Magnetic Properties Chapter Explains Permeability

Chapter
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Materials in which a state of magnetisation can be induced are called magnetic materials.
When magnetised, such materials create a magnetic field in the surrounding space.
All the molecules of a material contain electrons orbiting around the nucleus. These orbits are
therefore equivalent to circulating currents and so develop an m.mj In most molecules each m.m.f
due to an individual orbit is neutralised by an opposite one. But in magnetic materials such as iron and
steel there are a number ofunneutralised orbits, such that a resultant axis of m.m.f exits with produces
a magnetic dipole. In unmagnetised specimens, because of mutual attraction and repulsion among the
dipoles, the molecular m. m.f axes lie along continuous closed paths, and no external magnetic effect
can be detected. In magnetised specimens, the dipoles line up parallel with the exciting m.m.f and
when the exciting m.mj is removed, a number of dipoles may remain aligned in the direction of the
external field and thus exhibit permanent magnetism. The readiness of a material to accept magnetism
is expressed by its permeability. For all materials except a few magnetic ones, the permeability is that
of free space and is constant. It is denoted by µ0 and equal to 4n x 10-1. For magnetic materials the
permeability equals µ0 times the relative permeability which is denoted by µr.
The relative permeability varies with the degree of magnetisation of the material and may have a
value as high as 2500.
A current loop produces at large distances a magnetic field which is identical with that of a
magnetic dipole moment. The equivalent magnetic dipole moment of a current loop is given by
µm = L4
where I is the current through the loop and A is the area enclosed by the loop. The direction of the
dipole moment will be perpendicular to the plane of the loop and will be in the same direction as that
in which a right hand screw would advance when rotated in the direction of the current flow.
Consider a solenoid of length l and area of cross section A. Let the number of terms be N and the
current through the solenoid be 1 If the solenoid is placed in vacuum the flux density will be :
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Bo= µoH
where H = NIIl.
If the vacuum is replaced by a homogeneous magnetic medium the flux density will increase to
B = µOµrH
Thus there will be an increase in flux density of B - B0 = µo (µ1 -1) H = µ0H' . Now this increase
in flux density can be thought of due to an increase in H' rather than due to the change in the
medium. If !' is the corresponding increase in current then we have
H' = Nl'/1 = NI'A/lA ... (1)
149
150 An Introduction To Electrical Engineering Materials
The right hand side of equation ( 1) represents the total magnetic dipole moment per unit volume
and is the magnetisation of the medium denoted by the letter M. Hence
H' (u, -l)H =M
or M/H X = u, -1
where X is a dimensionless quantity defined as the magnetic susceptibility of the medium. Under
this condition
= µOµrH
where u, = 1 + x is defined as the relative permeability ofmedium. For non-magnetic media

X = 0 and u, = 1. The magnetic susceptibility depends on the nature ofthe magnetic material and on
its state (temperature, etc.). The susceptibility of a sample may change on cold working. When the
susceptibility is positive, the magnetisation vector is in the direction of the field vector and when it is
negative the magenetisation vector is opposite to the field vector. Thus if copper is cold worked, the
susceptibility may change from a negative to a positive value and on annealing after cold work, it may
again become negative. The susceptibility may be determined by measuring the force exerted on a
magnetic material when it is placed in a magnetic field. The susceptibility of a ferromagnetic substance
is very strongly dependent on the field strength. Therefore the magnetic properties of ferromagnetic
materials are best described by giving the magnetisation or the flux density as a function of the field
strength. TheMJH and theBIH curves of ferromagnetic materials are very similar in nature. The slope
of the former when divided by the magnetic space constant, µ0 gives the magnetic susceptibility and
the slope ofthe latter gives the magnetic permeability, µ which equal µ0µr. For ferromagnetic materials
the susceptibility (or, the permeability) is not constant. It has a low value at weak fields. As the field
intensity is increased, the susceptibility increases, reaches a maximum value and then begins to drop,
ultimately reaching a constant value on saturation.
x
H
Fig. 6.1 Susceptibility versus Field strength (Ferromagnetic materials)
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Magnetic materials for which a linear relationship between M and H exists are divided into
classes depending upon the sign of X. Materials which have a negative value of X of the order of
10-4 to 10---6 are called diamagnetic and those which have a positive value of X of about the same
order of magnitude are called paramagnetic. When the relationship betweenM and His non-linear
(i.e., when B * µ µrH) and exhibits the familiar hysterisis effect, we have the third large groups of
0
materials in which the resultant magnetisation is one to several orders of magnitude greater than
µ0H. Such materials areferromagnetic.
Figure 6.2 show the hysterisis loop for such a material from which we may define a number of
permeabilities. The initialpermeability is defined as the slope ofthe normal magnetisation curve, at
!iB
H = 0. The incremental permeability is defined as !ill about a given point on the hysterisis loop.
Sometimes the term differential permeability is used; it is defined as dB/dH, the slope of the
magnetisation curve at the point ofinterest.
Magnetic Properties ofMaterials 151
Another classification ofmagnetic materials B
consists in the presence or absence ofpermanent
magnetic dipoles in them: the term permanent dB
magnetic dipole being used in the same sense as dH
in the corresponding dielectric case, i.e., a �Lo µm = Max.

permanent dipole exists in the absence of a field.
Permeability
Materials which lack permanent magnetic
dipoles are called diamagnetic. Magnetisation v

B V
H
�
of such materials occurs when the applied field �=�t0µ2 V _H µo µr = Inital
f B 11, Permeability
induces a magnetic moment in the individual
atoms. Incremental
permeability
This possibility arises since an external
magnetic field may cause changes in the electron

orbits. In the absence of the external field the Fig. 6.2 Hysterisis loop
net magnetic moment of the orbits is zero but
takes a non-zero value when the orbits are charged.
If permanent magnetic dipoles are present in the atoms of a material, it may be paramagnetic,
ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic orferrimagnetic depending on the interaction between the individual
dipoles. Thus if the interaction between the atomic permanent dipole moments is zero or negligible
and the individual dipole moments are oriented at random as shown in Fig. 6.3 (a) the material will be
paramagnetic. If the dipoles interact in such a manner that they tend to line up in parallel, as shown in
Fig. 6.3 (b) the material will be ferromagnetic. Such materials exhibit what is known as ordered
magnetism because of the stronger interatomic interaction. When neighbouring moments are aligned
antiparallel as in Fig. 6.3 (c), the magnetic phenomenon is known as antiferromagnetism. In
ferromagnetic materials there is a large resultant magnetisation whereas in antiferromagnetic materials,
the magnetisation vanishes. When the order of the magnetic moments is as shown inFig. 6.3 (d) the
phenomenon is known as ferrimagnetism. For ferromagnetic materials [Fig. 6 .3 ( b)] if the four atoms
comprise one molecule, the molecular moment will be four times the atomic moment. For
antiferromagnetic materials the molecular moment will be zero and there is no spontaneous
magnetisation. The molecular moments in ferrimagnetic materials will have values in between the
values for ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials.
t\-/ t t t t
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.3 Paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, anti-ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic

arrangement of spins
Table 6.1 Classification of Magnetic Materials
Classification Permanent dipoles Interaction between neighbouring dipoles
Paramagnetic
Diamagnetic Yes
No Negligible
...
Ferromagnetic Yes Parallel orientation
Antiferromagnetic Yes Antiparallel orientation of equal moments
Ferrimagnetic Yes Antiparallel orientation of unequal moments
All materials possess magnetic properties to a greater or a lesser degree. These are determined,
first by the fact that a magnetic field exerts forces and torques on bodies, and secondly, by the fact that
a body placed in a magnetic field distorts the field. The magnetic properties of materials are
characterized by their relative permeabilities. In accordance with the value of relative permeability,
materials may be divided into three broad classes mentioned earlier, viz. (1) Ferromagnetic materials,
the relative permeabilities ofwhich are much greater than unity and are dependent on the field strengths,
(2) Paramagnetic materials which have relative permeabilities only slightly greater than unity, and
(3) Diamagnetic materials, the relative permeabilities of which are slightly less than unity.
When a paramagnetic or a diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the distortion of the
field is negligible. On the other hand, when a ferromagnetic material is placed in the field. There is
considerable distortion. Although the force exerted by magnetic field in the case of paramagnetic and
diamagnetic material is very weak it may be detected with sensitive measuring equipment without
particular difficulty.
In the case of iron objects which are ferromagnetic one is familiar with the fact that magnetic
fields exert large forces.
Diamagnetism is a universal property of all materials in as much as they contain electrons. The
diamagnetic properties, however are weaker than the paramagnetic ones and still weaker than the
ferromagnetic properties. Diamagnetic properties may be detected only if properties which result in
positive magnetism are absent. Paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials have diamagnetic properties
but the latter are obscured by the stronger positive paramagnetism. Thus, diamagnetism exists for all
systems containing electrons but positive magnetism can arise only in such materials which have a
permanent magnetic moment. The phenomenon of paramagnetism is very similar to the process of
polarisation of a dielectric, which consists of rigid dipoles possessing a constant dipole moment.
Although the presence ofa permanent magnetic moment in atoms is a necessary condition for the
existence of ferromagnetic properties the peculiarities of ferromagnetic behaviour are due to a very
specific property, viz. the formation within the ferromagnetic material of vast regions or domains
within which the magnetic moments of a large number of atoms are arranged parallel to one another
giving magnetic saturation in each domain.
6.3 THE ORIGIN OF PERMANENT MAGNETIC DIPOLES
Whenever a charged particle has an angular momentum it will contribute to the permanent dipole
moment. In general, there are three contributions to the angular momentum of an atom.
(i) Orbital angular momentum of electron
(ii) Electron spin angular momentum
(iii) Nuclear spin angular momentum
Each atom of a material is a tiny electromagnet, the magnetism being produced by the rotation of
electrons around the nucleus at extremely high speed. Since a current in a conductor consists of
moving electrons, the electrons revolving around the nucleus of the atom may be regarded as forming
current rings in the material. If a magnetic field is applied to the material, the current rings in the
material behave like coils carrying current in a magnetic field and tum round so that their axes point
more or less in the direction of the applied magnetic field. The electrons in the current ring are given
a certain amount of angular momentum. It can be shown that each angular momentum corresponds to a
permanent magnetic dipole moment and the contribution to the atomic magnetic moment arises
from the vector sum of moments contributed by the individual electrons due to their orbital motions.
From the theory of the periodic table discussed in chapter-1 one can easily show that there is no
net contribution to the orbital permanent dipole moment of an atom by a completely filled electronic
shell. The transition elements such as the rare earths and the elements belonging to the iron group
have incompletely filled shells and may therefore have orbital dipole moments.
The elements of the iron group are important from the electrical engineering point of view. But
the net orbital dipole moment in the solid state for such materials is zero, although the individual
atoms may have orbital dipole moments. This is because the incompletely filled shell in such atoms
lies near the periphery of the atom on account of which there are strong interacting forces with the
neighbouring atoms. This leads to a condition in which the dipole moments cannot orient themselves
in an external field.
In rare earths, the incomplete shells lie relatively deep inside the atom and there are no interacting
forces as in the case of iron. Thus in such elements there is a net contribution to the magnetic
susceptibility from the orbital dipole moments.
It is possible to calculate the angular momentum associated with particular electron orbits from
wave mechanics. The comparison of the calculated angular momenta using wave mechanics and
observed value of susceptibilities for certain materials, especially the paramagnetic ones, does not
give good agreement. The calculated values of susceptibility are less than the observed values. The
discrepancy is removed when we take electron spin into account, which supposes that the electron
acts as a spherical pole of charge spinning about an axis in a counter clockwise direction. The spinning
negative charge may be regarded as a minute current flowing in a circular path as shown in Fig. 6.4.
Since current flows from a positive potential to a negative
potential the spinning electron becomes equivalent to

current 'i' embracing an area 'a'. The magnetic moment of
suhch a current hasd?ee n shown by Ampere to. equhal µb0ia. �

i' 'a'
T e permanent rpo 1e moment ue to spm as een

assigned a unit. It is called the "Bohr Magneton". The
total contribution to the magnetic moment of an atom due
to spin is the vector sum of the individual spins of the
various electrons, and the total magnetic moment is the Fig. 6.4 Spinning electron
vector sum of the electronic orbital moments and the spin

moments.
According to quantum theory, the spin angular momentum can be either positive or negative, i.e.,
it can accept two possible orientations in an external magnetic field. As in the case of orbital dipole
moments, completely filled shell contribute nothing to the resultant spin moment. However, an atom,
such as Na, will have a resultant dipole moment equal to that produced by its valence electron. A
sodium ion, Na', on the other hand, will have a zero dipole moment because the electronic shells are
completely filled.
The angular momentum associated with the nuclear spin is ofthe same order of magnitude as the
orbital and spin angular momentum of the electrons. However, since the mass of the nucleus is about
1000 times, the relationship between angular momentum and dipole moments shows that the magnetic
dipole moment due to nuclear spin will be only 1/lOOOth of electronic dipole moments. Hence the
effect of nuclear spin on the magnetic properties of materials is generally neglected.
6.4 DIAMAGNETISM
The magnetic moments of diamagnetic materials are mainly due to the orbital angular momentum
of the electrons. A steady current flowing in the orbit produces a magnetic field equivalent to that set
up by a dipole perpendicular to the plane of orbit (Ampere's law). Further from Lenz's induction law,
the induced magnetic field will cause change in the external magnetic field, i.e., the induced magnetic
moment will be negative. A material in which the external magnetic field produces a resultant moment
in the opposite direction is called diamagnetic. In such materials, Mis in opposite direction to H. As
a consequence, the susceptibility is negative.
Table 6.2 The susceptibility of some diamagnetic materials at room temperature
Material X = u, -1 µ,.
-2.1 x 10-5
Graphite
Diamond - 12 x 10-5 0.999880
0.999979
Copper - 0.9 x 10-5 0.999991
Gold - 3.6 x 10-5 0.999964
Germanium -0.8 x 10-5 0.999992
Silicon - 1.7 x 10-5 0.999983
Benzene - 0.75 x 10-5 0.999993
Bismuth -17.6 x 10-5 0.999824
Glass - 1.3 x 10-5 0.999987
Hydrogen - 0.006 x 10-5 0.999999
Quartz - 1.5 x 10-5 0.999985
Water - 0.9 x 10-5 0.999991
Al203 -0.5 x 10-5 0.999995
NaCl - 1.2 x 10-s 0.999988
From Table 6.2, it is observed that the permeability of diamagnetic materials is given approximately
by µr � 1-10-5, so that for most electrical engineering applications, the permeability of such materials
may be taken as equal to unity.
The diamagnetic susceptibility is very small and negative. This is seen in the repulsion experienced
by diamagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic field. Further since the susceptibility is determined
by the electron structure of the system, it does not depend on external conditions, such as temperature.
It is additive just like molecular refraction. Thus, by assuming a theoretical value for the susceptibility
of one type of ion, it is possible to obtain susceptibilities of other ions from measurements on
compounds.
Diamagnetism is associated with all elements since it affects all electrons. In this respect it may
be compared with electronic polarisation in an electric field. Both are independent of temperature,
but there is one difference. In the electrical case, the induced moment lies along the direction of the
external electric field giving a positive electrical susceptibility whereas in the magnetic case, the
induced moment gives a negative susceptibility. In atoms and molecules that do not have a net magnetic
moment, diamagnetism is the only magnetic effect which is present. If there is a magnetic moment,
the resulting paramagnetic effect is large in comparison with the diamagnetic effect. Particles which
do not have a net magnetic moment include in the first place atoms and ions with completed shells,
e.g., F-, Cl, and Na+ and atoms of the noble gases. Atoms and ions which contain two more electrons
having anti-parallel spins in addition to a completed shell, e.g., Zn, Be, Ca, and Pb'" are also
diamagnetic.
The diamagnetic effect becomes observable only when the net paramagnetic atomic moment is
zero in zero field. That is, when the paramagnetic susceptibility is not zero it is generally much larger
than the diamagnetic susceptibility. The paramagnetic susceptibility arises because of a favourable
orientation of atomic moments in the direction of the external field. The diamagnetic susceptibility,
on the other hand, arises due to a change in magnitude of the electronic orbital moments. Since
diamagnetism is associated with the individual electrons in an atom, diamagnetic susceptibility has
always a small value even if the atom has zero initial moment.
The group of diamagnetic molecules is incomparably larger than the group of paramagnetic
molecules. The latter exists more in the nature of exceptions. This is due to the fact that practically all
molecules have valence bonds formed by a pair of electrons with anti-parallel spins. Usually, the total
moment about a nucleus in such molecules and the spin moment is equal to zero. Thus materials made
of atoms and ions such as those excited above and practically all materials which are formed from
molecules; therefore, practically all organic substances are diamagnetic. Diamagnetism, however, is
of little practical importance because of the small value of diamagnetic susceptibility.
6.5 PARAMAGNETISM
A material has paramagnetic properties if permanent magnetic dipoles exist in its atoms, ions or
molecules. On the application of an external magnetic field the permanent magnetic dipoles line up
and thus produce a positive induced magnetic moment and give rise to a positive contribution to the
magnetic susceptibility. The lining up of magnetic moments takes place because of the shift in positions
of the electrons such that the total energy is minimum. Possibilities of permanent dipole moments in
paramagnetic materials appear to arise from a definite angular momentum due to orbital motion and
spin of the electrons. In the case of diamagnetic materials the spins in opposite directions cancel and
therefore, there are no permanent dipoles.
Paramagnetic atoms and ions include particles having one electron over and above a completed
shell (e.g., atoms of the alkaline materials), atoms of the transition elements, ions of the rare earth
elements with incomplete shell, etc.
In paramagnetic bodies located outside the influence of external magnetic fields, the magnetic
moments are distributed randomly with respect to direction, and the total magnetic moment of a
substance is zero. On the application of a magnetic field the atoms (or molecules) tend to rotate in
such a way that their magnetic moment coincides with the direction ofthe field. As a result, equilibrium
is established between two tendencies, viz. the ordering action ofthe field and the tendency to thermal
randomness, such that the lining up is not complete. Since thermal agitation giving a random orientation
is less at low temperatures, a larger number of dipoles are able to orient themselves in the direction of
the field and the magnetisation for a given field is greater.
This is analogous to the dipolar type ofpolarisation in dielectrics. As in dielectrics, the relationship
between the paramagnetic susceptibility and the magnetic moment of an atom may be given by
1
x=m !3KT
where mis the magnetic moment, K is the Boltzmann's constant and Tis the absolute temperature.
By measuring susceptibility as a function of absolute temperature, the magnitude of the atomic dipole
moments may be obtained. In general these are of the order of 10-23 Wbm or 1 Bohr Magneton
00-13 A.m2).
Since paramagnetism requires the existence of permanent dipole moments paramagnetic
susceptibility may be considered to be analogous to orientational susceptibility associated with
dielectrics. In both cases the susceptibility is positive and temperature dependent. Thus the paramagnetic
susceptibility varies inversely with the absolute temperature for ordinary fields and temperatures
or x=C!I'
This law is known as the Curie Law of

