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Hery Wijayanto

FANR University of Namibia


Fac. ofVeterinary Medicine, Gadjah Mada University
 The digestive system is responsible for the
break down of food, so it can utilised for
energy, growth and cellular renewal

 The organs belonging to this system are


capable of receiving food, mechanically and
chemically breaking it down and then
absorbing them
 The digestive system consist of:
 the alimentary canals:
1. mouth and pharynx
2. esophagus and stomach
3. small intestine
4. large intestine
5. anal canal
 accessory glands
1. liver
2. pancreas
G.I. Tract of a acat
 Mouth and Pharynx
 cavum oris (oral cavity)
▪ for mastication
▪ saliva is secreted onto the ingested material for
chemical digestion
▪ the mouth includes: the lip, cavum oris and its
walls, teeth, tongue, and salivary glands
 cavum oris is divided into:
▪ vestibulum oris: vestibulum labiale and buccale
▪ cavum oris proprium: space between the dental arcades

▪ the vestibulum communicate with cavum oris proprium by


means of margo interalveolaris/diastema

 labia oris (lips)


▪ frame the opening of the mouth, use for prehension,
communication, and suckling in new-born animals
▪ the upper lip is divided by philtrum (in the dog & small
ruminants)
 the cheeks contain additional salivary glands
glandula buccalis

 palatum (palate)
 partly osseus, partly soft tissue partition that
separates the digestive and respiratory passage
 the oral side of hard palate is covered by rugae
palatinae. in ruminants these ridges carry papillae
that directed caudally to guide food backward

 Palatum molle/velum palatinum (soft palate),


continous caudally from the hard palate to the
intrapharyngeal opening
 tongue
 composed primarily of skeletal muscle
 occupies most of the cavum oris proprius and
extends into the oropharynx
 the tongue is responsible for lapping water,
prehension, manipulating food within mouth and
swallowing
 its possesses receptors for taste, temperature and
pain
 the tongue has an apex lingua (apex), corpus lingua
(body) and radix lingua (root)

 the corpus lingua is joined to the oral floor by a


mucosal fold, frenulum linguae

 in cattle, the caudal part of the dorsal surface of the


tongue is raised to form fossa lingualis transversum,
in which food has tendency to collect

 the tongue of the horse is strenghtened by cartilago


dorsi linguae within the dorsal part of the tongue
 most of the lingual mucosa is covered by a variety
papilla, which are grouped into papilla mechanica
and papilla gustatoria

▪ papilla mechanica:
1. papilla filiformes
2. papilla conicae
3. papilla marginales

▪ papilla gustatoria:
1. papilla fungiformes
2. papilla vallatae
3. papilla voliatae
 mechanical papillae are more numerous than the
gustatory papillae

 the filiform papillae are the smallest and most


numerous of all papillae

 the conical papillae are bigger in size, but less


frequent
 the extensive mobility of the tongue is acchieved
by a very special muscular architecture

 the mm. linguae is divided into intrinsic and


extrinsic groups

 the intrinsic musculature (m. lingualis proprius)


is composed numerous bundles, that run
longitudinally, transversely and vertically
 intrinsic muscles:
▪ fibrae longitudinales superficiales et profundae (superficial
and deep longitudinal fibers)
▪ fibrae transversae (transverse fiber)
▪ fibrae perpendiculare (perpendicular fibers)

 extrinsic muscles, have an osseus origin and radiate


into the tongue:
▪ m. styloglossus
▪ m. hyoglossus
▪ m. genioglossus
 The tongue is innervated by:
1. lingual branch of the n. trigeminus
2. the chorda tympani of n. intermediofacialis
3. n. glossopharyngeus
4. n. vagus
5. n. hypoglossus
 n. lingualis, a branch of the trigeminal nerve
provides tactile, pain and thermal innervation
from the rostral two-thirds of the tongue

 the chorda tympani, a branch of n. facialis


supplies mechanical and chemoreceptor fibre
innervation to the whole tongue as well as some
taste fibers
 the caudal third of the tongue is innervated by
the lingual branch of the glossopharyngeal
nerve, supplying taste fibres for this area

