Grade 11 Biology Exam Review

Unit 1: Diversity of Living Things

 Taxonomy: The branch of biology that identifies, names, and classifies species (based on natural features)
-The ranks: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species

 Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs:
-Autotrophs : organism that captures energy from the sunlight or sometimes non-living substances to produce its
own energy-yielding food
-Heterotrophs: organism that cannot make its own food and gets its nutrients and energy from consuming other
organisms

 Major Cell Types:

-Prokaryotic: a smaller simple type of cell that does not have a membrane bond nucleus
-Eukaryotic: a larger, complex type of cell that does have a membrane bound nucleus

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Genetic Material -circular DNA not bounded by -DNA in nucleus bounded
membrane membrane
Cell Division -not by mitosis and meiosis -by mitosis and meiosis
Reproduction -common asexual -common sexual
Number of Cells -unicellular -mostly multicellular
Organelles -mitochondria and other organelles -mitochondria and other membrane
are absent bound organelles present
Cellular Respiration -do not require oxygen to carry out -require oxygen to carry out
cellular respiration (anaerobic) cellular respiration (aerobic)

 Vertebrate Animal Classes:

Notochord flexible, rod-shaped structure found in chordate animals; replaced by spine after vertebrate
develops
Fish half of vertebrate species are fish, occupy fresh and saltwater habitats, gills obtain dissolved oxygen
from water, paired fins and jaws
1)Shark and rays skeleton of cartilage
2)Bony fish skeleton of bone, most have air sac called swim bladders (swim can rise or sink in water
column by filling and emptying bladder)
Amphibians tetrapod is a vertebrae with 2 pairs of limbs like amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
-use moist skin to assist in gas exchange, reproduce using external fertilization
Reptiles lizards, snakes, turtles etc body scales that create waterproof barrier to helpectothermic and have
three chambered heart
Ectohermic the reliance on environmental heat for determining internal body temperature
Endothermic the use of metabolic heat to maintain a high, constant body temperature
Mammals distinguished by having hair, and mammary glands (a mammalian gland that produces and
secretes milk for nourishing developing young (monotreme-egg laying, marsupials-pouched mammals, placenta
mammals-have a placenta
Birds-high blood temperature and unique respiratory systems
 Shared Characteristics of Animals:
o Levels of Organization
-basis of differences in their structure, tissues, and organ systems
-have varying levels of complexity in organ systems (digestive, nervous, etc)
o Number of Body Layers
-all animals (besides sponges and cnidaria) have 3 layers
-layers develop during early stages of embryonic development and eventually produce different tissues
and organ systems
-ectoderm (outer layer), mesoderm (middle layer), endoderm (inner layer)
o Symmetry of Body Planes
-radial symmetry body plane that can be divided along any plane, through a central axis
-bilateral symmetry body plane that can be divided along one plane, trough the central axis, into equal
halves
-sponges are irregular and asymmetrical
o Body Cavities
-coeloms a fluid filled body cavity that produces space for the development and suspension of
organisms and organ systems
-coelmates include worms, mollusks, insects, vertebrates
-acoelomates include corals, jellyfish and flatworms
o Segmentation division of multicellular bodies into a series of repetitive parts (ex. Worms and
scorpions)
o Movement
-animals develop nerve and muscle tissue which give them ability to move
-others are sessile (live attached to one place) like sponges and anemones
o Reproduction
-most animals reproduce sexually using gametic reproduction
-external fertilization gametes join outside the body
-internal fertilization gametes join inside the body

 How are Protists Classified:

Animal-like Protists
Ex. amoebas, ciliates, flagellates
-heterotrophs (consume other
organisms for food)
-some are parasites
Fungus-like Protists
Ex. slime moulds, water moulds
-grow on top of organisms and
absorb nutrients
-heterotrophs
Plant-like Protists
Ex. diatoms, dinoflagellates
-make their own food using
photosynthesis (some consume
other organisms)
-mostly autotroph

 Viruses and Parasites: Viruses can live outside the human body but parasites need a host cell to love off of.
Bacteria and parasites can be killed with antibiotics but viruses cannot
Viruses a structure that contains strands of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat (viruses
aren’t cellular so they need to invade a host cell to use its resources to replicate and function)
Capsid the outer protein layer that surrounds the genetic material of a virus
Example of Virus (Bacteriophage) Attacking Bacteriophage lands on host cells’ membrane, drills into the
membrane and releases its DNA which travels into the cell and goes into the Lytic or Lysogenic cycle
Lytic Cycle Viral DNA destroys cellular DNA, virus’s genetic material uses host cell to make new cells
(cells ribosomes breath in viral DNA so now the cell only makes viral protein and multiply and release more
viral cells
Lysogenic Cycle viral DNA enters the host cell and attaches onto the viral DNA, the cell does everything it
normally does but also makes viral DNA which goes into every cell it divides into. The problem is that these
cells could easily be triggered and all infected cells will react at once (then they’ll go into lytic cycle), its also
harder to detect (attachment, entry, attachment to cellular DNA)
How are viruses classified based on the size and shape of their capsid

