WK3 Gear Fundamentals

Curtin University of Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical Design 337
[1]
Lecture WK-3
FUNDAMENTALS OF GEARS
FUNDAMENTALS OF GEARS 3-2
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In many engineering applications, it is desired to transmit power or motion from one
rotating shaft to another. There is a range of alternatives to accomplish this task. The
available choices include flat belts, V-belts, toothed timing belts, chain drives, friction wheel
drives, and gear drives. Selection of a particular transmission system depends on factors like
distance between rotating members, power requirements, system efficiency requirements,
vibration limitations and budget. For example, belt drives and chain drives are often less
costly, and may be used to advantage where input and output shafts are widely spaced.
On the other hand, if smooth slip-free uniform motion, high speed, light weight, precise
timing, high efficiency, or compact design are important design criteria, the selection of an
appropriate system of gears will, in nearly all cases, fulfil these criteria better than any of the
other alternatives. Gears are toothed wheels used to transmit motion and power from one
shaft to the next. Gears can transmit power with up to 98% efficiency [2]. Design of gears
involves selection of materials, strength, and wear characteristics.
This lecture covers the study of fundamentals of gear design with particular emphasis on
spur gears. In this regards, the following topics are discussed in these notes:
- Fundamentals of gears
- Law of gearing
- Conjugate action and involute properties
- Gear-tooth geometry and nomenclature
- Pressure angle
- Interference and undercutting
- Contact ratio
- Gear-tooth systems
- Types of gears
308803 MECHANICAL DESIGN 337 SEMESTER 2, 2009

2.0 GEARING
The simplest means of transferring rotary motion from one shaft to another is a pair of
rolling cylinders (external or internal), as shown in Figure 2.1a. This mechanism works quite
well as long as sufficient friction is available at the rolling interface. However, such
arrangements are limited by their load (torque) carrying capacity and possibility of slip.
Figure 2.1: Motion transmission mechanisms [3]

Furthermore, these drives are not suitable for applications, which require absolute phasing
of the input and output shafts for timing purposes. Such applications require adding some
meshing teeth to the rolling cylinders. Then, this mechanism becomes gears, as shown in
Figure 2.1b.
Note: When two gears are in mesh to form a gearset (gear train), the smaller of the two is referred to
as the pinion and the other is called as the gear.
VELOCITY RATIO
Usually, a pair of gears is used to get a speed change. This is accomplished by employing
different sizes of the gears in mesh. The velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of rotational
speed of the input gear to that of the output gear for a single pair of gears.

3.0 FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF GEARING

The most basic requirement of a pair of gears is that the angular velocity ratio between them
remains constant. The gear teeth must be carefully formed so they do not interfere with each
other as the gears rotate, and so that the angular velocity ratio between the driving and the
driven members neither increases nor decreases at any instant as successive teeth pass
through the ‘mesh’ (region of tooth contact). If these conditions are met, the gears are said to
fulfil the fundamental law of gearing. It is expressed as
ω2
= CONSTANT
ω1
This requirement must be met if measured for one or more turns of gear, or if measured over
1/100th of a turn. If this is not constant throughout the ‘mesh’, inertia loading from the
driving and driven components may seriously increase loads, causing damage or noise
problems.
The mechanism, as shown in Figure 2.2, involves two friction cylinders to transfer rotary
motion from one shaft to another. Provided there is no slip, the magnitudes of the tangential
velocity are equal for the two contacting members; hence
r1ω1 = r2ω 2
ω1 r2
= = CONSTANT
ω2 r1
Figure 2.2: Friction cylinders [4]
If r1/r2 is not constant, w1/w2 is not constant. For the angular velocity ratio to remain
constant, the contours of the gear teeth have to satisfy the ‘fundamental law of gearing’:

As the gears rotate, the common normal to the surfaces at the point of contact
must always intersect the line of centres at the same point P (Figure 2.3), called the
pitch point.
When the tooth profiles, or cams, are designed so as to satisfy this requirement, these are
said to have conjugate action. This is illustrated in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Cam-follower and gear-tooth profiles ensuring conjugate action [1, 5]
The above discussion is based on the assumption that the gear-teeth are perfectly formed,
perfectly smooth, and absolutely rigid. Such an assumption is, of course, unrealistic, because
manufacturing inaccuracies and tooth deflections will cause slight deviations in velocity
ratio, but acceptable tooth profiles are based on theoretical curves that meet this criterion.