 the roof of the tongue receives innervation from


branches of the n. vagus

 the musculature (somatic motor fibers) of the


tongue is innervated by n. hypoglossus. damage
of this neve results in paralysis of the tongue
Salivary glands
 the salivary glands are paired organs that
secrete saliva via their ducts into the oral
cavity

 the salivary glands are grouped into:


 gll. salivariae minores (minor salivary glands)
 gll. salivariae majores (major salivary glands)
 minor salivary glands are present in the mucosa
of the lips, cheeks, tongue, palate and the
sublingual oral floor

 the buccal minor salivary glands situated ventrally and


dorsally of the cheek

 the dorsal buccal minor salivary gland in canines is


referred to as zygomatic gland

 ruminants have an additional middle groups of buccal


glands
 the major salivary glands are:
 gl. parotis (parotid salivary gland)
 gl. mandibularis (mandibular salivary gland)
 gll. sublinguales (sublingual salivary glands)
a. gl. sublingualis monostomatica
b. gl. sublingualis polystomatica
 gl. parotis
 paired organ, lies at the junction of the head and neck,
ventral to the auricular cartilage in the retromandibular
fossa

 well developed in herbivores

 in the horse it partially overlays the lateral wall of the


guttural pouch, which must be taken into consideration
when using an external surgical approach to the guttural
pouch
 gl. mandibularis
 located close to the angle of the jaw and is patially
covered by the parotid salivary gland
 bigger than parotid salivary gland in most dogs, cats and
ruminants
 in the dog, monostomatic salivary gland and mandibular
salivary gland are practical importance, since they can
undergo cystic changes (ranula) which require their
removal
 innervation of the mandibular salivary gland is provided
by parasymphatetic nerve arising from the facial nerve
 gl. sublinguales
 consist of two glands on either side except the
horse, in which the major (monostomatic) salivary
gland is absent

 situated more caudally and is a compact gland


with a single draining duct

 the diffuse minor (polystomatic) salivary gland is


located more rostrally
 Apparatus masticatorius (masticatory
apparatus), includes:

 the teeth and gums


 the temporomandibular joint
 the masticatory muscles
 Dentes (teeth)
 each species has its own characteristic dentition,
describing form and number of teeth

 the teeth are grouped into:


▪ incisors
▪ canines
▪ premolars heterodonty
▪ molars
 the dentition of the domestic mammals is
diphyodont, means, the first erupted (deciduous
teeth/dentes decidues) teeth are replaced by a
single set of teeth in older mammals (permanent
teeth)

 polyphyodont dentition (multiple successions) is


occured in some vertebrates, where the multiple
sets of teeth erupt throughout the animals life
 the teeth are share a common, basic
architecture. eachh tooth is divided into three
parts:
1. corona dentis (crown): the exposed part of the
tooth, which protrudes above the gums and is
covered by enamel
2. column dentis (neck): the slight constriction located
at the gum line
3. radix dentis (root): the portion below the gum,
which embedded in the bony alveolus for the most
part
 teeth directional term:
 vestibular surfaces: labial and buccal surface
 lingual surface: the surface that adjacent to the
tongue
 facies contactus: mesial (cranial) and distal
(caudal) surface
 the surface that which contacts the adjacent
arcade is termed the masticatory or occlusal
surface (facies oclusalis)
 each tooth is composed of three different
mineralized tissues (enamel, dentin and cement),
which enclosed the dental cavum dentis (dental
cavity)

 dental cavity is filled with the pulpa dentis (pulp)


which is composed of connective tissue, nerves,
arteries and veins
 Based on the distribution of enamel, teeth
can be divided into:
 brachyodont teeth: enamel envelops short-
crowned teeth

 hypselodont teeth: enamel envelops high-


crowned teeth
 Dentition on some specieses
 domestic cat has 30 teeth, due to absence of P1,
M2 and M3 of upper jaw and P1, P2, M2 and M3 in
the lower jaw. the upper P4 and lower M1 are the
largest teeth