 Dichotomous Key: An identification tool consisting of a series of two-part choices that lead the user to a
correct identification

 Climate Change on Biodiversity:

Biodiversity Crisis current decline in genetic, species, and, ecosystem diversity that may represent a mass
extinction
Climate Change and Food Sources if climate increases it’s a problem for species that live there
Ex. In winter caribou eat fungi which may not be available any longer because warmer winters have more
precipitation and this causes freezing (plants may not grow where they’re supposed to)
Climate Change and Habitat as altitude increases vegetation zones in mountainous regions that are
experiencing long term warming shift upwards in average temperatures (warmer trends make upper zones even
smaller)
-warming results in habitat loss b/c it reduces the amount of suitable land area on which plants grow
-in remaining areas growth becomes fragmented
Climate Change and Reproduction Temperature sex determination is a system where the sex of an offspring
can be determined by incubation temperature rather than by genes
-this could affect species as too many males could be produced and not enough females or vice-versa
Climate Change, Plants & Animal Pollinators disturbance in schedule
-pollen is necessary for reproduction in plants
-if flowers bloom late then pollinators don’t have anything to pollinate and if they open early then pollinators
won’t be there (therefore early springs are a problem)
Climate Change and Aquatic Ecosystems climate change causes icecaps to melt which adds more fresh water
to salt water (which could affect organism that live there)
-determines currents and messes up freshwater to saltwater ratio

Unit 2: Evolution

 Scientific Contributions to Evolution:

-George-Louis Leclerc: challenged that life forms were unchanging that the earth was much older than 6000
years old
-The Science of Paleontology (George Cuvier): -paleontology the study of ancient life through the
examination of fossils
-found that the deeper stratum (rock layer) the more the species were similar to each other, also found that
fossils in stratum that was shallower had species more similar to modern life, the fossils in between the two had
more differences
-catasrophism ideas that catastrophes such as floods and droughts periodically destroyed species living in a
particular region, allowing species from neighbouring regions to repopulate the area
-Charles Lyell: rejected catastrophism and proposed uniformitarianism theory that geological processes
operated at the same rates in the past as they do today (ex. floods in the past have no greater power than floods
today)
Jean-Baptise Lamarck: inheritance of acquired characteristics idea that characteristics acquired during an
organism’s lifetime can be passed on to its offspring (adaptations to the environment resulted in characteristics
that could be passed on, and body parts not used would disappear, called use and disuse)
Charles Darwin: theory of natural selection a theory explaining how life has changed, and continues to change
during Earth’s lifetime
Darwin, Wallace, Theory of Natural Selection: -Survival of the fittest the idea that the organisms that are the
fittest leave the most offspring, so those organisms win the struggle for survival (Drawin called it natural
selection). Wallace came to the same conclusion as Darwin
-descent with modification Darwin’s theory that natural selection does not demonstrate progress, but merely
results from a species’ ability to survive local conditions at a specific time (happens because of mutations and
sexual reproduction, species will get more distinct)
-Malthus said growing populations cannot exceed their resources

 Speciation: Sympatric and Allopatric

1)Allopatric Speciation: physical barrier keeps species apart, allowing evolutionary process of descent with
modification to occur, if they become distinct enough they’ll become their own species
2)Sympatric Speciation: the evolution of populations within a the same geographic areas into separate species,
can occur suddenly (through mutations) or gradually and involves large populations

 Factors Affecting Allele Frequencies:

-Mutations: mutations randomly introduce new alleles into a population, altering allele frequencies
-Gene Flow: the movement of alleles from one population to another due to migration (species moving to
introduce new variations in a population that you typically wouldn’t see there)
-Non-Random Mating: mating based on mate selection for a particular phenotype (sexual selection) or due to
interbreeding
-Genetic Drift: the change in frequencies of alleles due to changing events in a breeding population
Two types: 1)Founder effect A change in a gene pool that occurs when a few individuals start a new
isolated population (don’t always represent the whole population)
2)Bottleneck effect changes in gene distribution that result from a rapid decrease in
population size
-Natural Selection: result of the environment selecting for individuals in a population with certain traits that
make them better suited to survive and reproduce
Three types: 1)Directional Selection natural selection favours the individual with a more extreme
variation of the trait (shifts away from average condition)
2)Stabilizing Selection natural selection eliminates the extreme and favours the average
phenotype within a population
3)Disruptive Selection natural selection favours individuals with variations at opposite
extremes on a trait (environment favours more than one phenotype)