paramagnetism and the constant C is called the
Curie constant. For large fields at low temperatures
the magnetisation is no longer proportional to the I
field and tends to a constant value. Paramagnetic t.
materials have a small positive susceptibility of the

/
order of 10-3 at room temperature, which is much

/
/
larger than the negative contribution due to the T
diamagnetic effect. The susceptibilities for a few Fig. 6.5 Curie law for paramagnetic material
paramagnetic substances are given in Table 6.3 below.
Table 6.3 The susceptibility of some paramagnetic materials at room temperature
Material X = u, -1 µr
Air 0.038 x 10-5 1.00000338

Aluminium 2.3 x 10-5 1.003023
Ebonite 1.4 x 10-s 1.000014
Liquid oxygen 340 x 10-5 1.0034
5
Nitrogen 0.0013 x 10- 1.000000013
Oxygen 0.19 x 10-5 1.00000019
Platinum 36.0 x 10-5 1.0036
Tungsten 7.6 x 10-5 1.000076
CoO 580 x 10-5 1.0058
MnS04 360 x 10-5 1.0036
Fe:P2 140 x 10-5 1.0014
FeC12 370 x 10-5 1.0037
NiS04 120 x 10-5 1.0012

For many applications in electrical engineering, it is a good approximation to take the relative
permeability of paramagnetic substances equal to unity.
Paramagnetism in general is a relatively small effect that has found a few technical applications,
e.g., paramagnetic salts have been used in obtaining very low temperatures of the order of 10-3 °K by
adiabatic demagnetisation. They are also the essential materials used in the solid state MASER.
6.6 FERROMAGNETISM
The magnetisation curve for paramagnetic materials is a straight line showing that the relative
permeability for such materials is constant whereas the magnetisation of a ferromagnetic material
depends in addition to the field intensity on the magnetic history of the sample. Paramagnetics are
solids which do not exhibit any spontaneous magnetisation but become magnetic only when subjected
to an external magnetic field. On the other hand, ferromagnetics are solids, generally crystalline in
nature, which are magnetised independent of any external field. In other words, the magnetisation, M
may have a finite value even if the external magnetic field, His zero. This can be explained in terms
of the uncompensated electron spins. Consider the free iron atom shown in Fig. 6.6. In this atom
equal number of electrons spin in the clockwise and anticlockwise
directions in shells K, Land N. These shells are, therefore, magnetically

neutral. In shell M, however, 9 electrons spin in a clockwise direction , ,. ' - - - ' , , Electrons
and 5 electrons spin in an anticlockwise direction. There is therefore, /N .., ..... --- .... , 2,
a net effect due to four spinning electrons. The magnetic field produced
at a point outside the atom would now be four times that which would / _M ,, - - , 14, ,
1 / L -- 8 , '
be produced by a single spinning electron, or the magnetic moment of I t I
K 2 ' , '
I I I I@ \ \ 1 I
I I I I +2 I I I I
I I I \ I I I
\ ' / I I
\ \ ' -...._ ..... / I I
the atom would be 4µ0ia, or 4 Bohr magnetons. On this basis a cobalt \ \ -, ., / I
atom has a magnetic moment of 3 Bohr magnetons and a nickel atom \ '' ' '..... ..... _..,,. / / / / I
�---., .
has a magnetic moment of 2 Bohr magnetons. This applies to free
'..... ....
atoms. However, in solids, the electron spin in the M-shell which is
near the periphery of the atom is affected due to the proximity of other
Fig. 6.6
atoms and therefore the actual magnetic moments are smaller than those given above. The average
values for iron, cobalt and nickel are 2.22, 1.71, 0.606 respectively.
Each ferromagnetic material has a characteristic temperature above which its properties are quite
different from those below that temperature. This temperature is called the ferromagnetic Curie
temperature or the transition temperature TF When the temperature exceeds TF' the susceptibility
becomes independent of field strength and the behaviour of a ferromagnetic material becomes similar
to that of a paramagnetic material, a fact showing that paramagnetism and ferromagnetism are intimately
connected.
6.7 THE ORIGIN OF FERROMAGNETISM
The experimental observation thatM exists in the absence

of H suggests that some force must exist which aligns the spins
of the adjacent atoms. According to quantum theory forces
Co
known as exchange forces or forces of interaction are found to
exist between neighbouring spinning electrons. These forces are +
much more stronger than those existing between electrostatic
charges and the electromagnetic forces between circulating
currents of electrons. The exchange forces tend to make the
neighbouring spins parallel as in Fig. 6.3 (b) or anti-parallel as
f
Exchange
in Fig. 6. 3 (c) depending upon the number of electrons and the
distance between individual electrons. force
Let D be the distance between the centres of neighbouring