 pig, the most striking feature of the porcine


dentition are the large, curved canine teeth or
tusk, which grow continuously throughout life
 ox upper incisors and canines are replaced by the
dental pad and the lower canines are assimilated
to the incisors. The cheek teeth increase in size
from front to back
 Muscles of mastication
 the muscles that are responsible for mastication
 the masticatory muscles comprise those muscles,
which elevate the mandible, thus closing the
mouth
▪ m. masseter
▪ m. pterygoideus medialis
▪ m. pterygoideus lateralis
▪ m. temporalis
 muscles of mastication are derived from the
first branchial arch, thus they receive the
innervation from mandibular branch of n.
trigeminus
 Pharynx (cavum pharyngis)
 the common cavity through which both air and
ingested material pass
 it connects the oral cavity with the esophagus and
the nasal cavity with the larynx
 it is bordered by the base of the skull and the two
cranial cervical vertebrae dorsally, the larynx
ventrally and the mandible, the pterygoid muscles
and suspensory part of the hyoid apparatus
laterally
 pharynx can be divided into three parts:
▪ pars nasopharynx
▪ pars oropharynx
▪ pars laryngopharynx

 the soft palate (palatum molle) separates the


rostral part of the pharynx into a dorsal
(nasopharynx) and ventral and ventral portion
(oropharynx)
 the two portion of pharynx is meet in the ostium
intrapharyngeum (intrapharyngeal opening)

 the caudal continuation, common to both, the


nasopharynx and oropharynx is known as the
laryngopharynx

 isthmus faucium (isthmus of the faucium) extends


ventral to the soft palate from the oral cavity to
the intrapharyngeal opening
 the epiglottis protrudes into the laryngopharynx and
is flanked by the recessus piriformis on either side,
which serve as gutters for fluids
 several openings form into the pharyngeal cavity:
▪ paired choanae (between the cavum nasi and the
nasopharynx)
▪ istmush faucium (between the cavum oris and the
oropharynx)
▪ tuba eustachii (between the nasopharynx and the middle ear)
▪ aditus laryngis (entrance into the larynx)
▪ aditus esophageus (entrance into the esophagus)
 the wall of pharynx is formed by striated
muscles and grouped into:
1. constrictor:
▪ mm. pterygopharyngei
▪ m. palatopharyngeus
▪ m. hyopharyngeus
▪ m. thyropharyngeus
▪ m. cricopharyngeus
2. dilatator:
▪ m. stylopharyngeal

 tonsils (lymphatic structures of the pharynx)


 tonsil is aggregates of lymphoreticular tissue that
forms lymph nodules in the pharyngeal walls
 they form a ring of lymphatic tissue around the
pharynx which provides an immunological barrier
to protect the repiratory and alimenratry systems
 the pharyngeal tonsils can be grouped into
palatine, pharyngeal, lingual, choanal and tubal
tonsils based upon their location

 surgical removal of the palatine tonsil is indicated


in some animals (tonsillectomy)

 palatine tonsil is not present in the pig


 muscles of the hyoid apparatus
 the muscles of the hyoid apparatus have a close
functional relationship to the muscle of the
tongue and pharynx and can be divided into upper
and lower muscles of the hyoid apparatus

 upper muscles: m. mylohyoideus, m. geniohyoideus, m.


stylohyoideus, m. occipitohyoideus, m. ceratohyoideus,
m. hyoideus transversus
 lower muscles: m. sternohyoideus, m. sternothyroideus,
m. omohyoideus
Cranial part of the alimentary canal: esophagus
and gastrium (stomach)
 esophagus
 the tube between the pharynx and the stomach
 it begins dorsal to the cricoid cartilage of the larynx
and ends at the cardia of the stomach

 it lies to the left of the trachea along the cervical


region but within the thoracic cavity it is located
dorsal to the trachea and runs in the mediastinum,
continuing beyond the tracheal bifurcation and over
the base of the heart
 in ruminants and the horse, the lumen of the
esophagus narrows at the thoracic inlet and the
esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm, which
predisposes to choke at those site

 in carnivores, the esophagus dilates befor it enters the


abdomen

 the esphagus has four layers, from the inside to the


outside: tunica mucosa, submucosa, tunica
muscularis, tunica adventitia
 Gastrium/ventriculus (stomach)
 the stomach is interposed between esophagus
and small intestine

 it vary considerably in form and distribution of the


different types of mucossa lining the stomach

 consirering to their form, they can be divided into


simple (one compartment) and complex stomach
(several compartments)
 the dog and the cat have simple, glandular stomach

 the horse and the pig have simple, composeite


stomachs

 ruminants have a complex, composite stomach,


which comprises four compartments, three of which
(rumen, reticulum, omasum) are lined by non-
glandular mucosa and one lined by glandular mucosa
(abomasum)
 simple stomach
▪ the simple stomach is a sac-shaped dilatation of the
alimentary canal