 Prezygotic Isolating Mechanisms: prevents zygotes from being born

1)Behavioural Isolation-different: different species use different courtship and other mating clues to find and
attract a mate
2)Temporal Isolation: different species breed at different times of the year
3)Habitat Isolation: Very similar species may occupy different habitats within a region (b/c they live in different
habitats they don’t breed)
4)Mechanical Isolation: Differences in morphological features may make twp species incompatible
(reproductive anatomy parts don’t fit, therefore can’t breed)
5)Gametic Isolation: Male gametes may not be able to recognize and fertilize an egg of a different species

 Post Zygotic Isolating Mechanisms: prevents hybrid species to reproduce

1)Hybrid Infertility: Hybrid offspring remain healthy and viable, but are sterile
2)Hybrid Breakdown: Mating and fertilization are possible, but when the hybrids mate the next generation is
weak or sterile
3)Hybrid Inviability: A hybrid develops but either dies before birth, is born alive, or cannot survive to maturity

 Natural Selection and Artificial Selection:

Natural Selection: the process by which characteristics of a population change over many generations as
organisms with heritable traits survive and reproduce, passing their traits to offspring (survival of the fittest,
determines which variation will live)
Artificial Selection: selective pressure by humans on populations in order to improve/modify particular
desirable traits (humans breed plants and animals) Benefits: decrease in undesirable traits, saves time and
money, increase in nutritional value of food Draw backs: cloning reduces genetic diversity, slow process

 Fossil Structures:
1)Homologous Structures: structures that have similar structural elements and origin but may have a different
function
2)Analogous Structures: structures that do not have a common evolutionary origin but perform similar functions
3)Vestigal Structures: structure that is reduced version of a structure that was functional in the organism’s
ancestors

Unit 3: Genetics
Cell Cycle-MITOSIS (for somatic cells-plant/animal cells that forms body of organism (besides reproductive
cells) *start:diploid somatic cell-end:two genetically identical diploid daughter cells
1)INTERPHASE:
 G1 Growth
 S DNA replicated (now there are 92 sister chromatids)
 G2 Cell grows more
2)MITOSIS:
Prophase
1 Chromatid condenses into chromosomes
2 Centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell
3 Nucleur membrane begins to dissolve
4 Spindle fibres form
Metaphase
1 Spindle fibres connect to centrosomes on the centromeres
2 Spindle fibres line them up along the middle of the cell
Anaphase
1 Centromere divides
 2 Spindle fibres retract, pulling the sister chromatids apart to
opposite sides of cell
Telephase
1 Nuclear membrane reappears
2 Chromosomes decondense into chromatids
3 Spindle fibres disappear
4 Formation of the cleavage furrow
3)CYTOKENESIS: (division of cell) splitting of cleavage furrow into
2 daughter cells

centromere region where the sister chromatids are held together in a chromosome homologous
centrioles/centrosome structure that helps to form the spindle fibres chromosomes
gene a section of DNA, a code alleles different variations of the genes chromosomes
genome complete DNA sequence of an organism (all the genetic material in our bodies) that contain the
chromatid DNA in loose form (condense into chromosomes by wrapping around histones) samechromosome
sequence
DNA in condensed form of genes as
another
 Cell Cycle for germ cells: chromosome
MEIOSIS 1 *starts with a diploid germ cell (46 chromosomes) and ends with 4 raw haploid gamete cells (each
genetically different)
Interphase 1:G1, S, G2 DNA strands grow into chromosomes, that’s how they’re replicated
Prophase 1: each pair of homologous chromosomes (1 chromosome from each parent) bond through synapsis
and exchange genetic material through crossing over DNA, sister chromatids are no longer genetically identical
Metaphase 1: pairs of homologous chromosomes line up along equator of cell, spindle fibers attach to
centromere and independent assortment occurs (which is random alignment of chromosomes)
Anaphase 1: homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of cell and sister chromatids are
still together (centromere doesn’t split so two sister chromatids from each homologous pair moves to each pole
of cell
-chromosome number is reduced from 2n (diploid) to n (haploid)
Telophase1:homologous chromosomes begin to uncoil
-spindle fibres disappear
-cytokinesis happens forming nucleur membrane around each group of homologous chromosomes, two cells
form (technically they’re haploid b/c they have 46 chromatids but 23 chromosomes)
*No replication between Meiosis and Meiosis 2
MEIOSIS 2 (similar to mitosis)
Prophase 2: centrosomes duplicate, nuclear membrane disappears, spindle fibres form
Metaphase 2: haploid number of chromosomes lie up at the equator and spindle fibres attach to kinetocores on
centromeres
-2 chromosomes in each, 2 new haploid cells
Anaphase 2: sister chromatids pulled apart at centromers by spindle fibers (happening in both new haploid cells)
-now starts to form 4 new haploid cells (each haploid cell has 2 sister chromatids forming one chromosome)
Telephase 2: nuclear membrane forms around 4 new haploid cells each with half number of chromosomes from
the parent cell
synapsis the aligning of homologous chromosomes during prophase 1
What creates genetic diversity? Prophase 1-crossing over and Metaphase 1-independent
assortment