4.0 GEAR-TOOTH PROFILE

In order for the fundamental law of engineering to be true, the gear tooth contours on
mating teeth must be conjugates of one another. There are an infinite number of possible
conjugate pairs that could be used, but only a few curves have seen practical application as
gear teeth. Two of them are briefly discussed here.
CYCLOIDAL GEARING:
Cycloidal gearing was once extensively used. In this type, the curve is traced by a point on
the circumference of a generating circle, as it rolls without slipping along the inside and
outside of the pitch circle of the gear, as illustrated in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Generation of epicycloid and hypocycloid

The more costly tools required to manufacture cycloidal gearing have led to it being
superseded by another form. The other problem with cycloidal tooth forms is that tooth
action is not correct unless the centre distance is accurately maintained.
The cycloid is still used as tooth form in some watches and clocks, but most gears use the
involute of a circle for their shape. This is discussed below.

THE INVOLUTE CURVE

The involute is one of a category of geometric curves called conjugate curves. When two
involute gear teeth are in mesh and rotating, there is constant angular velocity ratio between
them. It means that right from the initial contact to the disengagement, the speed of the
driving gear is in a constant proportion to the speed of the driven gear. This results in a very
smooth action between mating teeth.
The involute curve can be generated using a pencil attached to a taut string, which is
wrapped around a fixed circle. The development of the involute of a circle is illustrated in
Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: The development of the Involute of a circle [3]

The Involute curve generation process is characterised by the following features [3]:
a. The string is always tangent to the base circle.
b. The centre of curvature of the involute is always at the point of tangency of the string
with the base circle
c. A tangent to the involute is always normal to the string, which is the instantaneous
radius of curvature of the involute curve.
Figure 2.6 illustrates two involute curves generated on separate cylinders in contact (or ”in
mesh”). The cylinders from which the strings are unwrapped are called the base circles of
the respective gears. It is important to note that:
- The base circles are smaller than the pitch circles, which are at the radii of the
original rolling cylinders, rp and rg.
- The gear tooth must project both below and above the rolling-cylinder surface (pitch
circle), and the involute only exists outside of the base circle

- Common normal (Line of action) is tangent to both base circles. It always passes
through the pitch point regardless of where in the mesh the two teeth are contacting.
- The pitch-point has the same linear velocity in both pinion and gear. It is known as
the pitch-line velocity.
Figure 2.6: Contact geometry and pressure angle of involute gear teeth [3]
The two biggest advantage of the involute tooth shape are:

- Tools required to ‘generate’ the shape are simpler to make and re-sharpen (A rack cutter
or a ‘hub’ both have straight sides.)
- The fundamental law of gearing is not broken if the centre distance between gears is
changed. This is discussed later.

5.0 GEAR-TOOTH NOMENCLATURE

Figure 2.7 demonstrates two teeth of a gear with the standard nomenclature defined [2, 3, 6]:
The basic terminologies are explained below.
PITCH DIAMETER (D): It is the diameter of an imaginary circle on which gear tooth is
designed. Pitch circles of two spur gears are tangent to each other.
Mathematically,
N
D=
P
Where,
N = Number of teeth
P = Dimetral pitch
NUMBER OF TEETH (N): The total number of teeth on a gear.
N = DP
DIAMETRAL PITCH (P): A ratio equal to the number of teeth to a unit length of pitch
diameter.
N
P=
D
CIRCULAR PITCH (p): It is the arc length along the pitch circle circumference measured
from the point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the adjacent tooth.
Mathematically,
D
p = 3.1416 = 3.1416 / P
N
Figure 2.7: Gear-teeth terminology [1]

FUNDAMENTALS OF GEARS 3 - 10
ADDENDUM (a): It is the amount of tooth that sticks out above the pitch circle (or it is the
radial distance from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth). The standard addendum is equal
to the module ‘m’ in millimetres.
1
a=
P
DEDENDUM (b): It is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth. The
standard dedendum is equal to module x 1.25 (i.e. 1.25 m) in millimetres.
1.250
b=
P
CENTRE DISTANCE (C): The distance between the axes of two mating gears.
sum _ of _ pitch _ dia