▪ the major divisions of the stomach are:


1. cardiac portion (pars cardiaca)
2. fundus (fundus ventriculi)
3. body (corpus ventriculi)
4. pyloric portion(pars pylorica)
 it possesses visceral and parietal surfaces and greater
and lesser curvatures

 the inlet of the stomach is cardia and the outlet is


pylorus, both of which are controlled by sphincters

 the corpus (body) is the large middle portion of the


stomach, extends from the fundus to the pylorus

 the pyloric part can be divided into the expanded


pyloric antrum (antrum pyloricum) and the pyloric
canal (canalis pyloricus towards the duodenum
 the fundus is a blindout pocketing rising above the
body and the cardia

 in the horse, fundus has the form of rather large sac


(saccus caecus) and in the pig forms the ventricular
diverticulum

 facies parietalis of the stomach lies against the


diaphragm and the liver, whereas the facies visceralis
is in contact with the adjacent abdominal organs
caudal to it
6 6 6
2 1 1
2 1

3 4
4 2 4
1

1 1 6
4
6
7
5
3
4
6

2 7
Diverticulum gastrium Saccus coecus

omasum
rumen
reticulum

abomasum
 the curvatura major (greater curvatura) is the convex,
ventral border of the stomach extending from the
cardia to the pylorus

 the curvatura minor (lesser curvatura) is the concave


dorsal border of the stomachand also runs from the
cardia to the pylorus

 the curvatura minor is marked by incisura angularis


(angular notch), which in cats rather pronounced and
might cause difficulties during gastroscopy
 the muscular layer of the stomach structurally is
consist of two layers:
▪ inner circular layer (stratum circulare), forms the cardiac
sphincter (m. sphincter cardiaca) and pyloric sphincter
(sphincter pylori)

▪ outer longitudinal layer (stratum longitudinale),


longitudinal fibers, external oblique fibers, and internal
oblique fibers
 species specific variation of the simple
stomach
 dog: empty or partly filled stomach is shape like
“C” with its convex surface facing caudoventrally
and to the left. the funnel-shaped cardia is rather
wide, which may be related to the ease with which
dogs vomit. the non-glandular region and the
cardiac gland region are limited to a circular zone
around the entrance of the esophagus
 cat: the stomach also C-shaped, but has a narrower
lumen than that of the dog. the angular notch
comparatively deep, the distribution of the gastric
glands is similar to the dog

 pig: characterized by the presence of a diverticulum


surmounting the fundus. the non-glandular area
surrounds the cardiac opening and extends to the
diverticulum of which is lines a small part. the major
part of the diverticulum is lined by glandular
mucosa.the region of the cardiac glands is relatively
large
 Horse: The stomach of the horse is small in relation to
the animal compared to other species (its capacity
between 5-15l). The fundus is extended to form the
saccus caecus. The margo plicatus (plicate border)
divides the interior in a rather large non-glandular
region, which occupies the fundus part and part of the
body and a glandular region. The cardiac sphincter is
especially developed, and this, together with the oblique
entrance of the esophagus is thought to beresponsible
for the horse’s reputed inability to vomit (although its
still possible)
The interior of the stomach of the cat
The interior of the stomach of a dog
 Blood supply of the simple stomach comes
from all three main branches of the a.
coeliaca:
 a. gastrica sinistra
 a. hepatica: - a. gastrica dextra
- a. gastroepiploica dextra

 a. lienalis: - a.gastroepiploica sinistra


 the innervation comes from parasympathetic
fibres from the vagal trunks and by sympathetic
fibres
Stomach is supplied by three main branches of the a. celiaca: a. splenica,
a. gastrica, and a. hepatica
Position of the epiploic (omental) foramen in the dog (arrow), shematic
 The common bile duct (ductus choledochus) is
enveloped in the hepatoduodenal ligament on its
course from the liver to the duodenum. The
duodenal ligament is the only remnant of the
ventral mesentery present during embryonic
development
Complex Stomach
 The stomach of the domestic ruminants is
composed of four chambers:
1. Rumen
2. Reticulum forestomach, has non-glandular mucosa
3. Omasum
4. Abomasum
 Abomasum has a glandular mucosa and is
comparable to the simple stomach of the
domestic mammals

