
units of pressure by using a typical conversion formula. 24

Generally, a piezoelectric sensor works on the principle of conversion of energy in

mechanical and electrical energy forms. When a polarized crystal is put under pressure, some
mechanical deformation takes place in the polarized crystal. So this will leads in the generation
of the electric charge. Then piezo sensor is used to measured the generated electric charge or
the mechanical deformation.

23
Piezo Electric sensor. 12th October 2010. http://www.dytran.com/img/tech/a5.pdf
2424
Piezo Electric sensor. 11th October 2010. http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/3639
 There are many types of piezoelectric sensors. For examples, piezoelectric
accelerometer, piezoelectric force sensors, and piezoelectric pressure sensors. A piezoelectric
accelerometer is widely used for OEM applications and is suitable for working at a lower power
consumption and wider frequency range. Piezoelectric force sensors are low impedance
voltage force sensors designed for generating analog voltage signals when a force is applied
on the piezoelectric crystal and are widely used in machines for measuring force. A
piezoelectric pressure sensor is also known as piezoelectric sensor pressure. Piezoelectric
pressure sensors are used for measuring change in liquid and gases pressure. Other
piezoelectric sensors are commonly available.

Actually, there are several ways in which piezoelectric sensors function. Piezoelectric
material consists of polarized ions within the crystal. As a piezoelectric sensor applies pressure
on the piezoelectric crystal in proportion to the charge output. The resultant displacement in
the ions within the crystal position is measured and recorded using piezoelectric vibration
sensors. A piezoelectric accelerometer has a charge frequency response capacity ranging from
20 Hz to 10 KHz. A piezoelectric accelerometer can have electromagnetic sensitivity of 0.0009
equiv.gm/gm and base strain sensitivity of 0.008 equiv.gm/micro strain. Piezoelectric force
sensors should display a 5-volt full display signal. Piezoelectric force sensors should have
sensitivity of approximately 105 pC/N. Apart from that, piezoelectric pressure sensors should
have rise time less than 2.0 micro seconds. The maximum pressure applied by piezoelectric
sensors can be 1000psi and the voltage measurement range can be up to 5 volts. Piezoelectric
sensors are designed and manufactured to meet most industry specifications.
 Basically, Piezoelectric sensors are used in many applications. Piezoelectric sensors are
used in shock detection and machine monitoring applications. Besides that, piezoelectric
sensors are also used in structural dynamics, vehicle dynamics, and low power applications.
Piezoelectric sensors should adhere to American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standards. 25

(c) Strain Gauge

It is often easy to measure the parameters like length, displacement, weight etc that
can be felt easily by some senses. However, it is very difficult to measure the dimensions like
force, stress and strain that cannot be really sensed directly by any instrument. For such cases
special devices called strain gauges are very useful. There are some materials whose
resistance changes when strain is applied to them or when they are stretched and this change
in resistance can be measured easily. For applying the strain you need force, thus the change
in resistance of the material can be calibrated to measure the applied force. Thus the devices
whose resistance changes due to applied strain or applied force are called as the strain
gauges. The strain gauge has been in use for many years and is the fundamental sensing
element for many types of sensors, including pressure sensors, load cells, torque sensors and
position sensors.

Stress is a measure of the amount of internal pressure acted on a certain material.

Deformation occurs when a greater force is supplied to a smaller body. The effect of stress is
what we call strain. Any material being stressed is more likely to be stretched into a longer
shape when pulled apart. It may also become shorter when it is pushed together. Strain

2525
Piezoelectric Transducer. 13th October 2010. http://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/motion_controls/piezo
electric_device s/piezoelectric_sensors_transducers
gauges are classified into three types. These are mechanical, electrical resistance and
piezoelectric. Mechanical strain gauges act as strain sensors and strain amplifiers on the wall.
Electric resistance gauges record the deformities of vehicles, primarily aircraft. A piezoelectric
gauge is used in recording timekeeping signals for watches. 26.

Here are some ways on how a strain gauge works.

1. A strain gauge is usually made of foils. It comes in a variety of shapes. It also plays
different functions. It is first aligned to a Wheatstone bridge circuit. It is then joined
with other four full bridges, two half bridges and a quarter bridge. A precision resistor
completes half and quarter circuits.
2. The Wheatstone bridge is activated by a power supply of electricity and an added
electronic device. It undergoes unreceptive changes and unbalance when stress is
applied to the strain gauge.
3. A signal output is released corresponding to the stress value exerted on the strain
gauge. An amplification of 5 to 10 volts is supplied by the conditioning electronic
device. This happens when the signal value is small. This signal level is adequate to
cater to the external data collection systems.

A strain gauge works in a lot of beneficial ways. It does not only help professional engineers
do their job, it can also be vital in our everyday lives. Strain gauges can also be used as a way
to help our homes stay safe and secure. 27. 

Example Of Strain Gauge Pressure Measurements Device

4.0 REFERENCES

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Robert M. Besançon, ed (1990). "Vacuum Techniques" (3rd edition ed.). Van Nostrand
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