Polarization Basics Polarization Basics

• The equations Ey E Ey E
 E x (t ) =Eox (t ) cos[ωt + δx (t )]
 E x (t ) =Eox (t ) cos[ωt + δx (t )] Ex  Ex
 E y (t ) =Eoy (t ) cos[ωt + δ y (t )]
E y (t ) =Eoy (t ) cos[ωt + δ y (t )] z z
If we eliminate the term cos(ωt) between the two equations, and
represent a pair of plane waves: the two define δ(t)= δy(t)- δx(t), we find the polarization ellipse (valid in
general at a given time), which is the locus of points described by
components of the electrical field of an EM wave the optical field as it propagates:
propagating in the z direction, not necessarily
monochromatic. fast fast fast
2
• The amplitudes Eox,y(t) and phases δx,y(t) fluctuate
Ex2 ( t ) E y (t ) 2E x (t ) E y (t )
2
+ 2 − cosδ (t ) = sin 2 δ (t )
slowly with respect to the rapid oscillation of the Eox (t ) Eoy (t ) Eoy (t ) Eoy (t ) slow slow
carrier cos(ωt). slow slow slow
r r r
E (t) = Ex (t ) + E y (t)

Polarization Basics Polarization Basics

• For purely monochromatic waves, amplitudes and y
phases must be constant with time: E
Ey E • In general a beam of light is “elliptically
 E x (t ) =Eox cos[ωt + δx ] polarized”. x
 Ex
E y (t ) =Eoy cos[ωt + δ y ] z
• The polarization ellipse degenerates to
special forms for special values of the y
And the polarization ellipse is also constant: amplitudes and of the phases. E
fast fast fast • Linear polarized waves: when the ellipse
x
2 collapses to a line, i.e. when δ=0,π. The
E x2 (t ) E y (t ) 2E x ( t ) E y (t )
+ 2 − cos δ = sin 2 δ direction of the E vector remains constant.
y
Eox2 Eoy Eox Eoy r r r • Circularily polarized waves: when the
E (t) = Ex (t ) + E y (t) E
ellipse reduces to a circle, i.e. when
δ=π/2, 3π/2 and Eox=Eoy=Eo. x
t

• The polarization ellipse is

specified by the amplitude Polarization Basics Stokes Parameters
parameters Eox,Eoy,δ. • Our detectors are too slow to follow the time
• But it can be expressed evolution of the EM field. What we can measure
y are time averages, over periods much longer than
equivalently by the elliptical
parameters: y’ 2π/ω.
x’ • Due to the periodicity of the EM waves, it is
• Orientation angle ψ:
a enough to compute time averages over a single
b
ψ
period of oscillation. These are represented by the
2 EoxEoy cos δ
tan 2ψ = symbol <…>.
±b x
2 2
Eox − Eoy
• Ellipticity angle χ : tan χ = • So we take the time average of the polarization
a
ellipse:
2 Eox Eoy sin δ
sin 2 χ = 2 2
Eox + Eoy E x2 (t ) E 2y ( t ) 2 Ex (t ) E y ( t )
• For linearly polarized light χ=0.
+ − cosδ = sin 2 δ
Eox2 2
Eoy Eox Eoy

1
 Stokes Parameters Stokes Parameters
• Multiplying by 4Eox2Eoy2 we find
2
• We find ( Eoy + E ox
2 2
) − ( E ox2 − Eoy2 ) 2 +
4Eoy2 Ex2 (t ) + 4 Eox2 E y2 (t ) +
− (2 E oxE oy cos δ ) 2 = (2 Eox Eoy sin δ ) 2
− 8Eox Eoy 2 Ex ( t ) E y (t ) cosδ = ( 2Eox Eoy sin δ ) 2

• We define the Stokes Parameters: S o = Eoy

2
+ Eox2
• Since Ex(t) and Ey(t) are sine waves, we can
compute their time averages and substitute above: S1 = Eox2 − Eoy2
S 2 = 2 Eox Eoy cos δ
2 Eoy2 Eox2 + 2 Eox2 Eoy2 +
S3 = 2 Eox Eoy sin δ
− (2 Eox Eoy cosδ ) 2 = ( 2 Eox Eoy sin δ ) 2 • so that our equation reduces to