atoms and let d be the diameter of the electron shell which is
Fig. 6.7
responsible for the magnetic properties in the atom. This is the M shell for the atoms of iron, cobalt or
nickel. The curve in Fig. 6. 7 is a plot of the exchange force between electrons versus the ratio DId,
which varies for crystals of different elements. The positive exchange force causes the neighbouring
electron spins in the same direction and the negative exchange force causes them to be in opposite
direction, or anti-parallel. When D Id � 1.5 the exchange force is zero. When D Id � 1.5, the exchange
force is negative and the neghbouring atomic moments would be aligned as shown in
Fig. 6.3 (c) and the material would be anti-ferromagnetic. When Did> 1.5 the exchange force would
be positive and the atomic moments would be lined up as in Fig. 6.3 (b) giving a ferromagnetic
behaviour. When the exchange force is approximately zero, the atomic moments are oriented at
random as in Fig. 6.3(a) and the behaviour of the materials is paramagnetic. When Did> 1.5, the
exchange forces become small because of large separation between atoms. However they are still
positive and give a weakly ferromagnetic behaviour as in gadolinium. It is seen from Fig. 6. 7 that
iron, cobalt, nickel and gadolinium lie on the positive part of the exchange force curve and manganese,
which is paramagnetic lies near the abscissae.
On the basis of interacting forces between atoms, Weiss has suggested that in ferromagnetic
materials the internal field seen by a given dipole is equal to the applied field plus a contribution from
the neighbouring dipoles which tend to align it in the same direction as its neighbours. Weiss expressed
this mathematically by stating that the internal or the effective field Hi is given by
Hi=H+vM
where His the external field and Mis a measure for the tendency of the environment to align a
given dipole parallel to the magnetisation already existing and represents a field action on a given
atom due to the effects of all other atoms. The proportionality constant v determines the strength of
the interaction between the dipoles and is known as the internal field constant. The concept of the
molecular field, vM plays a major role in the theory of ferromagnetism. In cases, specially where the
susceptibility is very small, the contributions of the individual magnetic dipoles are negligible and in
that case, the effective field, Hi and the external field Hare almost equal. This is so in the case of
diamagnetic and paramagnetic substances.
The susceptibility above the ferromagnetic Curie point (TF) may be deduced by assuming the
Curie law holds if we use the effective field, Hi instead of the external field, H. Then for temperatures
above TF we have
M =CfI'
µ0 (H +vM)
M
or x= µoH = C!(T-Cv)
This expression gives a non-zero magnetisation for zero external field at the Curie point expressed
by TF = Cv therefore
... (2)
Expression (2) is known as the Curie-Weiss law and gives the variation of susceptibility in the
paramagnetic region above the Curie temperature. C and TF may be determined from measurements
of susceptibility as a function of temperature and thus the internal field constant may be calculated.
For ferromagnetic materials v is as high as 1000. The observed values of susceptibility in the
paramagnetic region, however, corresponds to an expression of the type
X = C/(T-TP)
where T is the paramagnetic Curie temperature which is slightly greater than the actual transition
p
temperature, TF.
Expression (2) is not valid in the region close to TF as may be seen from Fig. 6.8 in which the
reciprocal of susceptibility is plotted as a function of the absolute temperature. The paramagnetic
Curie temperature, T may be obtained by extrapolation of the straight line portion of this curve. The
p
form of expression (2) shows that radical changes should occur near the Curie point. When a substance
is magnetised, all the electron spins point in the same direction and the substance is in a state of
greater orders. The magnetised state, therefore, is a state of greater entropy than the unruagnetised
state when the spins point in random directions. In passing from the magnetic to the non-magnetic
state there is an increase in entropy of the spin system. Thus, if a ferromagnetic substance is heated
through its Curie points there is an entropy change which appears as a sharp rise in specific heat of the
substance at the Curie point. On the other hand, if the field is suddenly removed, the entropy change
appears as a fall in temperature of the substance, the phenomenon being known as magnetocaloric
effect.
Comparison of Fig. 6.8 and Fig. 6.5 shows that the

ferromagnetic and the paramagnetic cases are identical, the only
difference being that for a truly paramagnetic material, such as a
gas where the individual atomic moments do not interact with
each other, T or vC = 0. Since in the solid phase there are strong I
p
atomic interactions, many solid paramagnetics may not obey the t.
---�� ---T
equation x = err. For them an equation of the type X = T _ T
c
Tp Tp=Vc
will hold where Tc is known as the Curie temperature and is a
Fig. 6.8
measure of the interatomic interactions. Tc may be positive or
negative.
6.8 FERROMAGNETIC DOMAINS

According to Weiss, a specimen of ferromagnetic material consists of a large number of regions
or domains which are permanently magnetised. The atomic moments in the individual domains are all
aligned parallel to one another at temperatures far below the Curie point. Each domain is magnetically
saturated and has a net magnetic moment. However, the direction of the permanent magnetisation
varies from domain to domain, and consequently the resultant magnetisation may be zero, or nearly
zero. Above the Curie temperature, the domains may disrupt and the material may loose its
ferromagnetic properties.
The domains exist in single crystals as well as in polycrystals line samples. The domains are
separated by domain walls in which the spin direction gradually changes from the preferred direction
of one domain to the preferred direction of the neighbouring domain. A schematic arrangement of
domains with zero resultant magnetic moment is shown in Fig. 6.9 (a) for a single crystal. The size of
each domain may be of the order of 0.01 mm. Consequently even a small sample of ferromagnetic
',� //
'' /
'
.,,
/
/
///x,,"-.
/
� ',
,,,//
�H
(a) Unmagnetised (b) Magnetised by (c) Magnetised by

crystal
domain growth domain rotation
Fig. 6.9
material can be divided into domains. The actual size of the

domain depends to a large extent on the shape and size of the
crystal which in tum depends on previous history of the
specimen. The domains are divided either by 180° domain
walls or by 90° domains walls, as shown in Fig. 6.10. Since
the magnetisation on the opposite sides is in opposite direction,
some energy is required to form the boundary between two
domains. Fig. 6.10 Domain walls
With the 180° domain walls the saturation magnetisation changes over 180° and with 90° domain
walls, it changes over 90° in going from one domain to another. The 180° domain walls are so oriented
that free magnetic poles are avoided. This is achieved by closing the ends of the 180° domain walls by
the 90° domain walls so that the 90° walls make angles ofnearly 45° with the direction of spontaneous
magnetisation in adjacent domain as shown in Fig. 6.10 in which the arrows denote the direction of
magnetisation in each domain.
The magnetic moments do not change their direction
abruptly on either side ofthe domain wall. But the direction

t t t f (f
I
,' 11 III
is changed gradually within the domain wall as shown in . . ,,,,
Fig 6.11. The domain wall has a finite thickness extending
Fig. 6.11 Variation ofspin orientation in a
over a number of atoms whose spins change gradually in domain wall
direction as one produced through the wall. Since the
domain structure actually realized in a ferromagnetic substance has a minimum total energy, the
actual thickness of the domain wall is determined by the requirement for minimum energy.
The domain structure of a ferromagnetic substance may be observed experimentally. If a very