 The four compartments were increased at


unequal rates during embryonic and foetal
development. At the time of birth, the abomasum
is the largest part of the stomach
rectum anus

Sacus dorsal

cardia

Saccus cranialis Saccus caudo-dorsal


esophagus

Reticulum

Saccus caudo-ventral

Saccus ventralis
 The large stomach dominates the abdominal
topography of ruminants by occupying almost the
whole left half of the abdomen and a substantial part
of the right half

 The rumen is situated in the left half of the abdomen,


the reticulum in the cranial part, and the omasum in
the right half.

 The total capacity of the rumen in adult cattle is


between 60-100 l, depending on the size of the animal
(80% of which is rumen)
 Between rumen and reticulum is marked by plica
ruminoreticularis (ruminoreticular fold)

 Rumen
 rumen fills the entire left half of the abdomen and
crosses the midline into the right half with its
caudoventral portion
 its extends from the diaphragm cranially to the
pelvic inlet caudally
 rumen has a parietal surface (facies parietalis),
adjacent to the diaphragm and the left lateral and
ventral abdominal wall and a visceral surface,
against the liver, the intestines, the omasum and
the abomasum
 The rumen is divided into several portions by
inflections of the walls, pilae ruminis (pillar of the
rumen), which project into the lumen. Those
portions are:
1. saccus ventralis
2. saccus dorsalis
3. saccus cranialis/atrium ruminis
4. saccus caecus caudodorsalis
5. saccus caecus caudoventralis
 the subdivisions are visible on the external surface
as grooves, that correspond to the position of all
hese folds

 sulcus longitudinalis dexter et sinister are dividing


the rumen into dorsal and ventral major sacs
Close-up of ruminal papillae on the caudoventral sac of an ox
 Reticulum
▪ intimately related to the rumen in structure and function
▪ the spherical reticulum is much smaller than the rumen
and located cranial of the rumen

▪ the cranial surface is in contact with the caudal surface


of the diaphragm

▪ the smooth muscle of the ruminoreticular wall is


arranged in two layers, an outer thinner layer and a
thicker inner layer
▪ The regular sequence of ruminoreticular contractions mixes and
redistributes the stomach contents and plays an important role in
regurgitation of the food for remastication

 Omasum
▪ Lies within the intrathoracic part of the abdomen to the right of
the ruminoreticular compartment. It communicates with the
reticulum through the ostium reticulo-omasicum (reticulo-omasal
opening) and with the abomasum through the large ostium
omaso-abomasicum.
▪ The omaso-abomasal opening is flanked by two mucosal folds
(vela abomasica), which are able to close this opening to prevent
reflux of the ingesta from the abomasum into the omasum
Bovine omasum Section of a bovine omasum
 Abomasum
▪ it can be divided also into fundus, corpus, pylorus

▪ curvatura major facing ventrally and curvatura minor


facing dorsally

▪ it is lined by a glandular mucosa, which contains


glandula gastrica proprius and glandula pylorica

▪ during suckling periode rennet is produced, which is


essential for the digestion of milk
 The mucosal surface area of abomasum is increased
by the presence of large fold(-licae spirales), with
spiral orientation and do not dissapear when the
stomach distends

 It position/topography is rather variable, depends on


the fullness of the forestomach, age, and pregnancy

 displacement of abomasum to the left or right, is a


well recognised disorder in dairy cows
Transverse section of a bovine abdomen of the level of the third lumbar vertebrae, caudal aspect
Topography of the abdominal and pelvic organs of the ox, right lateral aspect,
T
abdominal wall and greater omentum remove, schematic
Paramedian section of the cranial part of a bovine trunk, demonstrating theclose
relationship between the heart and the reticulum
 Blood supply
 The stomach of ruminants is supplied by several
branches of the a. celiaca, a. lienalis, a. gastrica
sinistra, and a. hepatica)

 omasum and abomasum are supplied by a.


