12

terms of m-powers of usage factors where exponent m corresponds the slope of

the relevant S-N curve.

When new design codes are developed, they should preferably be based on well-
founded interaction formulae. However, only the nominal stress method
introduces fatigue strength data for all three components, ax, a y and x^. The hot
spot approach can be applied on the component perpendicular to the weld,
whereas the other cases (stress parallel to the weld and shear stress) may be
evaluated according to the nominal stress approach.

It is worth noting that the structural stress parallel to a continuous weld obtained
from FE analysis can be considered as the nominal stress.

3 STRESS RAISERS
3.1 EFFECTS OF MACRO-GEOMETRY AND CONCENTRATED
LOAD AREAS

Welded structures often contain macro-geometrical forms which are not included
in the classified details in design codes. Examples are given in Fig. 9. They alter
the stress field calculated using elementary stress analysis formulae.

Fig 9 Examples of macro-geometric effects

(a) large openings; (b) curved beam;
(c) shear lag; (d) flange curling;
(e) discontinuity stresses in a shell;
(f) bending due to lap joint eccentricity.

For some macro-geometric effects shown in Fig. 9, analytical formulae are

available in the literature which, in combination with elementary stress analysis
methods, yield useful solutions for the overall stress distribution across the
 13

structure. For example, shear lag and flange curling effects on the longitudinal
stress can be analysed using beam theory if suitably defined effective flange
widths are used.

Macro-geometric effects usually cause a significant redistribution of the

membrane stress field across the whole cross section. Similar effects occur in the
vicinity of concentrated loads or reaction forces, as illustrated in Fig. 10.
Significant plate bending stresses may also be generated, as in curling of a flange
or distortion of a box section.

The stresses caused by macro-geometric effects, or stress fields in the vicinity of

concentrated loads and reaction forces, must be taken into account in all stress
categories, even when nominal stresses are determined. It is very important to
remember this when the fatigue analysis is based on nominal stresses since,
according to the definition, these effects are not included in the fatigue strength
based on simple test pieces. The aforementioned does not apply for geometries
for which S-N curves have been established.

Fig. 10 Examples of local nominal stresses in the vicinity of concentrated loads

a) transverse stresses in a web below a load;
b) warping stresses in a box section due to distortion.

Although there is no doubt that specimens tested to generate fatigue design data
will have contained some misalignment, in general it has not been quantified.
Consequently, it is normally assumed that the design data are only applicable to
aligned joints, or perhaps to joints containing very small amounts of
misalignment. It should not be assumed that the fabrication tolerances on
misalignment bear any relation to fatigue and, in general, all expected or detected
misalignment should be assessed and the corresponding extra bending stresses
included when calculating the nominal stress.

For an offset misalignment the structural stress can be estimated approximately

using the following stress magnification factor, K^ [7, 8]:
 14

*„ = l + 3-f, (4)

where e is eccentricity, and t is plate thickness.

More solutions for various misalignment cases are found in Ref. [7]. Webs and
stiffeners parallel to the stress can change the stress concentration. Their effect
on K^ caused by misalignments are studied in Ref. [9].

Fig 11 Offset (a) and angular (b,c) misalignments as examples of macro-

geometric discontinuities which are not designed into the structure

3.2 EFFECTS OF STRUCTURAL DISCONTINUITIES

Fig. 12 shows several structural discontinuities which may cause a local

concentration in the membrane stress field as well as local shell bending stresses.
These structural discontinuities differ from macro-geometric ones, since:

(i) the stress field discontinuity is relatively local;

(ii) such local discontinuities are normally included in welded fatigue test
specimens.

The extra membrane and shell bending stresses caused by structural

discontinuities are not included in the category of nominal stress. Instead, they
belong to the category of structural stress.

In general, analysis of structural discontinuity effects is not possible using

analytical methods. Therefore, FEA is often applied, in spite of the time and cost
required. There is a need for suitable parametric formulae, established by FEA or
strain measurements, to relate geometry and hot spot stress. At present, relatively
few structural details have been considered in the literature in this respect.
However, for tubular joints such formulae are already available, see Section 3.4.
 15

It should be noted that the presence of a weld on only one side of an axially-
loaded plate, as in Fig. 17, causes not only nonlinear stress peaks but also some
amount of shell bending (see also Fig. 3.)

Fig. 12 Structural discontinuities and their effects

(a) gusset plate; (b) variation in width; (c) cover plate end;
(d) stiffener end, (e) variation in plate thickness.

3.3 EFFECTS OF LOCAL NOTCHES

Fig. 13 shows typical local notches found in most welded components. A local
notch does not alter the structural stress, i.e. the membrane and shell bending
stresses.