thin emulsion of particles of a ferromagnetic substance is spread over the smooth surface of a
ferromagnetic single crystal, the particles will be distributed along lines where the interfaces between
domains intersect the surface of the crystal. Along these lines there are strong local magnetic fields
which attract the particles. This technique of observing the domain structure is known as the magnetic
powder pattern technique. The photographs obtained with this method provide convincing proof that
domains exist and behave as expected theoretically.
If an external field is applied as shown in Fig. 6.9 (b) the domains with the proper direction of
permanent magnetisation grow at the expense of those that are magnetised in the other directions by
virtue of the motion of domain walls. Ultimately as the field is increased the whole specimen may
become one single domain, and saturation has been achieved. Thus the hysterisis curve is associated
with the movement of domain walls and to some extent by domain rotation which brings the
magnetisation parallel to the applied magnetic field.
6.9 THE MAGNETISATION CURVE
That the atoms of a ferromagnetic substance have a magnetic moment which is caused by spin is
not the only feature that distinguishes it from a paramagnetic substance. The main characteristic of a
ferromagnetic substance is its domain structure. The orientations of the magnetic moments of atoms
forming a single domain are not arbitrary. Every crystal of a ferromagnetic substance has a perpendicular
crystallographic direction along which it is most easily magnetised. Hence, higher fields are required
to magnetise single crystals along some direction than others.
In single crystals, the magnetisation vector Mis not in general parallel to H, but along certain
axes of symmetry it is so. These are referred to as the "easy" and "hard". In iron, for instance, the
preferred or the easy directions are the cube axes. In nickel, which is also cubic, the preferred directions
are the cube diagonals. In cobalt, which has an hexagonal structure, the only preferred direction is the
hexagonal axis of the crystal.
Hard
Easy Easy H
Fig. 6.12
J
The energy of magnetisation is given by the area H .dm between the magnetisation curve and
the Maxis (H = 0). See. Fig. 6.12. The energy is least when a single crystal of iron is magnetised along
easy direction of magnetisation. The excess energy required to magnetise the specimen in a hard
direction is known as the anisotropy energy. The anisotropy energy is the least for crystal of high
symmetry. Thus it is less for Fe and Ni which are both cubic than for Co which has only axial symmetry.
The anisotropy energy is responsible for changes in the length of specimen on magnetisation, the
phenomenon being known as magnetostriction.
The difference between the "easy" and "hard" magnetisation curves shows that same amount of
magnetisation may be achieved with an expenditure of greater energy in the case ofthe "hard" directions.
When all the domains are oriented with the field the saturation magnetisation in the end is always the
same.
With small external fields, the domain wall movements are mostly reversible, corresponding to the
known reversibility of the initial portion ofthe magnetisation curve. In somewhat higher fields, these
boundary movements continue but are often larger
and irreversible. The irreversible movements
Domain rotation
occur mostly in the steep part of the magnetisation
curve and finally result in all favourable oriented _ (Irreversible)
domains reaching their maximum size. At this M
stage each domain is still magnetised in what is
locally the easiest direction. Application of still
higher field twists the magnetisation into the field
direction (domain rotation) and away from the
Domain wall movment
easy directions, thus storing up energy. The
process of domain rotation is difficult and the (Irreversible)
increase in magnetisation is therefore slow. The
irreversibility of domain movement and rotation
---1--D-o-m-a-in-w-a-ll-m-o-v-em-ent
Reversible
Fig. 6.13 Magnetisation curve
explains the observed ferromagnetic hysterisis effect. Finally, the magnet is saturated, i.e., all the
domains point in the direction of H.
In polycrystalline materials such as steel, the individual crystals are oriented at random with
respect to one another and the directions of easy magnetisation are not the same in each of them.
When an external field is applied the different crystals are magnetised differently and therefore the
magnetisation curve is not as steep as in the case of a single crystal.
6.10 THE HYSTERISIS LOOP
Below the Curie temperature all ferromagnetic materials exhibit the well known hysterisis in the
B versus H curves. Starting with an unmagnetised specimen, B varies reversibly with H for small
fields. Since there is no hysterisis in this region, one defines the initial permeability, µr, in the same
way as the permeability of a paramagnetic material. As the field His increased, B begins to increase
rapidly and ultimately approaches a saturation value Bsat. Upon reducing the value of H from the
saturation region to zero, it is observed that there remains a flux density, Br' called the remanent flux
density. Since H = 0, the material must be permanently magnetised; in fact, the magnetisation
corresponding to Br is equal to Br! µ0. The field-He required to reduce the flux density to zero is
called the coercive force.
The magnitudes of the coercive force and the remanent flux density depend on the imperfections
in the material, such as voids impurities and internal strains. The origin of coercive force is in fact
due to the existence of these imperfections; energy being required to move a domain over an
imperfection. Large values of coercive force occur if the material has large internal stresses and non•
magnetic inclusions. High coercivity may be achieved by suppressing the possibility of boundary
wall movement by using very fine powders. The more the material is free from strains and inclusions,
the greater the size of reversible wall movement and the lower the field required to produce a movement
thus giving a large initial permeability and a 'soft' magnetic material. Low values of coercivity occur
if the material has non-magnetic inclusions and low anisotropy.
The saturation value of the flux density, however, depends B
on the chemical constitution and temperature and does not
depend on the imperfections.
The value of initial permeability is affected by heat

treatment. High values of initial permeability may be obtained
when the material has high saturation magnetisation and low
coercive force.
The area contained in the hysterisis loop equals the work

that is necessary to reverse the direction of magnetisation. The
actual shape and area of the loop depend on the details of the
Fig. 6.14 Hysterisis loop
internal structure and composition of the ferromagnetic substance. As the material becomes more
pure magnetically, the lattice plays less role with regard to the response ofmagnetisation with respect
to the applied field. The area of the hysterisis loop becomes smaller, the domain wall movement is
facilitated and one obtains high initial permeability.
Table 6.4 Saturation magnetisation and paramagnetic (Tp) and ferromagnetic (TF) Curie
temperatures for forromagnetic materials
M at M at Bohr Magneton
Sat sat
Substance Room temp. 0°K Tp°K Tp°K per atom
(Amplm) (Amplm)
Iron 1.707 x 106 1.752 x 106 1043 1047 2.22
Cobalt 1.4 x 106 1.446 x 106 1400 1504 1.71
Nickel 0.485 x 106 0.510 x 106 631 645 0.606
Gadolinium 1.09 x 106 1.980 x 106 288 - 7.10
The average energy of thermal agitation at room temperature amounts to about 0.03 eV. In the case
of non-ferromagnetic materials this thermal energy easily overcomes the magnetising force of an
external field. In ferromagnetic materials the energy of thermal agitation is much less than that created
by the magnetic field in the movement or rotation ofthe domains. Therefore the orienting effect of the
magnetic field is predominant and the magnetisation of the ferromagnetic substance increases by
many times the magnetic effects of the external field.
The domains in a ferromagnetic material would be aligned parallel only at the absolute zero of
temperature. Above this temperature there would be some disorder due to thermal agitation, and with
increasing temperature the saturation magnetisation, therefore, would decrease in magnitude. At the
Curie point, the magnetisation in a domain under zero external field would vanish and above this
temperature, the substance would become i.o -- <,

paramagnetic.
I',...
The magnetisation curves vary with 0 t r h

temperature, the value of M increasing with ° i a e
decreasing temperature and eventually K o t
a n i t
approaching zero at the Curie point. Fig. s o o e
f f o m
6.15 shows the ratio of the saturation u t f
magnetisation at temperature T to that at p
n h t
c e e
"�
0.8 Temperature
rature Tto the Curie temperature for iron.
The curves for cobalt and nickel are little dependence of
different from that shown in the figure. saturation
MSAT (T)
0.6
\ magnetistion
for iron
\
MSAT (0)
f 0.4
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
T/Tp
0
Fig. 6.15
Table 6.5---High permeability materials
Materials Approx,% Maximum Saturation Coercive

permeability flux density, force
composition
Fe Wb/m2 Amplm
Ni Co Other
Cold rolled steel 98.5 2000 2.10 144

Iron 99.51 5000 2.15 80
4% Silicon-iron 96 4Si 7000 2.0 40
Grain oriented (Si-Fe) 97 3Si 30000 1.97 12
Hipemik 50 50 70000 2.0 4
78 permalloy 21.7 78.5 0.3Mn 100,000 1.6 4

2Cr 100,000 0.54 4
{ 5Cu
Mumetal 18 75
Table 6.6---Permanent magnet alloys
Material Composition Remanent Coercive force
Flux density Wb!m2 Amplm

1%Mn, 09% Fe
Carbon steel 5%W, 0.3% Mn, 0.7%C, 94% Fe 4000
Tungsten steel 1.03 7000
Alnico 8%Al, 14% i, 24%Co, 3% Cu, 51% Fe 1.25 44000
Platinum cobalt 77% Pt, 23% Co 0.45 2 x 105
6.11 MAGNETOSTRICTION
When a ferromagnetic substance is magnetised there are small changes in its dimension, the
phenomenon being known as magnetostriction.
The magnetostrictin coefficient ')... is defined as the increase in length per unit length of the
crystal in the direction ofmagnetisation. Figure 6.16 shows the curves for magnetostriction coefficients
for iron, nickel and cobalt crystals in three directions of magnetisation. From these curves it is seen
that iron and nickel crystals contract when magnetised in either of three directions, whereas iron
crystal expands when magnetised in the "easy" direction of magnetisation and contracts when
magnetised in the "hard" direction of magnetisation. Magnetostriction may be explained as follows:
when the direction of magnetisation is made to change the atoms experience a slight rearrangement
such that the magnetocrystalline anisotropy is kept a minimum. The rearrangement of atoms result in
slight changes in the dimensions of the crystal.
0
"'
-20xl0-6 .........+---+--------<
0 M�
6
"'
-20xl0-
6
1-----+="""2"�
-lOxl0- �--�--�
Fig. 6.16 Magnetostriction in different directions of single crystals
The magnetic permeability is related to magnetostriction and in devising high permeability
materials an effort is made to keep magnetostriction as low as possible.
6.12 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY AND HYSTERISIS LOSS
In general if the initial permeability is high, the hysterisis loss is low and vice versa. The
permeability and the hysterisis loss depend upon the physical condition and chemical purity of the
sample.
The crystals of a ferromagnetic material when cold worked experience deformation as a result of
which the material has very poor magnetic properties. Due to the internal strains on the domains,
greater magnetic field is required to give a definite magnetisation. Therefore, the permeability decreases
and the hysterisis loss is increased. A material which has suffered magnetic damage due to cold work
may be heated to a sufficiently high temperature when the magnetic properties will be restored.
The highest magnetic permeability and the lowest hysterisis loss that can be obtained are limited
by the impurity content ofthe materials. Impurities affect the regular geometric pattern of the crystals
and are harmful to the magnetic properties. The main impurities in the magnetic materials used for
transformer cores and electrical machinery are carbon, sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen Carbon is the
most detrimental and the amount of carbon is kept to a low value of 0.01 % in commercial materials.
Properties of some of the common high permeability materials and permanent magnet materials
are given in Tables 6.5 and 6.6 respectively.
6.13 COMMON MAGNETIC MATERIALS
(i) Iron and silicon iron alloys: Addition of silicon from 0.3 to 4.5% by weight to iron greatly
improves the magnetic properties of the latter. Silicon increases the electrical resistivity of iron thus
decreasing the iron loss due to eddy currents in the material. Addition of silicon also decreases the
hysterisis loss. However, as the silicon content in iron is increased, the saturation magnetisation
decreases, and the permeability below the "knee" ofthe magnetisation curves increases. Hence curves
for different silicon content tend to cross other. In electric machines, high output can be achieved if
the material is worked at a high value of flux density. Therefore, the addition of silicon is a disadvantage.
In small machines iron losses are of secondary importance. Therefore, a material oflow silicon content
(0.5%) may be used. On the other hand in large turbo-generators