C=
2
WHOLE DEPTH (ht): It is the full height of the tooth. It equals to the sum of addendum and
dedendum.
ht = a + b = 2.250 / P
WORKING DEPTH (hk): It is defined as the distance that a tooth occupies in the mating
space. It is equal to the two times the addendum.
hk = 2a = 2 / P
CLEARANCE: It is the radial distance between the top of a tooth and the bottom of the
mating tooth space. It is also the difference between the addendum and dedendum.
c = b − a = 0.250 / P
OUTSIDE DIAMETER (Do): It is the overall diameter of the gear. It is equal to the pitch
diameter plus two addendums
Do = D + 2a
ROOT DIAMETER (Dr): It is the diameter of a circle that coincides with the bottom of the
tooth spaces.
Dr = D − 2b

CIRCULAR THICKNESS (t): It is defined as the length of an arc between the two sides of a
gear tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is also known as tooth thickness.
t = 1.5708 / P
CHODRAL THICKNESS (tc): It is the straight line thickness of a gear tooth measured on the
pitch circle (Figure 2.8)
tc = D sin(90 / N )
CHODRAL ADDENDUM (ac): The height from the top of the tooth to the line of the chodral
thickness (Figure 2.8).
ac = a + t 2 / 4 D
Figure 2.8: Gear-teeth terminology [2]
BASE CIRCLE DIAMETER (DB): It is the diameter of a circle from which the involute tooth
form is generated.
DB = D cos(φ )
TOOTH THICKNESS: The tooth thickness is measured on the pitch circle from one side of a
tooth to the other side. It is also known as circular thickness. Theoretically, t = p/2
SPACE WIDTH: The tooth space (space width) is also measured on the pitch circle, from the
right-side of one tooth to the left-side of the next tooth. Theoretically, it is equal to the tooth
thickness. But for practical reasons, the tooth space is made slightly larger than the tooth
thickness.

BACKLASH:
The difference between tooth thickness and tooth space is called the backlash. Some
backlash is need for lubrication and proper functioning of gears in mesh. To provide
backlash:
• the cutter generating the gear teeth can be fed more deeply than the theoretical value on
either or both of the mating gears, or
• the centre distance can be adjusted to a larger value than the theoretical value
MODULE (m): It is essentially the reciprocal of diametral pitch (P) and is defined as the
pitch diameter in millimetres divided by the number of teeth. In other words, it is the
number of millimetres of pitch diameter per tooth. Mathematically,
D
m=
N
THE PRESSURE ANGLE (Ø): The pressure angle Ø (as shown in Figure 2.9) in a gearset is
defined as the angle between the line of action (common normal) and the direction of
velocity at the pitch point such that the line of action is rotated Ø degrees in the direction of
rotation of the driven gear.
Figure 2.9: The pressure angle Ø [1]

Technically speaking, any pressure angle Ø is possible but it has been standardised at a few
values by the gear manufactures. These values are defined at the nominal centre distance for
the gearset as cut. Only three have been in common use:
a) 14.5° in use for many years but now obsolete.
b) 20° Most common in DP and Module form
c) 25° in USA only.
Figure 2.10: Tooth-profiles for three pressure angles [3]
Note that the actual pressure angle (i.e. operating pressure angle) is a function of the
installed centre distance. This is explained in the following sections:

6.0 OPERATION OF GEARS AT EXTENDED CENTRE DISTANCE

Centre distance is related to a pair of gears in mesh. It is measured from the centre of the
pinion (smaller gear) to the centre of the gear; the sum of the pitch radii of two gears in mesh
(Figures 2.11 and 2.12). Mathematically,
𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺 𝐷𝐷𝑃𝑃 1
𝐶𝐶 = + = (𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺 + 𝐷𝐷𝑃𝑃 )
2 2 2
Where,
C = Centre distance
DG = Pitch diameter of gear
DP = Pitch diameter of pinion
Design of gearsets is based on theoretical centre distances, which is calculated from the
theoretical pitch diameters of the gears in mesh. However, the final installation of gears may
result in different value of centre distance. This variation in the centre distance will directly
affect the pressure angle (Ø), as shown in Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: Changing centre distance of involute gears [3]