• Since we want to express this in terms of

S o2 = S 12 + S 22 + S 32
intensities, we can add and subtract Eox4+Eoy4:

S o = E oy2 + E ox2 S1 = Ex2 − E y2

Stokes Parameters Stokes Parameters y
S 1 = E ox2 − E oy2
• If light is not purely monochromatic, • Note that, for linear polarized
Ey
the amplitudes and phases fluctuate S 2 = 2 E ox E oy cos δ light (δ=0), both parameters S1
with time. and S2 represent the difference
S 3 = 2 E ox E oy sin δ in intensity carried by two
• It can be shown that, in general,
Ex x
S ≥ S + S +S
2
o 1
2 2
2
2
3
orthogonal components:
I S 2 + S22 + S32 • S1 is the difference in intensity y
• The = sign is valid for fully polarized P = pol = 1
light, while the > sign is valid for Itotal So between the components along y’
axis x and y x’
partially polarized or unpolarized 0 ≤ P ≤1
Ex’
light. P=degree of polarization: S o = E oy2 + E ox2 • S2 is the difference in intensity
between the components along Ey’ 45 o
• The intensity is related to So: 2 EoxEoy cos δ S 2 two axis x’ and y’ rotated 45o
• The orientation of the polarization tan 2ψ = E 2 − E 2 = S
x
ox oy 1 with respect to x and y.
ellipse is related to S1 and S2:
2 Eox Eoy sin δ S 3  1 1  1 1 
• The ellipticity of the polarization sin 2χ = = S2 = 2E x E y = 2Ex ' − Ey '   Ex' + E y'  = Ex' − Ey '
2 2

ellipse is related to S3: Eox2 + Eoy

2
So  2 2  2 2 

Stokes Parameters: examples So = Eoy2 + Eox2

Stokes Parameters
• Unpolarized light: S1 = Eox2 − E oy2 • The waves can be represented as complex functions:
δ=random  1
  S2 = 2Eox Eoy cosδ
<Eox2>=<Eoy2>=Io r
S = 2 I o  
0  E x (t ) =Eox cos[ωt + δx ] =Eox exp[ i(ωt + δx )]
0 S3 = 2Eox Eoy sinδ 
 
 0 E y (t ) =Eoy cos[ωt + δ y ] =Eoy exp[ i (ωt + δ y )]
• Linearly polarized light: • This helps in the time-averaging process needed to
– Horizontal(Eoy=0) Vertical (Eox=0) +45o (Eoy= Eoy; δ= 0) θo compute the Stokes Parameters. They can be
1  1  1   1 
rewritten as follows (Stokes vector):
r   r   r   r  
−1 cos 2θ 
S = I o   S = I o   S = I o   S = I o   S o   Ex Ex + E y E y   Eox + Eoy 
1 0 * * 2 2
0
 
0
 
1
  
sin 2θ 
      
 S1   E x Ex − E y E y   Eox − Eoy 
* * 2 2
0  0   0  0 
• Circular polarized light:  S  =  E E * + E E *  =  2 E E cos δ 
– Left  1 
  Right 1 
   2   x y* y x   ox oy 
 S3   i( Ex E y − E y E x )   2 Eox Eoy sin δ 
r r *
S = I o   S = I o  
0 0
0 0
   
 − 1 1 

2
 Stokes Parameters Classical measurement of the Stokes Parameters
• The Stokes vector can also be expressed in terms of source retarder polarizer
So, ψ, χ. φ θ
2 Eox Eoy cos δ detector
• From tan 2ψ = we can write S 2 = S1 tan 2ψ
2 2
Eox − Eoy • The measurement of the 4 Stokes Parameters needs two
optical components:
2EoxEoy sin δ
• And from sin 2χ = we can write S3 = So sin 2χ – A retarder (wave plate): it is a phase-shifting element, whose
Eox2 + Eoy2 effect is to advance the phase of the x component by φ/2 and to
Poincare’
retard the phase of the y component by -φ/2 . So the field
• Using S o2 = S 12 + S 22 + S 32 emerging from the retarder is E’x= Ex ei φ/2 and E’y= Ey e-i φ/2
we find S1, so we have: – A polarizer. The optical field can pass only along one axis, the
transmission axis. So the total field emerging from the polarizer
 So   1  is E”=E’xcosθ+E’ysinθ, where E’ is the incident field and θ is
   