where the magnitude of losses may be a considerable fraction of Direction of "easy"
the output, materials with high silicon content are used. Limit to the magnetisation
addition of silicon in iron is reached because of the embrittleness
which the former causes. Generally the maximum percentage of Si
is about 4.5%.
If3% silicon iron is reduced from 0.08 in thickness to 0.014 in

thickness by cold working and if it is then annealed at about 1100°C,
it is possible to obtain a grain-oriented material in which the "easy"
directions all point in the direction of rolling as shown in Fig. 6 .17
� Direction of rolling
Fig. 6.17
The rolling direction of the material is thus magnetically greatly superior to the other directions
in the sheet and this property of the cold reduced material can be made use of in transformer cores.
Since grain oriented sheets are produced by cold reduction of the material, they have a better surface
finish giving improved space factor and less surface scale.
In the ordinary hot rolled transformer sheets, the constituent crystals are disposed in a random
fashion. The crystallographic axes of the individual crystals do not take up any special alignment with
respect to the directions of rolling the sheet surface or with each other. As a result, hot rolled sheets,
though not quite uniform with respect to the direction in the sheet, do not exhibit particularly strong
anisotropic properties.
(ii) Nickel-Iron Alloys: A group of iron alloys

containing between 40 and 90 percent nickel have, when
given appropriate heat treatment during manufacture, much lower
much higher permeabilities at low flux densities and losses than
ordinary iron.
f
120000
The important alloys are permolloy and mumetal.
Mumetal has a lower
permeability but has high electrical resistance so that

40000
eddy current losses are lower. Addition of small µr
amounts of other elements to nickel-iron alloys

improves their magnetic properties in certain directions.
0 0.8 l.2Wb/m2
Thus, cobalt reduces hysteresis, manganese reduces B�0.4
coercivity and molybdenum increases the initial Fig. 6.18 Permeability curve of Ni-Fe alloys
flux density and

permeability of Ni-Fe alloys
reduces is low,
the iron they
losses. arethe
Since notsaturation
used in
electrical machines but are widely used for transformer cores
and loading coils for telephone circuits, instrument
transformers, for the magnetic circuits of measuring
instruments, and for magnetic screens of electronic
equipment. As with other ferromagnetic substances these
alloys tend to be ferromagnetic above their Curie
temperature, the value of which depends upon the amount
of nickel in the alloy.
Cold reduction followed by annealing can produce the
desirable directional magnetic properties in the Ni-Fe alloys
also. Materials obtained in this way are generally used in Fig. 6.19 Permanent magnet
magnetic amplifiers which require a magnetisation curve with a high "Knee" which should be obtained
with low magnetic fields. The characteristic feature of such materials is that the hysterisis loop is
approximately rectangular in form.
(iii) Permanent magnet Materials and Design ofPermanent Magnets: Figure 6.19 shows a
permanent magnet in which Im= average length of magnetic flux path, Ig = length of air gap, Am =
cross sectional area of magnet material, A = cross sectional area of pole piece.
g
B0 = Air gap flux density
Bm = Flux density in magnet material.

Whilst for transformers, coils and relays, "soft" magnetic materials having low remanence are
used for permanent magnets "hard" magnetic materials which have high remanence are usually
preferred.
The design of a permanent magnet is usually based on a desired flux density within a specified
volume. Thus, B , I and A are given and it is required to determine the minimum volume of the
g g
O
magnetic material which is required. Since there is no external current supply, the total m.m.f round
the circuit must be zero.
or H)g +n J; = 0
... (3)
where H = Magnetic field in the air gap

0
Hm = Magnetic field in the material.
From equation (3 ), we have

B/!Ag
-Bo io
I=-·- µo(-HmBm)
m µo Hm
Assuming that there is no leakage of flux, we have The volume
of the
Bm� = BoAg ... (5) material will
be least
From equations (4) and (5) the volume of material when the
product
(- HmBm) is a maximum.
Figure 6.20 shows the demagnetisation curve of the magnet ... (4)
material. The relation between the product (- BmHm) and the
flux density Bm is also shown in the same figure, in which
(- BmHm) reaches a maximum at the point E corresponding to
Fig. 6.20 Permanent magnet design,
the pointF. The maximum value (-BmHm) is called the.figure ofmerit of the magnet material. If the
values of Band H corresponding to the point Fare used. The dimensions Im and Am obtained from
equation (4) and (5) will give the most economical magnet with the particular material.
Silicon iron and nickel iron alloys described previously are unsuitable for making permanent
magnets because of the narrow hysterists loop of these materials. Materials in which carbon has been
deliberately added give a hysterisis loop which embrace maximum possible area. Such materials
were the earliest ones to be used for permanent magnets because oftheir large retentivity and coercivity.
The manufacture of permanent magnet steels which are now used in a very specialised process.
Tungsten is an important constituent of such steels.
Many other alloys having high coercivity have been made in the laboratory. These include alloys
of iron and platinum, cobalt and platinum, etc.
6.14 ANTI - FERROMAGNETISM
When the neighbouring moments are aligned anti-parallel the phenomenon is known as anti•
ferromagnetism. Anti-ferromagnetic materials are not so well known as the common ferromagnetic
materials. Only a few, such as Mn, Cr and ferrous and nickel oxides exist. The phenomenon occurs
below a certain temperature known as the Neel temperatures (TN). The Neel temperature is not the
same as the Curie temperature (Tc). The latter is defined in terms of the magnetic susceptibility
according to the Curie-Weiss law for anti-ferromagnetic materials, x = C/(T +Tc). Values of TPc
are usually of the order of 1.5 to 5. A tabulation of properties of typical anti-ferromagnetic materials
is given in Table 6.7.
Table 6. 7 Neel and Curie temperatures for anti-ferromagnetic materials
Crystal Paramagnetic TN(OK) Tc(oK) TN Xcc)