Despite the variation in the centre distance, the speed ratio remains unaffected. This fact is
further explained by considering two gears in mesh at the design centre distance and then at
extended (actual) centre distance (Figure 2.12).
Figure 2.12: Operation of gears at extended centre distance
Design Distance Apart Extended Distance Apart

Figure 2.12a Figure 2.12b
Design pressure angle (Ø) In this case, different point of involute is

Pitch Circle Diameters in contact. Pressure angle is changed,
Dp1 = m N1 pitch circle diameters are changed
Dp2 = m N2 although they retain the same
proportions to each other.
Db1 / 2
cos(φ ) = ω1 D' p 2
D p1 / 2 =
ω2 D' p1
Db 2 / 2
cos(φ ) =
Dp2 / 2 ω1 Db 2 / cos(φ ' )
=
ω2 Db1 / cos(φ ' )
Therefore,
Db
cos(φ ) = ω1 Db 2
Dp =
ω2 Db1
Also, the angular speed ratio is

given as, Db 2
cos(φ ' ) =
D' p 2
ω1 Db 2 D p 2
= =
ω2 Db1 D p1
The angular speed ratio remains
unchanged, whereas the pressure
ω1 Db 2 D p 2 mN 2 N 2 angle has been changed.
= = = =
ω2 Db1 D p1 mN1 N1

Note that increasing the centre distance results in increasing the pressure angle. The
fundamental law of gearing still holds in the increased centre distance case because the
common normal is still tangent to the two base circles and still passes through the pitch
point. Clearly, involute shape gears comply with the fundamental law of gearing – even if
the centre distance between the gears is changed.
It is also important to note that the actual pressure angle (operating pressure angle) is a
function of the installed centre distance.
𝐷𝐷
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (∅′) = 𝐷𝐷𝑃𝑃 2 (Refer to Figure 2.12b)
𝑃𝑃 1
EXAMPLE: Determine the operating pressure angle for a gearset that has the
following specifications. Design pressure angle = 20°, module = 5 mm, number of
teeth on pinion = 20, number of teeth on gear = 60, and installed at 201 mm centre
distance.
SOLUTION
Design pressure angle (Ф) = 20°
Module = 5 mm
Number of teeth on pinion (N1) = 20
Number of teeth on gear (N2) = 60
Centre distance = 201 mm
Operating pressure angle (Ф’) =?
DB1 = D1cosФ
DB1 = mN1cos20° DB1 = 93.97 mm
DB2 = D2cosФ
DB2 = mN2cos20° DB2 = 281.91 mm
𝐷𝐷1 𝐷𝐷2 1 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷 1
𝑐𝑐 = + = 2 �𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐵𝐵(∅1 ′ ) + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(∅
𝐵𝐵 2
′ )� = 2 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(∅′ ) (93.97 + 281.91)
2 2
1
201 = (93.97 + 281.91)
2𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(∅′ )
375.88
∅′ = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 −1 ( )
402
∅′ = 20.77°

7.0 GEAR TOOTH SYSTEMS

A tooth system is a standard that specifies the relationships involving addendum,
dedendum, working depth, tooth thickness, and pressure angle. There are two systems –
Diametral Pitch System and Metric Module System:
7.1 Diametral Pitch System

This is the most commonly used system in the United States. It is based on the number of
teeth per inch of pitch diameter. Mathematically,
Number _ Of _ Teeth N
P= = (in inches)
Pitch _ Circle _ Dimatere D
7.2 Diametral Pitch System

The metric system – uses ‘Modules’: ‘m’ and millimetres
Pitch _ Circle _ Dimatere D
m= = (in millimetres)
Number _ Of _ Teeth N
The two systems are not compatible in any way. With metric system, commonly used
standard values of modules are:
0.2 to 1.0 by increments of 0.1

Increasing module results in larger teeth and increasing the pressure angle Ø results in
smaller teeth. The designer usually specifies teeth of the smallest size which will carry the
load. This produces:
- The best contact ratio and therefore smoother gear mesh
- Less likelihood of interference
8.0 GEAR MANUFACTURING

Involute gear teeth may be cut using a ‘form’ tool – i.e. one which is the exact shape to
remove the material between two teeth, leaving involute form flanks. However, it is usual to
generate the involute using either a ‘rack’ cutter or a ‘hob.’ Gear generation by a rack-cutter
is shown in Figure 2.13, whereas the hobbing method of gear cutting is illustrated in Figure
2.14.
The rack is a gear of infinite diameter (i.e. it is straight) and the involute profile, in this case,
is a straight line. Gear teeth, generated from a straight sided rack or hob, are of perfect
involute form.