 Oogenesis: the process of producing female gametes (eggs) in mammals and starts with ovam (female
gamete, plural ova)
Oogonia reproduce by mitosis after birth, begin meiosis 1 but stop at prophase 1, and at puberty meiosis
1 will continue to release one cell each month
Process:
-Start with diploid oogonium (oogonia) undergo mitosis before birth
-Remaining oogonia that don’t die undergo meiosis and become primary oocytes
-Primary oocytes pause during prophase 1 after replicating but before meiois 1 they stay rested until their
menstrual cycles begin
-When girl hit puberty p.o resume meiois from where they left off and finish meiois 1, (they stop at metaphase 2
unless they are fertilized) then divides chromosomes equally but there is unequal division of cytoplasm
-At cytokinesis almost all cytoplasm remains in one of the two daughter cells which becomes the secondary
oocyte
-The other daughter cell with half the chromosomes but little cytoplasm is called polar body and since its not
functional it’ll eventually degenerate and die
-S.o (has 2 copies of each chromosome) and become a fully functional ovum must undergo meosis 2 and
division in uneven again (where half chromosome going to small degenerate polar bear)
-The other half is gone to the ovum (half chromosome and almost all of cytoplasm) creating an egg
gamete male or female
reproductive cell zygote cell
formed by the fusion of two gametes

 Spermatogenesis: the process of producing male gametes (sperm) in mammals-doesn’t start until puberty
Process:
-Starts with diploid cell called spermatogonium (plural spermatogonia)
-Spermatogonium germ cell undergoes mitosis to produce more spermatogonia (to keep sperm count high)
during puberty
-Cells grow gradually into primary spermatocytes preparing to divide into cells half their size
-Each primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis 1 to form two haploid calls known as secondary spermatocytes
-Secondary spermatocytes divide once more through meosis 2 and produce 4 haploid cells called spermatids
(containing half of the genetic material)

 Structural and Numerical Genetic Mutations:

Numerical: Trisomy Monosomy
The gain of a chromosome The loss of a chromosome as a result of non-
as a result of non disjunction disjunction
-when it meets with egg & turns diploid it’ll have -autosomes can affect either sex
47 chromosomes -you can be born with one x but not one y (if y is
-if its on autosome (1-22) it can affect either sex present you’ll be male
-if its on sex chromosomes depends if its x or y
Structural: Inversion (genes get copied backwards) , Duplication (genes get copied twice), Delecsion (genes get
deleted)
 Cloning- a process that produces identical copies of genes, cells, and organisms
1)Gene cloning (DNA manipulation techniques to produce multiple copies of single gene or segment DNA)
-purpose is to produce specific protein
 Slice the gene that we want, put it in bacterial DNA (called plasmids) because it replicates faster and has
higher cellular activity
 Then isolate the protein we want
 New DNA is called recombinant DNA ( DNA that includes genetic material from a variety of DNA)
Transgenic animals animals that have recombinant DNA
2)Therapeutic Cloning (replacing an egg cell’s nucleus with the nucleus from a somatic donor cell to produce
a cell line of genetically identical cells)
-purpose is to produce specific tissues through three types of stem cells…
1)Embryonic stem cells can get them from zygotes-can be made into anything including the placenta
and umbilical cord, and early blastocyst cells (which are cells from the zygote when it first starts to develop and
starts dividing)-can make anything in the body besides umbilical cord and placenta
2)Adult Somatic stem cells somatic cells that have retained the ability to differentiate into some
other cell types
3)Induced Pluripotent stem cells can be used for anything, take any cell and induce it back to whats
like an embryonic stem cell, then it grows into mature cell (but its not natural)
-Change them by extracting the nucleus from stem cells and put them in the nucleus of the cell that we want
3)Reproductive Cloning-purpose: reproduce entire organism
-Also use stem cells

 Genetic Material in Different Stages:

DNA Molecule: What is DNA comprived of?
Nitrogenous Bases in DNA
Nucleotides individual units of each strand of DNA
1)Adenine 2)Thymine
1.Sugar molecule (structure of ladder/walls)
3)Cytosine 4)Guanine
2.Phosphate group (structure of ladder/walls)
3.Nitrogenous base (base)
How proteins are made/replicates genes
-DNA unzips, unravels and gets copied into RNA strand which leaves the nucleus
-Thymine is replaced by (U) Uracil, they go into cytoplasm, ribosomes read the start codeone, they suck ameno
acids that attach
DNA replication is a semi conservative process because you’re conserving half of your DNA (1 strand is
original DNA, 1 strand is the replicated strand)