Tc
Jon lattice x(To)
MnO F.C.C. 610 122 5.0 2/3
FeC12 Hex. layer 48 23.5 2.0 < 0.2
FeO F.C.C. 570 198 2.9 0.8
NiO F.C.C. .. . 523 ... .. .
CoO F.C.C. ... 291 ... ...
CrSb Hexagonal 725 -1000 1.4 -1/4
layer
The phenomenon is not so important because of the low values of susceptibility (x � 10-2 -10-3).
6.15 FERRIMAGNETISM
A group of magnetic alloys exhibit the property of magnetisation which changes with the percentage
of the different constituent atoms in the alloy. A typical example ofthis type of alloy is XOFep3 with
X = Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Mg, Zn, Cd or Fe'". The alloys are calledferrites. Thus, manganese ferrite is a
1 : 1 mixture of manganese oxide and iron oxide.
Ferrites are widely used in computers and in micro-wave equipment. Ferrites are advantageous
at high frequencies because oflow eddy current losses. Ferromagnetic metals and alloy cores have to
be eliminated in order to reduce the losses. At high frequencies laminations have to be so thin that
both fabrication and assembly become expensive processes. At these frequencies, duct cores which
consist of fine particles of ferromagnetic material insulated from each other may be used. But these
have the disadvantage of diluting the ferromagnetic material and decreasing the effective relative
premeability. A further disadvantage is that the flux density varies throughout the core due to non•
uniform spacing of the particles. At points where there is greater concentration of particles, the flux
density is likely to be higher entailing larger hysterisis losses.
For this reason intensive work has been carried out to obtain a homogeneous ferromagnetic
material of low conductivity. Ferrous ferrite, or magnetite Fe0.Fe:P3 was the first such material in
which the phenomenon of magnetisation was observed. Other common materials of this type are
nickel ferrite, Ni0.Fep3 and magnesium ferrite, Mg0.Fep3 . The magnetic behaviour of these
materials is similar to that of iron and nickel. The magnetic susceptibility is large, and the B-H
characteristic shows the hysterisis effect common to the metallic ferromagnetics.
The ferrites crystallize in what is known as the spinel lattice. This structure is characterised by a
face centred oxygen lattice and two interpenetrating sub-lattices of metallic ions. The metallic ions
occupy A sites, the orientation of which are tetrahedral to the oxygen ions and B sites which are
octahedral relative to the oxygen ions.
The resistivity of ferrites is very much higher than that of the ferromagnetic metals. This is
because ferrites are chemical compounds and the electrons in them are subject to the restraint of
valence forces. Thus the resistivity of common ferrites ranges from 0.1 Om to 10 Om compared
with the resistivity of 10-7 Om for iron.
The macroscopic behaviour of ferrites under the influence of magnetising forces is similar to that
ofthe ferromagnetic metals. A detailed investigation however reveals an essential difference between
the two types ofmaterial as regards the basic mechanism of their magnetic behaviour. A change in the
relative percentage of the constituent atoms changes the magnetic property of the alloy. For many
applications mixed ferrites, in which the divalent metallic ions are of more than one kind, have more
desirable properties than the simple ferrites.
Whenferromagnetic orferrimagnetic materials are magnetised, the directionofmagnetisationin

any domain will be rotated from its preferential direction. This will show an anisotropic behaviour.
On removal of the magnetising force the total magnetisation will in general have a non zero value.
This behaviour is due to crystal, stress, and shape anisotropies respectively.
(1) Crystal anisotropy: Crystal anisotropy does not give rise to variation of permeability in a
ferrite core with direction of the applied magnetising force because the bulk material consists
of an aggregate of crystals whose axes are randomly oriented.
(ii) Stress anisotropy: The simple ferrites with the exception of Fe 0 have a negative
3 4
magnetostriction constant, i.e., on magnetisation the ferrites contract in the direction of
magnetisation. Therefore under a compressive force they can be magnetised most easily in the
direction of magnetisation and under tension they magnetise easily in a direction perpendicular
to the direction of magnetisation. Useful properties may be incorporated in ferrites under
controlled stresses. However, occurrence of arbitrary stresses is undesirable. As such while
preparing ferrites care has to be taken to reduce the stresses to a minimum.
Shape anisotropy: It is a well-known fact that a ferro-magnetic body is magnetised most easily
in the direction of its largest dimension. Non-magnetic inclusions and voids in the body have a
similar influence, producing a local preferential direction ofmagnetisation parallel to its largest
dimension. Different degree of porosity is obtained in
(iii) ferrites depending upon their method of preparation.

They are therefore especially prone to the internal shape
anisotropy. Hence, there is a constant endeavour to make
these materials less porous because shape anisotropy
impairs their usefulness for many applications. The H
effect of porosity on the magnetisation cmve and the

hysterisis loop of a ferrite is shown in Fig. 6.21 where
the full line curve refers to non-porous material and the
dotted cmve shows the same ferrite with substantial
porosity.
Fig. 6.21 Effect ofporosity on the

magnetisation curve of a ferrite.
The porous material has less remanent magnetism than the non-porous material but the
demagnetising field required to reduce the magnetism to zero is larger for the porous material than for
the non-porous one.
Ferrites are hard and brittle materials which cannot be shaped by ordinary machining processes.
In general diamond impregnated slitting wheel is necessary for cutting ferrite rods.
The mechanical and thermal properties of ferrites (Ferroxcube) are compared with those of iron
in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8 Comparison of the properties of ferrite and iron
Ferrite Iron
Young's
Specific modulus
gravity lb/sq. in. x 106
214.3 x 106
31 7.8
Tensile strength lb/sq. in. 2,600 43,000
Crushing strength lb/sq. in. 10,400 43,000
Coefficient of linear expansion °c-1
11 x 10-6 12 x 10-6
Specific heat 0.17 0.11
Thermal conductivity
Calcm-sec-°C 8 x 10-3 0.18

This table shows that ferrites have a lower tensile strength and a lower thermal conductivity as
compared to iron. Ferrite component should not, therefore, be subjected to tension. Low thermal
conductivity may result in high local temperature and large temperature gradients in the ferrite subjected
to rapid reversals of magnetic fields. Apart from mechanical fracture which may take place due to
high temperature gradients, the magnetic performance may also be seriously impaired if the Curie
temperature is approached at any of the hot spots in the material.
Unlike ferromagnetic materials, ferrites have a high resistivity exceeding that of iron by at least
105-107 times. This property is useful in magnetic applications at high frequencies. Table 6.9 gives
values of the saturation magnetisation and the Curie temperature of iron and of a number of ferrites
respectively.
Table 6.9
Material Max. Magnetisation Curie Temper ature (°K)
Mn0Fep
Fe 3
358
1750 783
1043
Ni0Fep3 240 893
Cu0Fep3 290 728
Mg0Fep3 143 523
6.16 MAGNETIC RESONANCE
A rotating body will produce a kinetic moment along the axis of rotation. This kinetic moment is
proportional to the speed of rotation. The rate of change of the kinetic moment with time is equal to
the couple of the applied force.
An electron having a mass and spin will give rise to both magnetic moment and kinetic moment.
IfMis the magnetic moment and P is the kinetic moment then the gyromagnetic ratio is given by
y=M/P
The electron will rotate in a fixed direction along the axis OC (Fig. 6.22), when an external field
is applied. If an external field His applied along the z-axis: this magnetic field exerts a couple on
momentM, that is z
C= dP!dt =M xii
H M
Also, dP/dt = _ ! dM
y dt
1 dM -
Theretiore - = xH
-- M
y dt
This is the differential equation of motion of the

moment M. The tip of the M vector will rotate in a circle
y
lying in a plane perpendicular to z-axis. The angular
velocity is given by
co = 2nf
where f = y I 2nH = 2.8 x 106 H for electrons.
Now if a circularly polarised high frequency field h Fig. 6.22
is applied this field will rotate in the plane of magnetic
polarisation which is the plane XOY in the figure. In this condition the vector (N +h) describes a
cone carrying the moment M with it which acquires a precessional motion around it. If the sense of
rotation of h is such that the resultant vector (H + h) rotates in the same sense as that of precession and
if the frequency of h is the same as that of the precession then there will be a synchronisation of the
two phenomena and we have the magnetic resonance. This will cause absorption of energy from the
high frequency field. This phenomena is known as gyromagnetic resonance. On the other hand, if the
sense of rotation of the field h is such that the resultant vector rotates in the opposite sense to that of
the precession then there is no synchronisation and hence no magnetic resonance.
For a circularly polarized high frequency wave the sense of rotation depends on the direction of
propagation. Resonance occurs only in one direction of propagation. In the other direction there is no
resonance and hence no significant absorption.
The effective permeability of the ferrite for the above two cases, i.e., with a circularly polarized
field in the positive sense and that in the negative sense can be represented by µ + and µ- respectively.
Further, these permeabilities are to be assumed as complex quantities to represent the losses. Hence,
we have
µ+ ::::: µ' + - jµ" +
and µ- ::::: µ' - Jµ" - T v i