Figure 2.13: Gear cutting with a rack cutter [1]
Figure 2.14: Gear-teeth cutting by the hobbing method [7]
Having straight sides on the cutting tool facilitates cutter manufacture and resharpening.
Figure 2.15 shows the steps in gear tooth generation, using a reciprocating rack cutter.

Figure 2.15: Steps in tooth generation

Manufacturing process will not be dealt with here – however it is possible in some
circumstances not to generate an involute tooth profile – if the cutter extends below the base
circle. An involute cannot exist beneath the base circle.
8.1 INTERFERENCE
Interference occurs if either of the addendum circles extends beyond tangent points a and b,
as shown in Figure 2.16. This prevents rotation of the mating parts. The points a and b are
called interference points.
Figure 2.16: Interference points a and b [1]
As shown in Figure 2.17, it is evident that the gears will not operate without modification.
The gear tooth can be corrected to overcome this problem. The preferred approach is to
remove the interfering tip, shown shaded in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.17: Interference preventing gears to operate [1]
8.2 UNDERCUTTING
Undercutting refers to the process of cutting away the material at the fillet or root of the gear
teeth, thus alleviating the interference.
Figure 2.18: Undercutting of a gear tooth [8]

Caution must be exercised as undercutting of gear teeth:

• Weakens the gear teeth (Figure 2.18)
• Results in non-conjugate action below the base circle
The alternate options include modification of the addendum on the pinion or the gear, or
modification of the centre distance.
NOTE: When gear teeth are manufactured with a rack cutter, as described above, the gear
teeth are automatically undercut if they would interfere with a rack.
MAXIMUM POSSIBLE ADDENDUM

From Figures 2.16 and 2.17,
ra = r + a
Where
ra = addendum circle
r = pitch circle radius
a = addendum
The equation for the maximum possible addendum circle radius without interference is
given as
ra (max) = rb + c 2 sin 2 φ
2
Where
ra(max) = maximum non-interfering addendum circle radius of pinion or gear
c = centre distance
Ø = pressure angle (actual, not nominal, value)
It is also noted that:

I. Interference is more likely to involve the tips of the gear teeth than the tips of the
pinion teeth
II. Inference is promoted by having small number of pinion teeth, a large number of gear
teeth, and a small pressure angle.

8.3 MINIMUM NUMBER OF TEETH REQUIRED TO AVOID

UNDERCUTTING
A gear having few teeth, generated by a rack or hob cutter, with undercut flanks is shown in
Figure 2.19a. For such gears, the end of the cutting tool extends inside the interference point
A (also called as the point of tangency of base circle and pressure line) and removes
excessive amount of metal (undercutting)
Undercutting can be avoided by using more and smaller teeth in the gear. No undercutting
can occur if the addendum is reduced so that it does not extend inside the interference point
A. The tooth with reduced addendum is called a stub tooth (such teeth can provide 80% of
the usual working depth). In this case, the addendum will be 0.8 x module (0.8 m).
To generalise it, let addendum
a = k×m (1)
From the geometry of the Figure 2.19a (further illustrated in Figure 2.19b), it can be
determined that the minimum amount of addendum required to avoid undercutting is
a = r − r cos 2 φ (2)
Therefore, equations 1 and 2 will give
k × m = r − r cos 2 φ
km = r (1 − cos 2 φ ) (3)
We also know that the pitch diameter is given as

D = 2× r = m× N
m× N
r=
2
Therefore,
mN
km = (1 − cos 2 φ )
2
So the minimum number of teeth will be
2k 2k
N mm = =
1 − cos φ sin 2 φ
2

Figure 2.19a: Undercutting due to insufficient number of gear teeth [4]
Figure 2.19b: Amount of addendum
Now calculating the number of teeth for the commonly used values of pressure angle will
produce the following results (Table 2.1) .