 1
S  cos 2 χ cos 2ψ  the angle of the transmission axis.
S  = S o  cos 2 χ sin 2ψ  • So the beam arriving on the detector is
  2
  E”=Ex ei φ/2 cosθ+Eye-i φ/2 sinθ
S   sin 2χ 
 3  

Classical measurement of the Stokes Parameters Classical measurement of the Stokes Parameters
source retarder polarizer source retarder polarizer
φ θ detector φ θ detector
• E”=E x ei φ/2 cosθ+Eye-i φ/2 sinθ I (ϑ , φ ) = 12 [So + S1 cos 2θ + S 2 cos φ sin 2θ + S 3 sin φ sin 2θ ]
• The detector measures its intensity, i.e. I= E”E”* • This is the formula derived
in 1852 by Sir George  I (0 o , 0 o ) = 12 [S o + S1 ]
• So we get I (ϑ , φ ) = E x E x cos θ + E y E y sin θ +
* 2 * 2

Gabriel Stokes.  I ( 45 , 0 ) = 12 [S o + S 2 ]
o o

+ E *x Ey e−i φ sin θ cos θ + E x E *y eiφ sin θ cos θ • The first three parameters  I (90 o , 0 o ) = 1 [S − S ]
can be measured by  2 o 1
• Which can be rewritten using the half-angle formulas:
removing the retarder (φ=0)  I (45 , 90 ) = 12 [S o + S 3 ]
o o
cos 2 θ = 1+ cos2 2θ sin 2 θ = 1− cos2 2θ sin θ cos θ = sin22θ
and measuring the intensity
(E x E + E y E )+ (E x E − E y E *y )cos 2θ
*
x
*
y
*
x  with three orientations of  S o = I ( 0o , 0 o ) + I (90 o , 0o )
I (ϑ , φ ) = 12   the polarizer θ=0 o,45 o,90 o: 
+ (E x E y + E y Ex )cos φ sin 2θ + i(Ex E y − E y E x )sin φ sin 2θ  • The fourth parameter can 
S1 = I (0 o , 0 o ) − I (90 o , 0 o )
* * * *

be measured by inserting a  2 S = 2 I ( 45 o , 0 o ) − I (0 o , 0 o ) − I (90 o , 0o )

I (ϑ , φ ) = 1
2 [So + S1 cos 2θ + S2 cos φ sin 2θ + S3 sin φ sin 2θ ] 90 o retarder (quarter wave  S = 2 I ( 45 o , 90 o ) − I (0 o , 0o ) − I (90 o , 0 o )
 3
plate):

Classical measurement of the Stokes Parameters Partially polarized light

source retarder polarizer • The Stokes parameters of a combination of independent
φ θ detector waves are the sums of the respective Stokes parameters
I (ϑ , φ ) = 12 [So + S1 cos 2θ + S 2 cos φ sin 2θ + S 3 sin φ sin 2θ ] of the separate waves.
• The great advantage of the Stokes Parameters is that they are • If we combine a fully polarized wave with an
observable. The polarization ellipse is not (too fast).
independent, unpolarized one, we find partially polarized
• Moreover, the Stokes parameters can be used to describe
unpolarized light: light which is not affected by the rotation of a light.
polarized or by the presence of a retarder. Stokes was the first one  So   So   So 
to describe mathematically unpolarized and partially polarized      
S =   = (1 − P )  + P  
 S1   0 S1
light.
S2 0 S2
• It is evident from Stokes formula that, for unpolarized light,      
 S3  0  S3 
S1=S2 =S3=0, while So>0.      
The fully polarized light had S o = S1 + S 2 + S 3
2 2 2 2
• I pol
2 2
S1 + S2 + S3
2

• The intermediate state is partially polarized light, where P= = 0 ≤ P ≤1

Itotal So
2 2 2 2 • This expression will be useful in the following.
S ≥ S + S +S
o 1 2 3