gastrica and a. gastroepiploica

 the veins are satellite to the arteri and joint the


portal vein
 Innervation
 innervation is achieved by sympathetic and
parasymphatetic

 the sympathetic fibers come from the plexus


celiaca and form the plexus gastricus and plexus
ruminalis dextra and sinistra

 the parasympathetic fibers arise from the n. vagus


 Intestine

 Intestinum tenue (small intestine): duodenum,


jejenum, ileum

 Intestinum crassum(large intestine): cecum,


colon, rectum
 Blood supply
 a. jejunalis
 a. ileocolica
 a. colica media
 Innervation of the intestine
 intestine receives both, symphatetic and
parasymphatetic nerves

 the submucosal layer contains the Meissner-


plexus, while between the two muscular layer
innervated by Auerbach-plexus
 Intestinum tenue (small intestine)
 small intestine is mainly functioned as absorption
and digestion parts

 both the pancreatic and the bile ducts open into


the small intestine

 pancreas is secreting enzymes and the bile


responsible for the emulsification of fat essensial
for digestion
 the small intestine begins at the pylorus and ends
at the cecocolic junction

 the small intestine is connected to the dorsal


abdominal wall by the dorsal mesentery over its
whole lenght and capable to move in a great
degree mobility (but in horse and ruminants the
duodenum is fixed in its position by a short
mesoduodenum)
 Duodenum
 duodenum is the proximal part of the small intestine,
extending from the pyloric part to the jejunum

 it can be divided into:


▪ pars cranialis duodeni
▪ flexura duodeni cranialis
▪ pars descendens duodeni
▪ flexura duodeni caudalis
▪ pars transversa
▪ pars ascendens
▪ flexura duodenojejunalis
Intestinal tract of the dog, schematic (Ghetie, 1958)
Ansa spiralis
Ansa spiralis
Intestine of the rabbit
1. Hepar – liver
2. Ventriculus – stomach
3. Lien - spleen
4. Duodenum
5. Jejunum
6. Omentum major – greater
omentum
7. vesica urinaria
8. Ligamentum medianum
vesicae – middle ligament of
bladder
 The cranial part of the duodenum is connected with
the liver by the hepatoduodenal ligament, a remnant
of the ventral mesentery present in the embryo

 Within the hepato duodenal ligament passes the


common bile duct (ductus choledochus) from the liver
to the duodenum

 both of the pancreatic and the bile ducts open into


the duodenum
 Jejunum
 The jejunum is the longest part of the small intestine
between the duodenum and ileum

 It is the most mobile and free part of the entire alimentary


canal, due to the long mesojejunum which suspends the
jejunum and ileum from the abdominal roof

 In carnivores the jejunal coils occupy the ventral part of the


abdomen between the stomach and the bladder, lying on
the deep layer of the greater omentum
 In the pig, jejenum is suspended by a long mesentery
and its coils share the caudoventral part of the
abdomen with the mass of the ascending colon

 In ruminants the large rumen occupies the left half of


the abdomen, thus pushing the intestines to the right

 In the horse most of the jejunum is found within the


left dorsal part of the abdomen. A considerable
degree of mobility of the jejunum by its long
mesentery is responsible for the high prevalence of
displacements of the gut which can lead to colic
 Ileum
 the short terminal of the small intestine

 the distinction between the jejenum and ileum is


defined by the proximal extent of the ileocecal
fold (plica ileocaecalis)

 more muscular than the jejenum and the mucosa


is rich in lymphoid tissue (Peyer-patches)
 In the horse, dysfunction of the nervus supply to
the ileum leads to a permanent contraction of the
muscular coat of the ileum which can results in
impaction and thus colic

 On rectal palpation a characteristic finding is the


firm ileum passing from the left-ventral part of
the abdomen right-dorsally
Large Intestine
 divided into:
 Cecum
 Colon:
▪ colon ascendens
▪ colon transversum
▪ colon descendens
 Rectum
 Cecum
 The first part of large intestine

 It is blind-ending tube, which is demarcated from


the colon by the entrance of the ileum

 the shortest cecum is found in the cats and will be


longer in the dogs, pigs, ruminants, and the horse
respectively
 In the horse there are two opening inlets in the
cecum, ostium ileale and ostium cecocolica