Table: 2.1: Minimum number of teeth
PRESSURE 2k MINIMUM NUMBER

N mm = k
ANGLE (Ø) sin 2 φ OF TEETH (Nmm)
14.5° 31.9 32
k=1 for full depth
20° 17.097 18 (17 is also used)
teeth.
25° 11.2 12
20° 13.68 14 k=.8 (stub teeth)
Note that increasing pressure angle allows smaller number of teeth.
8.4 CONTACT RATIO

For a smooth operation of a pair of gears, it is an essential requirement that the tooth profiles
are proportioned so that a second pair of mating teeth comes into contact before the first pair
is out of contact. The average number of teeth in contact as the gears rotate is the contact
ratio (CR). It is also defined as the ratio of the length of the line-of-action to the base pitch for
the gear. It is calculated from the following equation [1].
r 2 ap − r 2 bp + r 2 ag − r 2 bg − c sin φ
CR =
Pb
Where
rap, rag = addendum radii of mating pinion and gear
rbp, rbg = base circle radii of the mating pinion and gear
The base pitch Pb is

Pb = πDb / N
Where
N = Number of teeth
Db = Diameter of the base circle
The following relationships can be derived from Figure 2.20
Db = d cos φ
rb = r cos φ
Pb = p cos φ

Figure 2.20: Gear and pinion in mesh [1]
Generally, the greater the contact ratio, the smoother and quieter the operation of the gears.
A contact ratio of 2 or more means that at least two pairs of teeth are theoretically in contact
at all times.
A recommended minimum contact ratio is 1:2 and typical spur gear combinations often
have values of 1.5 or higher.
8.5 GEAR MATERIALS

Gear materials are expected to have good strength (especially fatigue strength), good wear
resistance, high resistance to surface fatigue, high resilience, good damping ability, and
good machinability. Commonly used gear materials are:
– Steel and steel alloys
– Gray and alloy cast iron
– Brass
– Bronze
– Polymeric materials

9.0 GEAR TYPES *

There are many types of gears, as shown in Figure 3.1. Selection of the best type of gearing
for a particular application depends upon several factors, including geometric arrangement
proposed for the machine, reduction ratio required, power to be transmitted, speeds of
rotation, efficiency goals, noise-level limitations and cost constraints.
Figure 3.1: Commonly used types of gears [7]

Generally, the following three shafting orientations are encountered by the designer when
considering the transmission of power or motion from rotating shaft to another.
- Applications in which the shaft axes are parallel
- Applications in which the shaft axes intersect
- Applications in which shaft axes are neither parallel nor do they intersect
Gears may be grouped according to the type of shafting arrangement required for a
particular application. Following are the commonly used categories:
*The information provided in this section is based on the book titled”Mechanical Design of Machine Elements and Machines (2003)
by Jack A. Collins, published by John Wiley & Sons. For further details, read chapter 15 of this book.

9.1 GEARS FOR PARALLEL SHAFTS
Figure 3.2 shows types of gears in applications with parallel shafts. Different types are
further explained below.
Figure 3.2: Gears for use in applications with parallel shafts [7]

SPUR GEARS
Spur gears connect parallel shafts. Spur gear teeth are straight and parallel to the gear shaft
axis. They are further classified as external (Figure 3.3) and internal (Figure 3.2b) spur gears.
Spur gears are:
– Relatively simple to design, manufacture and check for precision
– Relatively inexpensive
– Impose only radial loads on supporting bearings.
– Noisy in high speed applications
Tooth-profiles are ordinarily involute in shape, and therefore tolerate small variations in
centre distance.
Figure 3.3 : Spur gears [2]
HELICAL GEARS
Helical gears, as shown in Figure 3.4, are very similar to spur gears except that their teeth
are angled with respect to the axis of shaft to form parallel helical spirals. The helixes for the
two mating external gears must have the same helix angle, but for parallel shaft applications
the hand of the helix on the pinion must be opposite to the hand of the gear. Because of the
angled teeth, helical gears:
- Allow more than one tooth to be in contact at the same time.
- Impose both radial and thrust (axial) loads on supporting bearings.
Helical gears tolerate small variations in centre distance, and are designed to carry more
loads when compared to spur gears. The angled teeth provide gradual-engagement between
mating gears, which produces smoother and quieter operation than with straight-tooth spur
gears. Helical gears are further classified as:
- External helical gears (Figures 3.2c and 3.4)
- Internal helical gears (Figure 3.2d)