3
 Polarization-active optical 1) Polarizer or Diattenuator
components • It attenuates the orthogonal  E x' = px E x
• When a beam of light interacts with matter its
components of an optical beam  '
unequally:  E y = p y E y
polarization state is almost always changed. • Using the definitions of S and S’
• It can be changed by  So'   E x' E x'* + E y' E y'*   So   Ex E x + E y E y 
* *
 '   ' '*     
Polarizer (Diattenuator)  S1   E x E x − E y E y   1  − y y 
' '* * *
– changing the amplitudes S E E E E
 S '  =  E ' E '* + E ' E '*   S  =  E E* + E E* 
x x

– changing the phases Wave-plate (Retarder)  2  x y y x   2   x y* y x 

 S '   i(E ' E '* − E ' E '* )   S   i( E E − E E * ) 
 3  x y y x   3  x y y x 
– changing the directions Rotator
• And inserting the expressions for E’
of the orthogonal field components. we get  p 2x + p2y p 2x − p 2y  So 
 So'  0 0
 '  2  
• Their effect can be described by means of the  S1  1  px − p y
2
p 2x + p 2y 0 0  S1 
 S'  = 2  0 0  S2 
Mueller matrices: M is a 4x4 matrix such that  2
0 2 px py
 
the emerging Stokes vector is S’=M S .  S' 
 3  0
 0 0 2 p x py  S3 

 S o'   p 2x + p2y p2x − p 2y 0 0   So   p 2x + p 2y p 2x − p2y 0 0 

Special cases  '  2
 S1  1  p x − py
2
p2x + p 2y 0
 
0   S1 
Polarizer:  2
1  px − p y
2
px2 + p2y 0 0


=
S '  2  0 MP = 
 0 2 px py 0   S2  • The characteristics of 
 2   2 0 0 2 px py 0 
 S'   0 2 p x p y   S3  the polarizer p x and p y
 3  0 0  0 2 px p y 
• If the diattenuator is can be rewritten in  0 0
 So'   1 0 0 0  S o 
simply an attenuator,      terms of new  px = p cosα
i.e. if p x=p y=p we  S1'   0 1 0 0  S1  parameters p and α: def
 p = p sinα
 '  =  S 
have a neutral density S
  
2
0 0 1 0
 2 
 S '   0 0 0 1  S 
 y def
filter:  3   3 
 1 cos 2α 0 0 
 
 So'  1 1 0 0  S o  • With these parameters p 2  cos 2α 1 0 0 
• If the Polarizer is  '    MP = 
 S1  px2  1 1 0 0   S1  the Mueller matrix of 2 0 0 sin 2α 0 
ideal and horizontal,  '  = 2 0 0  
 S2  0 0  S 2  a polarizer is:  0
 0 0 sin 2α
i.e. if p y=0 we have   
S' 
 3 0 0 0 0   S3 
• An ideal polarizer  S o'   1 ±1 0 0  S o  1 
 So'   1 −1 0 0   So   '     
• If the Polarizer is  '    converts any  S1  1  ± 1 1 0 0  S1  1  ± 1
ideal and vertical, i.e.  S1  p 2y  − 1 1 0 0   S1   ' = 2 0 = (S o ± S1 ) 
 ' = 2  0 0   S2 
incoming beam into a S 0 0 0  S 2  2 0
if px=0 we have S
  
0 0
  linearly polarized  2     
2
 S' 
 S' 
 3 0 0 0 0   S3  beam:  3 0 0 0 0  S3  0 

 So'   1 0 0 0  So 
 '   
2) Retarder Special cases  S1   0 1 0 0  S1 
 S'  =  0 0 cosϕ − sin ϕ  S2 
• It introduces a phase shift between Ex' (t) = e+iϕ / 2 Ex (t )  2   
the orthogonal components of an  '  S'   0 0 sin ϕ cosϕ  S3 
Ey (t) = e Ey (t )  3 
−iϕ / 2

optical beam : '