 In the pigs and horse, cecum has sacculation


(haustra) because the present of longitudinal
smooth muscles (taeniae) in their walls
 the cecum of the horse has an enormous capacity of
up to 30 l, and is on average about 1 m long

 the cecum of the pigs a cylindrical blind-ending sac,


lies in the left half of the abdomen with its apex
pointing caudoventrally. It has three longitudinal
muscles bands (taeniae) with three rows of
sacculations (haustra)

 In ruminants the cecum is relatively small, rather


featureless and has neither taenia or haustra. It is
located in the right half of the abdomen with its blind-
endingapec pointing caudally
 Colon
 Colon is divided into three parts:
1. colon ascendens
2. colon transversum
3. colon descendens

 Anatomically the divisions form is only found in


dogs and cats
 Colon of the horse
▪ Colon of the horse consist of large ascending colon,
which arranged in two U-shaped loops laying on top of
each other, a short tranverse colon and a long
descending colon

▪ due to the considerable difference in diameter, the first


two portion also referred to as the large colon, the third
as the small colon
▪ Ascending colon can be subdivided into four
parallel limbs connected by three flexures, from
proximal to distal are:
 colon ventrale dextrum
 flexura diaphragmatica ventralis
 colon ventrale sinistrum
 flexura pelvina
 colon dorsale sinistrum
 flexura diaphragmatica dorsalis
 colon dorsale dextrum
▪ The flexura pelvina is distinguished by a marked
reduction in diameter and it marks the boundary
between two functional units of the colon

▪ The reduction in diameter together with the


sudden change in in direction and the decrease
in the fluidity of ingesta render the ventral parts
of the colon predisposed for impaction
▪ Colon transversum (transverse colon)
▪ The short transverse colon passes from the right to the
left cranial to the root of the mesentery

▪ the transverse colon is involved in the dorsal


attachment of the right dorsal colon
▪ Colon descendens (descending colon)
▪ similar to jejenum in diameter and between 2-4 m long, can be
distinguished from the mesojejenum by its higher content of fat

 Colon of the pigs


▪ after originating from the cecum ventral to the left
kidney, the ascending colon forms centripetal turns
passing clockwise (viewed from above) to the apex of
the cone. It then reverse forming the central flexura
(flexura centralis) and returns to the base in tight
counter clockwise turns

▪ the centripetal turns are located on the outside of the


cone, the centrifugal turns are located inside the cone
covered by centripetak ones
 Colon of the ruminants
▪ After leaving the cecum the ascending colon forms a sigmoig
flexure (ansa proximalis coli), itthen narrows and turns ventrally
to form a double spiral (ansa spiralis)

▪ two centripetal turns (gyri centripetal) are reversed in the central


flexure of the spiral and succeeded by two centrifugal turns
(gyricentrifugal) in the ox

▪ After the last centrifugal loop of the spiral, ascending colon then
continues to distal loop and join the transverse colon

▪ Before joining the rectum at the pelvic inlet, it forms a sigmoid


flexure, the looseness of which allows a considerable range of
movement to the hand during rectal palpation
 Rectum
 By entering the pelvis, the descending colon
becomes the rectum

 The retroperitoneal space of the rectum is filled


with soft tissue rich in fat

 Before joining the short anal canal, which opens


to the outside with the anus,the rectum becomes
dilated to form the rectal ampulla
 The anal canal is the terminal part of the
alimentary canal, which opento the outside
with the anus

 The anus iscontrolled by two sphincters,


internal (consist of smooth muscle) and
external (consist of striated muscle arising
from the caudal vertebrae)
 In the carnivores the mucosa of the anal canal is
divided into three consecutive annular zones, from
cranial to caudal:
 zona columnaris (columnar zone)
 zona intermedia (intermediate zone)
 zona cutanea (cutaneus zone)

 The anal sac (sinus paranalis) is located between the


inner smooth muscle and the outer striated
sphincter muscle of the anus
 The anal sac is the gland that secreting the
foul-smelling, which functions for territorial
scent marking

 the anal sacs are one of the considerable


clinical importance in the dogs becuse they
becomefrequently enlarged, due to
accumulated secretion or may become
abscessed and painful, causing constipation
Glands associated with the alimentary canal
 The liver
 The largest gland in the body with both exocrine and
endocrine in function
 Its exocrine product, bile, is stored and concentrated
in the gallbladder before being drained into the
duodenum
 The gallbaldder is absence in the horse
 the endocrine substances are released in into the
blood stream and play an important role in the
fat, carbohydrate and protein metabolism

 the anatomical arrangement of the venous


system of the gastrointestinal tract ensures that
all products of digestion, which are conveyed in
the blood stream after absorption, pass the liver
before entering the general circulation
 Weight of the liver:
▪ cat 2%
▪ dog 3-4% of body weight
▪ pig 2-3%
▪ herbivores 1-1,5%