- Single helical gears (Figure 3.4a)

- Double helical gears (also known as Herringbone gears). As shown in Figure 3.4b,
these gears have double helixes. This type is specifically designed to eliminate end
thrust and provide long life under heavy loads.
Figure 3.4: Helical gears [2]
RACK AND PINION

This is a special case of gearing used for parallel shafts. It is called rack-and-pinion drive, as
shown in Figure 3.5. It is a combination of a spur gear (pinion) operating on a flat straight
bar rack (may be a considered as a segment of a gear having infinite pitch radius). This type
of arrangement is used to convert rotary motion to reciprocating or linear motion. The gear-
teeth may be either straight spur or helical type.
Figure 3.5: Rack and pinion [2]

9.2 GEARS FOR SHAFTS HAVING INTERSECTING AXES

Figure 3.6 shows types of gears for use in applications requiring shafts with intersecting
axes. The gears types in this category are described below.
Figure 3.6: Gears for use in applications with intersecting shaft axes [7]

BEVEL GEARS
Straight bevel gears, as shown in Figure 3.7, represent the simplest type of gearing used for
intersecting shafts. Bevel gears are conical in shape, allowing the axes of the shafts of the
gear and pinion to intersect at 90º or at any desired angle. The shape of the teeth on bevel
gear is the same as the shape of the teeth on spur gear except they are tapered (toward the
apex of the cone) in both thickness and height, from large tooth profile at one end to a
smaller tooth profile at the other end.
Figure 3.7: Bevel gears [2]

Bevel gears impose both radial and thrust loads on supporting bearings. Sub-categories of
bevel gears are:
Zerol † bevel gears, as shown in Figure 3.6b, are similar to straight bevel gears except that
they have teeth curved in their length-wise direction. This provides a slight engagement
overlap to produce smoother operation than straight bevel gears.
MITER GEARS:
Miter gears, a special case of bevel gears, have the same size for gear and pinion and are
used when shafts must intersect at 90º without speed reduction.
SPIRAL BEVEL GEARS:

Spiral bevel gears, as shown in Figure 3.6c, are designed to provide gradual engagement
along the tooth face (just like helical gears). This provides smoother operation.
Face Gears (Figure 3.6d) have the functionality features similar to bevel gears but have gear
teeth cut on an annular ring at the outer edge of a gear “face.”
† Registered trademark of the Gleason Works, Rochester, NY

9.3 GEARS FOR SHAFTS WHERE SHAFT AXES ARE

NEITHER PARALLEL NOR INTERSECTING
This type of gearing applications is shown in Figure 3.8. The gears used in such type of
applications are Hypoid gears, spiroid gears, crossed-helical gears, and worm gears.
Figure 3.8: Gears for use in applications where shafts are neither parallel nor intersecting [7]

HYPOID GEARS
Hypoid gears also have the same design as spiral bevel gears except the gear shaft axes are
offset and do not intersect, as shown in Figure 3.9. The offset is measured along the
perpendicular common to the two axes. If hypoid gears had zero offset, they would be spiral
bevel gears.
Figure 3.9: Hypoid gears [2]
SPIROID GEARS
This combination of gears, as shown in Figure 3.8b, involves a face gear with teeth spirally
curved along their length, and a mating tapered pinion. Offsets for spiroid gearing are larger
than for hypoid gearsets, and the pinion somewhat resembles a worm. This combination
provides high reduction ratios with a compact design. The load-carrying is also good.
CROSSED HELICAL GEARS (Figure 3.8c)

Both members of this gearing system have a cylindrical shape, as opposed to worm gearsets
in which one or both members are throated. Usually, the non-intersecting axes are 90 degree
to each, but almost any angle can be accommodated. Load carrying capacity is low.
WORM GEARS
This is another very popular gearing system used for high reduction ratios in small space.
The worm, as shown in Figure 3.10, has teeth similar to the threads of a power screw. The
worm gear (also known as worm wheel) has teeth similar to those of a helical gear except
that they are contoured to envelop the worm.