• If the retarder is a quarter-  So   1 0 0 0  So 
• Using the definitions of S and S’  '   
wave plate (φ=90 o):  S1'   0 1 0 0  S1 
' ' '* ' '* * *  S2  =  0 0 0 −1 S2 
 So   E x E x + E y E y   So   Ex E x + E y E y   '   
 '   ' '* ' '*    * * • Such a retarder converts a  S3   0 0 1 0  S3 
 S1   E x' E x'* − E y' E y'*   S1   E x E *x − E y E *y    
= = +45 o linearly polarized beam
 S2 
'  Ex E y E y Ex   S2   Ex E y + E y E x   1  1 0 0 0  1 
 '   ' '* + ' '*      into a right/left circularly     
 S3   i(E x E y − E y E x )   S3   i( E x E *y − E y E *x )  polarized beam:  0  = 0 1 0 0  0 
         0  0
• And inserting the expressions for E’ 0 0 −1 ±1
    
we get ± 1 0 0 1 0  0 
' 
'
• If the retarder is a half-wave
 So   1 0 0 0  So  plate (φ=180o):  So   1 0 0 0   So 
 '     '   
 S1'   0 1 0 0  S1  • This reverses the ellipticity  S1'   0 1 0 0   S1 
 S2  =  0 0 cosϕ sin ϕ  S2  and orientation of the  S2  =  0 0 −1 0   S2 
 '    incomin polarization state.  '   
 S3   0 0 sin ϕ cosϕ  S3   S3   0 0 0 − 1  S3 
     

4
 3) Rotator Rotated Optical Components
• We have assumed that the optical axis of the components we
• Here  E'x (t ) = Ex (t ) cosθ + Ey (t) sinθ have considered were aligned to the coordinate system.
 '
Ey (t) = −Ex (t ) sinθ + Ey (t ) cosθ
• If they are not (as often happens), we have to
1. rotate the incident beam from the original coordinate system to the one
aligned with the component: S’ = MR (θ)S in
• Using the definitions of S and S’ 2. Multiply S’ by the Mueller matrix M C of the optical component S”= M C
S’
 So'   E x E x + E y E y 
' '* ' '*
 So   Ex E x + E y E y 
* *

 '   ' '*      3. Rotate the output beam back into the original coordinate system:
 S1   E x E x − E y E y   S1   E x E x − E y E y 
' '* * *
Sout= MR (-θ) S’’
 S '  =  E ' E '* + E ' E '*   S  =  E E* + E E* 
 2   x' y'* y' x'*   2   x y* y x  • So we have:
 S '   i( E E − E E )   S   i( E E − E E * )  θ ) MC MR (θθ ) Sin
 3  x y y x   3  x y y x  Sout = MR (-θ
Where θ is the rotation on the optical component C.
• And inserting the expressions for E’
we get  So'   1 0 0 0  S o  1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
        
 S1'   0 cos 2θ sin 2θ 0  S1   0 cos2θ sin 2θ 0  0 c2 s2 0
=
 S '   0 − sin 2θ cos 2θ 0  S  MR (θ ) =  =
0 −sin 2θ cos2θ 0 def  0 − s2 c2 0
 2   2     
 S'   0
 3  0 0 1  S3  0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1

Rotated Polarizer Linear Polarimeter

• Here source polarizer
p 2
+p2
p −p2 2
0 0  Σ ∆ 0 0
 x y x y
   θ
1 p
2
−p2
p +p2 2
0 0  1 ∆ Σ 0 0 Intensity detector
MC (0) = MP (0) =  x y x y
 = • A polarimeter is a device able to detect polarized
2 0 0 2 px py 0  2 0def 0 X 0
 2 px py   0 
0 X 
light and measure its polarization characteristics.
 0 0 0  0
• The simplest polarimeter we can imagine is a
1 0 0 0  Σ ∆ 0 0  1 0 0 0 linear polarimeter, which can be built with a
   
• so 1 0 c2 − s2 0  ∆ Σ 0 0  0 c2 s2 0 rotating polarizer in front of an intensity detector.
MP (θ ) = 
2 0 s2 c2 0  0 0 X 0  0 − s2 c2 0 • An intensity detector is represented by a Stokes
   