 DNA Molecule
Centromere- region where the sister chromatids are held together in a chromosome
centrioles/centrosome- structure that helps to form the spindle fibres
gene- a section of DNA, a code alleles- different variations of the genes
genome- complete DNA sequence of an organism (all the genetic material in our bodies)
chromatid- DNA in loose form (condense into chromosomes by wrapping around histones)
chromosome- DNA in condensed form, made up of two sister chromatids
 Scientific Contributions to Genetics:
-Aristotle proposed pangenesis egg and sperm consist of particles (pangenes) from all body parts (upon
fertilization pangenes develop into parts of the body from which they were formed)
-Antony van Leeuwenhoek discovered living sperm in semen and believed he saw complete miniature
person in the head of sperm
-Gregor Mendel developed theory of inheritance (through Pea plant study)

 Non-mendillian Traits (traits that don’t follow regular rules):

o Incomplete Dominance: when neither allele is fully expressed (results in intermediate expression of the trait)
-If you’re heterozygous, you are a blend instead of having a dominant trait
-ex. red flower and white flower breed and produce a (mixed) pink flower
o Co-Dominance: both alleles of a trait are equally expressed in a heterozygote; both alleles are dominant
-ex. if chickens are black and white, you’ll see both traits show up in the offspring (speckled black and white)
o Polygenic Traits: traits that aren’t one gene species, multiple genes are making up one trait
- ex.AABbCc could be for height, hair, etc

 Epigenetics: when environmental factors control which genes are turned off and on

*Refer to textbook for pedigree chart and punnett square practice

UNIT 4: ANIMAL SYSTEMS

 Human Body Systems and Their Functions

-Digestive System: take in nutrients and break them dow for energy
-Reproductive: to make offspring
-Respiratory: to deliver oxygen to the blood, remove carbon dioxide
-Excretory System: To get rid of liquid waste like sweat and urine
-Skeletal System: protects vital organs, bon marrow creates red blood cells, primarily gives structural support
-Lymphatic System: to fight off and kill pathogens
-Endocrine System: production and creation of hormones
-Nerves System: Involuntary and voluntary, able to produce movement
-Integumentary System: Barrier separating what goes in and out, skin, hair, nails, exocrine glands
-Muscualr System: movement is primary job, regulates body temperature
-Circulatory System: primary function is circulation, regulates body temperature too
-Vestibular System: In charge of your balance, all inside of inner ear

 Macronutrients Monomere Polymere (smaller, storage molecule)

1)Carbohydrates (ring structure)  Monosaccharides- a simple  Polysaccharide- made up of
CHO sugar with three to seven linked monosaccarides
carbon atoms ex.cellulose, starch
ex.glucose,fructose
 Disaccharide- a sugar made up
of two monosaccharide
molecules ex.sucrose
2)Nucleic Acid  nucleotides  DNA or RNA
 3) Protein
Essential-you need to eat them
Nonessential-your body can
synthesize and build them on their
own
 Amino acids- a building block  Polypeptide- a linear chain of
of protein several amino acids linked by
-peptide bond- bond that holds peptide bonds
together amino acids in a protein

4)Lypid/Fats  Fatty Acids (one chain)  Triglycerides

Trans- linear, hydrogens are
flipped, double bond
Saturated- the structure is linear
with no double bond
Have to have three fatty acid
chains
Molecule that holds them together
is triglyceral

Unsaturated- structure has at least

one double bond to make the
structure bend
(monounsaturated=one double
bond, polyunsaturated= more than
one double bond)

 The Four Stages of Food Processing

1)Ingestion-the taking in or eating of food
2)Digestion-break down food into monomers using mechanical and chemical processes
-mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces by chewing, using tongue to move
food around, moulding the food with mouth and throat
-chemical digestion is the chemical breakdown of nutrient molecules into smaller molecules by enzymes or
stomach acids
3)Absorption- process of removing nutrients from our food
-products from the digestive system transport into circulatory system and liver transports good into the
bloodstream and bad into excretory system, live can also store things for later
4)Elimination-removal of undigested solid waste matter
*herbivore digestive track is bigger in relation to their body b/c plant cells are harder to break down since
they’re more complex, have cell walls, cellulose, and chlorophyll