Fig. 13 Typical notches in a welded component (a) gusset

(a) transverse weld reinforcement;
(b) weld bead roughness or blow holes in a longitudinal weld;
(c) ripples on aflame-cut edge.
 16

The main effect of a notch is to produce a nonlinearity in the stress distribution,

usually in the thickness direction, Fig. 14. The nonlinear stress peak lies within a
radius of approximately 0.3t to 0.4t from the notch root [10].

Nonlinear stress peak

Total stress

Structural stress

L0-4tJ

Fig. 14 Stress distributions across the plate thickness and along

the surface in the vicinity of a weld toe.

A nonlinear stress peak is one reason why a surface defect located at a notch is
more dangerous than an embedded defect, which is usually located in an area of
lower stress (Fig. 15). Edge notches and small drilled holes cause similar
nonlinear stress peaks, but with different orientations.

Fig. 15 Nonlinear stress peak, Gnlp caused by a transverse weld reinforcement,

making a surface crack (depth = aj more dangerous than an embedded
crack (depth = 2aJ

The notch stress, a^, is usually calculated by multiplying the hot spot stress by a
stress concentration factor, or more precisely the theoretical notch factor, Kt. In
 17

many cases the result will exceed the yield strength of the material. Thus, elastic-
plastic behaviour is to be expected, and the calculated stress should be considered
as a pseudo-elastic stress.

When no solution for Kt is available, FEM can be used for the determination of
notch stresses. However, because of the small notch root radius and the steep
stress gradient in the case of a weld, a very fine element mesh is needed.
Therefore, it is not practical to solve notch stresses by means of the same finite
element model used for determination of the structural stresses. A separate local
model, often a 2-D model using plane strain elements, is more suitable. Another
possibility, which is often a better solution, is to use the boundary element
method, BEM [11] (see Section 6.3).

The geometry of the local notch at the weld toe varies significantly along a weld
and between different welds. In spite of specified minimum requirements for the
weld profile, the exact geometry is unknown. Therefore, the nonlinear stress peak
has a random value. A specific feature of the nominal stress approach, and also
the hot spot stress approach, is that the effect of this random variable is implicitly
included in the test results, and it is reflected in the scatter band of the S-N
curves. Therefore, nonlinear stress peaks need not be calculated when these two
approaches to fatigue analysis are used. On the contrary, they must be excluded
from the calculated or measured nominal or hot spot stress.

3.4 SPECIAL CASE: JOINTS BETWEEN STRUCTURAL HOLLOW

SECTIONS

Large tubular joints are used in offshore structures. For this reason they have
been the subject of extensive research. Special recommendations for the
determination of hot spot stress have been published [2, 12-19]. This document is
intended for more general application and does not, therefore, cover all the
special problems of tubular joints.

Tubular joints, Fig. 16, like other similar shell structures, contain significant
geometric effects. The brace forces produce high membrane and shell bending
stresses in the chord shell. Fatigue cracking usually occurs at a point along the
weld toe, where the structural stress range perpendicular to the weld attains its
highest value. This hot spot is predominantly located on the chord side of the
weld due to the high bending stresses in the chord shell. However, if the brace is
relatively thin-walled, the hot spot may be located in the brace.

The secondary bending moments in the members, resolved by structural analysis,

assuming rigid or semi-rigid joints, are interpreted as macro-geometric effects.
The more local geometric effects in the joint area are interpreted as structural
discontinuity effects.
 18

Parametric formulae for stress concentration factors, K., can be found in the
literature [12-19], which yield the hot spot stress, a^:

&hs "~ -Ks' Gnom ? (5)

where Gnom is usually defined as the axial membrane stress in the loaded
member, brace or chord, caused either by axial force or bending moment, and
calculated using elementary stress analysis.

5 J v?\
1 Possible crack initiation sites

A ^^ ^^^ J^***~ ^ - \

Crown point/ /
Saddle point /

Fig. 16 Examples of tubularjoints.

In practice, the stress concentration factors must be determined separately for

different loading cases: axial loading, in-plane bending, and out-of-plane bending
acting in certain members at a time. In a combined loading case the hot spot
stress can be estimated by superimposing the results of different cases. However,
the superposition is usually possible only for certain special points, e.g. saddle
and crown points , see Fig. 16, and requires that stress concentration factors are
available for both of the points. The real hot spot may be located somewhere
between these two points and can only be found either by FEM analysis or by
experimental measurements.

The actual joints are often multiplanar with several brace members. It is a quite
laborious task to establish stress concentration factors for such complicated joints
with numerous configurations and loading cases [12]. If such factors are not
available for a particular joint, finite element analysis is then the most versatile
method for establishing the hot spot stresses.

Analysis of joints between square and rectangular hollow sections is even more
complicated in that there are no such obvious locations of the hot spots as the
crown and saddle points. These joints have been thoroughly studied in Ref. [18].