 Form and position of the liver


▪ The liver is located in the thoracic part of the abdomen,
immediately behind the diaphragm
▪ the bulk of the liver lies to the right of the median plane
▪ In ruminants, the development of the rumen pushes the liver
entirely to the right half of the abdomen
 Liver has a strong convex surface towards the
diaphragm (facies diphragmatica) and concave surface
facing the other abdominal organs (facies visceralis)

 the two surfaces meet ventrolaterally in a sharp-edged


border (margo acutus) and dorsally in a blunt border
(margo obtusus)

 the visceral surface is marked by the porta hepatic


vein, bile duct and the hepatic vessels enter or leave
the organ and is closely related to the gallbladder
 The liver is grossly divided into four main
lobes:
1. lobus hepatis sinister (left hepatic lobe)
2. lobus hepatis dexter (right hepatic lobe)
3. lobus hepatis caudatus (caudate lobe)
4. lobus hepatis quadratus (quadrate lobe)

 the lobation patterns differ greatly among


species
 In carnivores the liver has four lobes and four sub-
lobes as well as two processes. The left and right
hepatic lobe are subdivided into the medial and
lateral lobes, and the caudate lobe is subdivided
into the caudate (processus caudatus) and the
papillar process (processus papillaris)

 the liver of the pig resembles that of the dog, but


does not have a papillar process
Liver of a pig
visceral surface
 Bile duct
 extrahepatic bile ducts consist of ductus hepatici
(hepatic ducts) from the liver, ductus cysticus (cystic
duct) to the gall bladder and ductus choledochus (bile
duct) to the duodenum

 in the horse and ruminants there are two hepatic


ducts, right and left hepatic ducts (ductus hepaticus
sinester et dexter), which again unite to form ductus
hepaticus communis (common hepatic duct)
 in the pig the ducts from the left lobes unite to
form left hepatic duct, while the ducts of the right
lobes drain separately into the common hepatic
duct

 in carnivores each hepatic sublobe has its own


lobar duct which drains into the cystic duct. these
species do nothave left, right or common hepatic
ducts.
Vesica fellea (gall bladder)
 vesica fellea lies in a fossa on the visceral
surface of the liverclose to the porta hepatic

 it stores the bile and discharges it into the


duodenum when necessary

 vesica fellea is not present in the horse


Pancreas
 pancreas is located in the dorsal part of the abdominal cavity
in close relationship to the proximal part of the duodenum
 like the liver, pancreas has both an exocrine and endocrine
function
 its exocrine product, the pancreatic juice is conveyed to the
duodenum. it contains three enzymes, one for the reduction
of protein, one for carbohydrtaes and one for fats
 the endocrine part produces insulin, glucagon and
somatostatin
 pancreas is divided into three parts:
1. corpus pancreatis (body of the pancreas)
2. lobus pancreatis dexter (right lobe of the pancreas)
3. lobus pancreatis sinister (left lobe of the pancreas)

 usually pancreas has V-shaped open caudally

 ductus pancreaticus commonly drains the part of


the gland into duodenum together with or close to
the bile duct on the papilla duodeni major (major
duodenal papilla)
 ductus pancreaticus accessorius usually found in
the dog and in the horse, open on the opposite
aspect of the duodenum on the papilla duodeni
minor (minor duodenal papilla)

 Pancreatic duct system of the different species:


▪ Cat: pancreatic duct large, small accessory duct present
in some individuals

▪ Dog: pancreatic duct small, missing in some individuals,


accessory pancreatic duct large
▪ Pig: accessory pancreatic duct

▪ horse: pancreatic duct large, accessory pancreatic duct


small

▪ Ox: pancreatic duct extremely rare, accessory pancreatic


duct
▪ small ruminants: pancreatic duct, some sheep with
accessory pancreatic duct

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