 The Digestive System

Digestive System Processes (Digestive track-pathway where food travels, also known as GI track, and
alimentary canal)
-injest food and physically break it down (using tongue, teeth, throat), and chemically break it down with saliva
(which has digestive enzymes in it)
-mouth only breaks down carbohydrates & starches (starch and sugar are called amylase) with salivary amylase
-chewed food is called bolus, heads down esophagus the muscular tube through which food passes from the
mouth to the stomach
-esophagus uses peristalsis a wave like series of muscular contractions that pushes food in direction we want
-esophageal sphincter muscular valve, separates end of esophagus from start of stomach
-in the stomach the bolus breaks down farther with chemical digestion (stomach acids+digestive enzymes) and
mechanical digestion 3 layers of muscle fibres in the stomach churn and mould the food)
-gastric juice mixture of hydrochloric acid, salts, enzymes, water, and mucus, produces by glands in the
stomach to help digest food (pepsin is released in the stomach to break down protein)
-bile (made in liver and stored in gallbladder) digests fat in small intestine for first time, everything else as well
-bolus us now called chyme a thick liquid produced in the stomach and made of digested food+gastric juice
-chyme exsits phyloric sphincter (lower end of stomach) and heads into the first part of the small intestine
-first part of small intestine is the duodenum short U-shaped section from which food passes into the stomach
(majority of the digestion happens here, fats are broken down for the first time here, majority of chemical
digestion happens here
-walls of small intestine are lined by folds covered with villi (projections increase surface area and improve
absorption of nutrients) each villi is covered with microvilli
-as chyme flows through these gaps created with villi, blood vessels pull nutrients
-jejunum and ileum’s function is to absorb nutrients
-large intestines function is to absorb water, not nutrients
-cecum and appendix are vestigial structures
-chyme goes into ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon
-rectum holds solid waste until it needs to be released (released through anus)
-liver’s function is to sort out nutrients and send them to where they need to go, produces bile, cholesterol, HDL
and LDL
-pancreas produces insulin, helps intake of sugar for energy, regulates blood sugar, stores glycogen
-kidney maintains water balance

 Digestive Diseases
Gallstones -hard deposits that form in the gallbladder because of too much cholesterol or waste in your bile that
does not allow the gallbladder to empty properly
-stones block ducts leading from gallbladder to intestines which causes sharp pain in the upper right abdomen
-can be dissolved with medications, but if that does not work, surgery is done to remove the stones
Diabetes- condition where body is unable to use glucose for energy
Type 1)insulin producing cells of pancreas are destroyed by the immune system and therefore no longer produce
insulin
Type 2)body doesn’t make enough insulin or is unable to properly use the insulin it makes, comes from high
sugar diets
Gestational)can develop during pregnancy because of hormones or inadequate levels of insulin production
Hepatitis- inflammation of the liver most commonly caused by a virus
A)caused by drinking contaminated water (there is a vaccine for it)
B)spread by sexual contact (vaccine to prevent it)
C)contracted by contact with infected blood (no vaccine for it)
Inflammatory Bowel Disease- the general name for a group of diseases that cause inflammation in the intestines
Ulcers-open sores that develop on the inside lining of your stomach and the upper portion of your small
intestine
Peptic ulcer-a sore in the lining of the stomach or duodenum, mostly caused by infection with the bacterium
Helicobacter pylori
-ulcers form when tissues become inflamed because protective mucus that covers the lining has weakened,
painful because unprotected tissue is in contact with acidic gastric juices
 The Respiratory System:
Functions:
-gas exchange (breathing in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide)
-make sound (forms our words by expelling air, changing position of our lips and tounge

2 ways to breathe in
Nasal cavity (nostrils which have villi to filter particles) and oral cavity
Pharynx-connects mouth and nasal cavity to larynx and esophagus
Larynx-structure between glottis and trachea that contains vocal cords
Trachea-carries air from nasal passages or mouth to bronchi, then lungs (also known as wind pipe)
Left and Right Bronchi- the passageway that branches from the trachea to the lungs
Bronchioles-branches from each bronchus inside the lung into increasingly smaller thin-walled tubes
Intercostal muscles-in between the ribs, these muscles plus the diaphragm contract when breathing and change
the volume of your therastic cavity
Alveoli (alveolus)- covered with capillaries, tiny sac found at the end of bronchioles, respiratory gases are
exchanged in this sac (expand and contract, oxygen we just brought in diffuses into the membrane)
External Respiration-oxygen is diffusing from the alveoli into the bloodstream and bonding with haemoglobin
Internal Respiration-happens at the tissue level where cells are

Epiglottis-prevent food from going down the trachea

Glottis-the opening of the trachea through which air enters the larynx (between vocal cords)
-oxygen goes into the bloodstream and bonds with haemoglobin (iron-containing protein found in red blood
cells which binds to and transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body)
-decomposition reaction occurring- carbon dioxide is breaking apart and getting released into alveoli (low
concentration of carbon dioxide in alveoli
-oxygen travels on haemoglobin and carbon dioxide travels on alveoli
-at the tissue level, oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood stream, this oxygenated blood goes into heart, gets
pumped to the tissue it needs to go to (tissues have low concentration of oxygen) and because the tissue
performs work they’ll have high carbon dioxide levels and blood will have low carbon dioxide levels