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 X  0 0 0 1 vector D=(1,0,0,0). The power detected by the
• and detector from an optical beam with Stokes vector
 Σ c2∆ s2∆ 0  Σ = p x2 + p y2
   S is simply w=DS=So
 ∆ = p x − p y
2 2
1  c2∆ c2 Σ + s2 X s2c2 (Σ − X ) 0 
2 2

M P (θ ) =   X = 2 pxpy
• If we put a polarizer in front of the detector, the
2 s2∆ s2c2 (Σ − X ) s22Σ + c22 X 0   s = sin 2 θ polarizer is called analyzer, and the power
 
 0 0 0 X   2
 c 2 = cos 2 θ detected will be w(θ) =DMP(θ)S

Linear Polarimeter Linear Polarimeter

source Polarizer (analyzer) • If we are interested to the linear polarized component
θ Intensity detector only, we can rotate continuously the polarizer: θ=ωt
and look only for the AC signal at frequency 2ω.
 Σ c2 ∆ s2 ∆ 0  S o  • This allows to reject the unpolarized component, even if
  
1  c2 ∆ c 22Σ + s 22 X s 2 c2 (Σ − X ) 0   S1  it is dominant, and to remove all the noise components
w = DM P (θ )S = (1,0, 0,0)  ⇒
2 s2 ∆ s 2 c2 (Σ − X ) s 22 Σ + c 22 X 0  S 2  at frequencies different than 2ω (synchronous
   
  demodulation).
 0 0 0 X  S 3 
ω
source Rotating analyzer
1
w = 2 (Σ S o + ∆ S 1 cos 2 θ + ∆ S 2 sin 2 θ )
This polarimeter is not sensitive to circular polarization (no S3). Intensity detector
1
It is sensitive to linear polarization (S1 and S2) and to w= 2
(Σ S o + ∆ S1 cos 2ω t + ∆ S 2 sin 2ω t )
unpolarized light (So). 1
V ( t ) = Rw (t ) + N (t ) = 2 R ΣS o + ∆ (S 1 cos 2ω t + S 2 sin 2ω t ) + N ( t )
If the polarizer is ideal: [ constant modulated ] noise
∆ =1 ; Σ =1 ; X =0 detector signal (DC) signal (AC) (AC)
1 responsivity
w = 2 (S o + S 1 cos 2θ + S 2 sin 2θ )

5
 ω
Detector
Linear Polarimeter source Rotating How do we separate S1 and S2
analyzer
R [Σ S o + ∆ (S 1 cos 2ω t + S 2 sin 2ω t )] + N (t )
Rw+N
Log P(ω) Ref(2ω) V (t ) = Rw (t ) + N (t ) = 1
2
C
<…>T x A • Neglecting the stochastic effect of noise (we
A[Rw(2ω)+N(∆ω)]
A(Rw+N)AC R integrate enough that N becomes negligible) and
Demodulated signal of the constant term (which we remove with the
noise AC decoupling)
signal
V ( t ) = Rw (t ) = 12 R [∆ (S 1 cos 2 ω t + S 2 sin 2 ω t )]
σ2 = ∫ P( ω ) d ω
∆ω- • We measure V and we want to estimate S1 and
∆ω-=1/T S2. We can use two reference signals, out of
phase by T/8 and synchronously demodulate
with them:
1/RC 2ω Log ω

How do we separate S1 and S2

T
 T T

X = T1 ∫ V (t ) sin 2ωtdt = 1 R∆
2 T S1 ∫ cos 2ωt sin 2ωtdt + S 2 ∫ sin 2ωt sin 2ωtdt
0  0 0 
T
 T T

Y = T1 ∫ V (t ) cos 2ωtdt = 12 RT∆ S1 ∫ cos 2ωt cos 2ωtdt + S 2 ∫ sin 2ω t cos 2ωtdt
0  0 0 
• So the double linear polarimeter is
X = 1
8
R∆S 2 insensitive to So and it is easy to
calibrate.
Y = 1
8
R∆ S1 • Is this a troubleless instrument ? No !
• It is inefficient (factor 1/8 from
modulation and demodulation)
• It can be microphonic.
• And, as all polarimeters, needs a
telescope.