h a a
e r t
ions ofthe real and imaginary parts of the
permeabilities with the applied magnetic field
for the positive and negative cases are shown in
Fig. 6.23. The main application offerrites at
microwave frequencies is to make use of their
non-reciprocal behaviour whereby transmission µo

properties depend on the polarization and the
µ'_ µ'+
direction of incident electromagnetic wave. The
µ'_
most widely used devices are isolators and µ' ', I

circulators constructed in waveguide, coaxial or + ' I
stripline geometries. In the forward direction =0 '
\ Iµ'
,1 +
these devices have low loss, usually 3.5 dB or Fig. 6.23 Variation of the coefficients as a function
less and in the reverse direction the loss is 20 dB of appliedfield H
or more. The choice offerrite material for a resonance isolator depends upon the factors like dielectric
loss, resonance line width, saturation magnetisation and Curie temperature.
The other applications offerrite materials are as cores for inductors, transformers and aerials, as
microwave phase shifters, as data storage and switching devices in computer, and as electro-mechanical
transducers, dispersive delay lines and tunable filters.
[ PROBLEMS ]
1. Show that the K, L and M shells in an atom can accommodate at most, 2, 8 and 18 electrons
respectively. Use rules governing the use of quantum numbers.
2. Consider a system of freely rotating magnetic dipoles, each of magnitude m; there are N dipoles
per m3. Assume that the local field effects are not negligible. Show that this leads to ferro•
magnetic behaviour below a critical temperature.
Nm2
Tc =v 3K
where v is the internal field constant. Show that above this temperature the susceptibility is
given by
X = v (T-Tc)
3. Discuss the behaviour of a system which consists of N freely rotating dipoles of magnitude m1
and an equal number of dipoles of magnitude m2 .
4. Write a short note on magnetostriction.
5. Explain what is meant by hysteresis loss in a ferromagnetic metal and discuss the factors that
govern the magnitude of this loss. Calculate the hysteresis loss in an iron core of volume 1500
cm3 at a frequency of 30 Hz and a maximum B of 0.8 Wb/m2 if the hysterisis loss is 1.6 W per
kg at 50 Hz and max B of 1 Wb/m2 . Assume that over this range of flux densities the hysterisis
loss per cycle is a (max. flux density)1 ·8 . (Take the specific gravity of iron as 7 .8).
6. Draw a typical hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetic material. Show which part is reversible and
which is not. Define residual magnetism and coercive force. How are all these properties explained
in terms of the microscopic structure of the solid ?
What procedure would you recommend for making the material required for permanent magnets
and why?
What procedure would you recommend for making the material required for magnetic
memories?
What procedure would you adopt to realize material in such a modified form that the hysteresis
loss is reduced ?
( SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS )
1. The permanent magnetic moment of an atom is dependent on the quantum numbers
(i) land m3 (ii) m1 and m3 (iii) n and l
2. The resultant permanent magnetic moment of two electrons each with ze, = 0 and with opposite
spins is
(i) zero (ii) twice the moment of one electron
(iii) the moment of one electron.
3. A complete shell of electrons has
(i) a moment dependent on the particular values of m1 and m2 •
(ii) zero permanent magnetic moment
(iii) the maximum possible permanent magnetic moment.
4. An element can form a strongly magnetic solid only if its atoms have
(i) a vacant inner shell (ii) an incomplete inner shell
(iii) an incomplete valence shell
5. Ifthe atomic magnetic moments are randomly oriented in a solid its magnetic behaviour in termed
(i) polycrystalline (ii) antiferromagnetic (iii) paramagnetic
6. A ferromagnetic material is one in which
(i) the atomic magnetic moments are antiparallel and unequal
(ii) the atomic magnetic moments are parallel

(iii) the constituents are transition metal oxides
(iv) one constituent is iron
7. The intensity of magnetizationM of a ferromagnetic solid
(i) is independent of temperature
(ii) decreases with increasing temperature
(iii) increases with increasing temperature
8. The dependence of Mon temperature is due to
(i) fluctuations in the directions of the atomic magnetic moments
(ii) a permanent misalignment ofthe atomic magnetic moments
(iii) the presence of magnetic domains magnetized in varying directions
9. The Curie temperature is the temperature at which
(i) the atomic magnetic moment disappears
(ii) the domains become entirely randomly magnetized
(iii) the saturation intensity of magnetisation becomes infinite
(iv) the saturation intensity of magnetization becomes zero
10. A material with unequal, antiparallel atomic magnetic moments is
(i) an antiferromagnet (ii) a ferrimagnet (iii) a ferrite
11. A material has no net magnetic moment. It can therefore only have domains magnetized in
different directions.
(i) true (ii) false
12. A piece of magnetic material has a net magnetic moment when no field is applied. It must
therefore be ferromagnetic.
(i) true (ii) false
13. The domain walls in a magnetic material can be easily moved. It has therefore
(i) permanent magnetism (ii) high flux density (iii) high permeability
14. The permeability of iron can be increased by
(i) alloying it with Cobalt (ii) purifying it (iii) introducing Carbon in it
(iv) none of the above
15. Magnetic recording tape is most commonly made from

(i) ferric oxide (ii) silicon-iron (iii) small particles of iron.

Magnetic Properties Chapter Explains Permeability

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Chapter

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

H' = Nl'/1 = NI'A/lA ... (1)

H' (u, -l)H =M

where u, = 1 + x is defined as the relative permeability ofmedium. For non-magnetic media

Fig. 6.1 Susceptibility versus Field strength (Ferromagnetic materials)

6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

consists in the presence or absence ofpermanent

magnetic dipoles in them: the term permanent dB

magnetic dipole being used in the same sense as dH

in the corresponding dielectric case, i.e., a �Lo µm = Max.

dipoles are called diamagnetic. Magnetisation v

magnetic field may cause changes in the electron

takes a non-zero value when the orbits are charged.

Fig. 6.3 Paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, anti-ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic

Table 6.1 Classification of Magnetic Materials

6.3 THE ORIGIN OF PERMANENT MAGNETIC DIPOLES

(i) Orbital angular momentum of electron

(ii) Electron spin angular momentum

(iii) Nuclear spin angular momentum

potential the spinning electron becomes equivalent to

suhch a current hasd?ee n shown by Ampere to. equhal µb0ia. �

T e permanent rpo 1e moment ue to spm as een

vector sum of the electronic orbital moments and the spin

Table 6.2 The susceptibility of some diamagnetic materials at room temperature

may be taken as equal to unity.

This law is known as the Curie Law of

the magnetisation is no longer proportional to the I

materials have a small positive susceptibility of the

order of 10-3 at room temperature, which is much

larger than the negative contribution due to the T

paramagnetic substances are given in Table 6.3 below.

Table 6.3 The susceptibility of some paramagnetic materials at room temperature

Air 0.038 x 10-5 1.00000338

NiS04 120 x 10-5 1.0012

directions in shells K, Land N. These shells are, therefore, magnetically

the atom would be 4µ0ia, or 4 Bohr magnetons. On this basis a cobalt \ \ -, ., / I

6.7 THE ORIGIN OF FERROMAGNETISM

The experimental observation thatM exists in the absence

Let D be the distance between the centres of neighbouring

Comparison of Fig. 6.8 and Fig. 6.5 shows that the

atomic interactions, many solid paramagnetics may not obey the t.

6.8 FERROMAGNETIC DOMAINS

(a) Unmagnetised (b) Magnetised by (c) Magnetised by

material can be divided into domains. The actual size of the

domains. Fig. 6.10 Domain walls

The magnetic moments do not change their direction

abruptly on either side ofthe domain wall. But the direction

direction as one produced through the wall. Since the

The domain structure of a ferromagnetic substance may be observed experimentally. If a very

6.9 THE MAGNETISATION CURVE

Fig. 6.13 Magnetisation curve

6.10 THE HYSTERISIS LOOP

if the material has non-magnetic inclusions and low anisotropy.

The value of initial permeability is affected by heat

The area contained in the hysterisis loop equals the work

Fig. 6.14 Hysterisis loop

Substance Room temp. 0°K Tp°K Tp°K per atom

Iron 1.707 x 106 1.752 x 106 1043 1047 2.22

Cobalt 1.4 x 106 1.446 x 106 1400 1504 1.71

Nickel 0.485 x 106 0.510 x 106 631 645 0.606

Gadolinium 1.09 x 106 1.980 x 106 288 - 7.10