Respiratory Diseases
Asthma-caused by an irritance like pollen or dust, causes chronic inflammation of the lungs (redness and
soreness), its sometimes associated with mucus

Bronchitis- inflammation of the bronchioles and airways

 Chronic-exposure to concentrations of dust, chemical compounds, smoke and destroy cilia lining (over
period of time), without cleansing action of cilia bronchi grow increasingly inflamed and vulnerable to
infection (coughing is caused by mucus)
 Acute-caused by bacterial infection

Cystic Fibrosis- genetic, causes thick build up of mucus in lungs, resulting in infection, inflammation, and
damage to lung tissue (people that have it have shorter life spans)
Emphysema-chronic respiratory disease that affects the ability of the lungs to expel air, you don’t have as much
surface area for gas exchange, causes alveoli to burst ex. because of smoking

Laryngitis-inflammation of the larynx causes raspy voice (because the voice box is in larynx)

Pneumonia- causes inflammation in one or both lungs, usually caused by viral infection
 Lobular-affects a single lobe
 Bronchial- affects tubes (patches in both lungs in the area around brochi or bronchioles)
-alveoli fill up with thick fluid, making gas exchange difficult

Tonsilitis-tonsils are the first line of defence when we eat something

Tonsillitis is infection of tonsils caused by a virus or by bacteria, if they’re chronically inflamed you might
have to get a tonsillectomy (could be inflamed because of step throat as well)

Lung cancer-can be caused by inhaling smoke, in an x-ray it will show up as a white spot (chemotherapy can
be used to reduce size of cancer and then remove it)

Chest X-rays- common diagnostic, looks at bones and tumours (for pneumonia it will look cloudy around area)
MRI-looks at soft tissue
Cat Scan/CT Scan-gives a 360 degree view, shows cross sections, more details, less radiation

Circulatory System: The Heart

-blood enters the superior vena cava or the inferior vena cava
-when blood comes back from all tissues it’s deoxygenated and it fills up the right atrium
-the heart contracts and goes from right atrium, through tricuspid valve, and into the right ventricle
-2nd contraction happens and blood is pushed out of the pulmonary valve, out of the pulmonary artery, and into
each lung…..the blood gets oxygenated (at alveoli through external respiration) comes back through pulmonary
veins, and fills up the left atrium
-then you have contraction, blood goes through bicuspid valve
-when left ventricle fills up then contraction happens and blood goes out of the ascending aorta (above) and
descending aorta (below body)
*Only 2 contractions, when atria contracts, they both contract, when ventricles contract they both contract
-septum-wall that separates deoxygenated blood from oxygenated blood
-semilunar value-valve between the ventricle and the large arteries, carries blood away from the heart
-atrioventricular valve-valve in heart between the ventricle and atrium
-right side of heart is oxygen poor and carbon dioxide rich, left side is oxygen rich and carbon dioxide poor

Summary:
4 Valves: 2 aortic valves 2 semi lunar-Tricuspid and Bicuspid valve
4 Chambers
2 Atria
2 Ventricles
4 Vessels: 2 Pulmonary (veins and arteries), exit artery (aorta), main entrance artery (vena cava)
 Diseases
We have 2 arteries- one supplies heart (coronary arteries, if they’re blocked and not getting enough oxygen,
you’ll have a heart attack) one supplies brain

Aneymia- lower red blood cell count (typically low iron)

Aneurysm- bulge in an artery or heart chamber caused by a weakened area of the heart muscle or arterial wall

Arrhythmia-irregular speed/rhythm of the heart beat (has to do with SA node)

 Atrophibulation- first depolarization isn’t happening properly
 Tachycardia- beating irregularly fast
 Bradycardia- lower than normal heart beat
 Ventricufisilation- AV node isn’t working properly, stops a heartbeat, no circulation, death

Pacemaker-sends electrical impulses that control the rate of the heartbeat

-a holter monitor monitors your heart beat, if its irregular or not

Arteriosclerosis- hardening of arteries, losing elasticity, build up of plaque because of antherosclerosis

Congenital Heart Defects- any defect in the anatomical structure of the heart ex.hole in the septum
Hemophilia- when blood doesn’t clot properly

Stroke: Ishemic Stroke-blockage (clot) in the blood vessel, blocks flow of blood to the brain
Hemorrhagic Stroke-bursting of a blood vessel (in brain), so blood leaks into surrounding brain tissue
(the cerebral cavity)