Figure 3.10: Worm and worm gear [2]
SINGLE ENVELOPING (CYLINDRICAL)

This occurs when only the worm wheel teeth are contoured (throated) to envelop a
cylindrical worm, as shown in Figure 3.8f.
DOUBLE ENVELOPING
In this type of enveloping, the worm profile is also throated to envelop the gear, as shown in
Figure 3.8e.

10.0 REFERENCES
1. Juvinall, R.C. and K.M. Marshek, Fundamentals of Machine Component Design. Fourth
ed. 2006: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2. David A. Madsen, David P. Madsen, and J.L. Turpin, Engineering Drawing and Design.
4th ed. 2007: Thomson Delmar Learning.
3. Norton, R.L., Machine Design: An Integrated Approach. Third ed. 2006: Pearson Prentice
Hall.
4. Spotts, M.F., T.E. Shoup, and L.E. Hornberger, Design of Machine Elements. Eighth ed.
2004: Pearson Prentice Hall.
5. Budynas, R.G. and J.K. Nisbett, Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design. Eighth ed.
2008: McGraw Hill.
6. Cecil H. Jensen and J.D. Helsel, Interpreting Engineering Drawings. 7th ed. 2007:
Thomson Delmar Learning.
7. Collins, J.A., Mechanical Design of Machine Elements and Machines. 2003: John Wiley &
Sons.
8. Mott, R.L., Machine Elements in Mechanical Design. 4th ed. 2006, Singapore: Prentice
Hall (Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd).
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q1: Describe law of gearing.
Q2: What are the problems associated with undercutting?
Q3: What is the difference between spur and helical gears? Draw sketches to support
your answer.
Q4: Draw a sketch to define pressure angle. How would it affect the pressure angle if the
installed centre distance is greater than the theoretical centre distance?
Q5: What is the cause of interference in gears?
Q6: What type of gearing is suitable for converting rotary motion to linear motion?
Q7: Define contact ratio.
Q8: What is the difference between full-depth and stub-teeth gears?

WK3 Gear Fundamentals

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Curtin University of Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Design 337

308803 MECHANICAL DESIGN 337 SEMESTER 2, 2009

Figure 2.1: Motion transmission mechanisms [3]

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3.0 FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF GEARING

Figure 2.2: Friction cylinders [4]

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4.0 GEAR-TOOTH PROFILE

Figure 2.4: Generation of epicycloid and hypocycloid

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THE INVOLUTE CURVE

Figure 2.5: The development of the Involute of a circle [3]

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The two biggest advantage of the involute tooth shape are:

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5.0 GEAR-TOOTH NOMENCLATURE

Figure 2.7: Gear-teeth terminology [1]

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sum _ of _ pitch _ dia

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Figure 2.8: Gear-teeth terminology [2]

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Figure 2.9: The pressure angle Ø [1]

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Figure 2.10: Tooth-profiles for three pressure angles [3]

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6.0 OPERATION OF GEARS AT EXTENDED CENTRE DISTANCE

Figure 2.11: Changing centre distance of involute gears [3]

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Figure 2.12: Operation of gears at extended centre distance

Design Distance Apart Extended Distance Apart

Design pressure angle (Ø) In this case, different point of involute is

Also, the angular speed ratio is

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7.0 GEAR TOOTH SYSTEMS

7.1 Diametral Pitch System

7.2 Diametral Pitch System

0.2 to 1.0 by increments of 0.1

8.0 GEAR MANUFACTURING

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Figure 2.13: Gear cutting with a rack cutter [1]

Figure 2.14: Gear-teeth cutting by the hobbing method [7]

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Figure 2.15: Steps in tooth generation

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Figure 2.16: Interference points a and b [1]

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Figure 2.17: Interference preventing gears to operate [1]

Figure 2.18: Undercutting of a gear tooth [8]

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Caution must be exercised as undercutting of gear teeth:

MAXIMUM POSSIBLE ADDENDUM

It is also noted that:

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8.3 MINIMUM NUMBER OF TEETH REQUIRED TO AVOID

Therefore, equations 1 and 2 will give

We also know that the pitch diameter is given as

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