Hypertension: high tension in arteries/ chronic high blood pressure (b/c of high salt diets)
Hypotension-low blood pressure
Hyperglycaemic-high blood sugar Hypoglycaemic-low blood sugar

Leukemia- cancer of white blood cells

UNIT 5: PLANT SYSTEMS

 Monoculture-a large amount of one species being grown in an area

-pros: you can create a lot of it, can feed a lot of people, it’s easier to maintain, good for carbon cycle, nitrogen
cycle, and water cycle
-cons: resistance to disease or temperature change can affect all of your harvest at once, same with frost, soil
depletion-if you plant the same crop over and over and it needs nitrogen, it will take all of the nitrogen out of
the soil (so farmers typically change the crop they plant each season to avoid inadequate soil), it’s an ideal
environment for pests
 Food security-when all people have access to safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs to lead a
healthy life at all times, it must be sustainable
 Agriculture- farming or forestry practices that produce foods and goods that will be used for something
 Sustainable Agriculture- agricultural production that integrates economics, environment, and society in
meeting the nutritional needs of the world
Plant Tissues:
1) Ground tissue- has multiple functions and that makes up most of the inside of the plant
2) Meristematic tissue-undifferentiated embryonic stem cells/plant tissue, where all plant issue comes from
3) Vascular tissue- for circulation, made up of xylem and phloem, xylem vascular tissue that transports water,
minerals, and soil nutrients from the roots to the leaves or wherever else it needs to go, phloem brings
sugar/glucose to the tissue
4)Dermal tissue-the outer layers of the cells that form a protective covering for the plants, including epidemis
and periderm

 Photosynthesis reaction: Calvin cycle

Versatility of Cellulose:
-nutrients all energy comes from the sun and plants are the first living organisms that can take the energy,
so we get nutrients and energy from eating those plants
-plants harvest the sunlight’s energy and undergo cellular respiration to produce glucose (which is ATP
for themselves)
-gas exchange
-medicine all the different biochemicals we use for medicine comes from plants
-clothes cotton (comes from plants)
-building wood which comes from trees
-erosion control
-helps in flooding plants absorb rainfall so there is less chance of flooding in green space, help with water
cycle

 Vascular plants-plants that have some sort of circulatory system, refer to anatomy diagram
 Leaf Anatomy: Refer to diagram
Leaf Physiology:
-cuticle is a waxy layer on the epidermis that is secreted by epidermal cells
-epidermis is the dermal tissue that makes up a plant’s outer covering
-guard cells are specialized epidermal cells, in pairs they regulate (open and close) the opening of the stomata
-stoma (plural stomata) is a small opening that allows gas exchange to occur and water to pass through

 Transpiration- the process of water evaporating from the inside of a leaf to the outside through the stomata
(water leaves the stoma)

 Translocation- the transport of glucose throughout the plant, phloem is the structure that moves the sugar

 Cohesion-tension Model- the process of the xylem moving water from the roots to the leafs (xylem is the
tubing structure the water moves through)

 Tropism-a plant’s growth response to external stimulation coming from one direction in the environment
 Phototropism-a plant’s growth response to light
 Gravitropism- a plant’s growth response to gravity
 Thigmotopism-a plant’s growth response to touch or contact

 Nastic response- a plant’s movement in response to a stimulus that is not associated with the direction of
the stimulus (an unpredicted response)

 Apical dominance- a condition of a plant stem where plants mainly grow upwards, with little growth from
side branches
 Ecological succession- the change in an ecosystem that happens when one community replaces another,
resulting from changes in abiotic and biotic factors
 Primary succession- establishment of a community in an area of exposed rock that does not have topsoil
(moss will grow on rock which will eventually turn into soil for plants)
 Pioneer species-the first organisms to appear in primary succession
 Secondary succession- changes that take place in a damaged ecosystem or in communities that have been
destroyed but the soil has remained intact

 Pollination:
A Flower’s Reproductive Anatomy
-pistil the female reproductive part of the flower
-stamen the male reproductive part of the flower
-typically have cross-pollination one flower on one plant to another flower on another plant and self pollination
is when a flower fertilizes itself
-when a flower is open and blooming, it is ready to sexually reproduce
-when a bee (or any pollinator) has pollen stuck to it and it lands on a different flower, the pollen grain sticks to
the stigma, in the pollen grain there are two different types of cells, one is called the tube cell which is used to
burrow down a pollen tube from the stigma through the style to the inside area of the ovary then the generative
cell which is inclosed in the tube cell divides into two sperm cells, they target an ovule to fertilize (ovules egg
cell and two polar nuclei), one of them fertilizes an egg which forms a zygote, the second joins with the two
polar nuclei and develops into endosperm which is full of nutrients for the developing baby plant (double
fertilization). Then surrounding ovary develops into a fruit