Frankenstein

Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is a novel written by English author

Frankenstein;
Mary Shelley (1797–1851) that tells the story of Victor Frankenstein, a young
or, The Modern
scientist who creates a hideous, sapient creature in an unorthodox scientific
Prometheus
experiment. Shelley started writing the story when she was 18, and the first edition
of the novel was published anonymously in London on 1 January 1818, when she
was 20.[2] Her name first appeared on the second edition, published in 1823.

Shelley travelled through Europe in 1814, journeying along the river Rhine in
Germany with a stop in Gernsheim, which is 17 kilometres (11 mi) away from
Frankenstein Castle, where, two centuries before, an alchemist was engaged in
experiments.[3][4][5] Later, she travelled in the region of Geneva (Switzerland)—
where much of the story takes place—and the topic of galvanism and occult ideas
were themes of conversation among her companions, particularly her lover and
future husband, Percy Shelley. Mary, Percy and Lord Byron decided to have a
competition to see who could write the best horror story. After thinking for days,
Shelley dreamt about a scientist who created life and was horrified by what he had
made; her dream later evolved into the novel's story
.

Frankenstein is infused with elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic
movement. At the same time, it is an early example of science fiction. Brian Aldiss
has argued that it should be considered the first true science fiction story because, in
contrast to previous stories with fantastical elements resembling those of later
science fiction, the central character "makes a deliberate decision" and "turns to
Volume I, first edition
modern experiments in the laboratory" to achieve fantastic results.[6] It has had a
considerable influence in literature and popular culture and spawned a complete Author Mary Shelley
genre of horror stories, films and plays. Country United Kingdom
Language English
Since the novel's publication, the name "Frankenstein" has often been used to refer
to the monster itself. This usage is considered erroneous, but some usage Genre Gothic novel, horror
commentators regard it as well-established and acceptable.[7][8][9] In the novel, the fiction, science fiction[1]
monster is identified by words such as "creature", "monster", "daemon", "wretch", Published 1 January 1818
"abortion", "fiend" and "it". Speaking to Victor Frankenstein, the monster says "I (Lackington, Hughes,
ought to be thy Adam, but I am rather the fallen angel" (which ties to Lucifer in Harding, Mavor &
Paradise Lost, which the monster reads, and which relates to the disobedience of Jones)
Prometheus in the book's subtitle).
Pages 280

Contents
Summary
Captain Walton's introductory frame narrative
Victor Frankenstein's narrative
The Creature's narrative
Victor Frankenstein's narrative resumes
Captain Walton's conclusion
Background
 Literary Influences
Characters
Composition
Publication
Frankenstein and the Monster
The Creature
Victor Frankenstein's name
Modern Prometheus
Shelley's sources
Reception
Derivative works
Films, plays and television
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Editions
1818 text
1831 text

External links

Summary
Frankenstein is written in the form of aframe story that starts with Captain Robert Walton writing letters to his sister. It takes place at
an unspecified time in the 18th century, as the letters' dates are given as "17—". In the story following the letters by Walton, the
readers find that Victor Frankenstein creates a monster that brings tragedy to his life.

Captain Walton's introductory frame narrative

The novel Frankenstein is written in epistolary form, documenting a fictional correspondence between Captain Robert Walton and
his sister, Margaret Walton Saville. Walton is a failed writer and captain who sets out to explore the North Pole and expand his
scientific knowledge in hopes of achieving fame. During the voyage, the crew spots a dog sled driven by a gigantic figure. A few
hours later, the crew rescues a nearly frozen and emaciated man named Victor Frankenstein. Frankenstein has been in pursuit of the
gigantic man observed by Walton's crew. Frankenstein starts to recover from his exertion; he sees in Walton the same obsession that
has destroyed him, and recounts a story of his life's miseries to Walton as a warning. The recounted story serves as the frame for
Frankenstein's narrative.

Victor Frankenstein's narrative

Victor begins by telling of his childhood. Born in Naples, Italy, into a wealthy Genevan family, Victor and his brothers, Ernest and
William, all three being sons of Alphonse Frankenstein by the former Caroline Beaufort, are encouraged to seek a greater
understanding of the world through chemistry. As a young boy, Victor is obsessed with studying outdated theories that focus on
simulating natural wonders. When Victor is five years old, his parents adopt Elizabeth Lavenza, the orphaned daughter of an
expropriated Italian nobleman, with whom Victor (allegedly) later falls in love. During this period, Victor's parents, Alphonse and
Caroline, take in yet another orphan, Justine Moritz, who becomes W
illiam's nanny.

Weeks before he leaves for the University of Ingolstadt in Germany, his mother dies of scarlet fever; Victor buries himself in his
experiments to deal with the grief. At the university, he excels at chemistry and other sciences, soon developing a secret technique to
impart life to non-living matter. Eventually, he undertakes the creation of a humanoid, but due to the difficulty in replicating the
minute parts of the human body, Victor makes the Creature tall, about 8 feet (2.4 m) in height and proportionally lar
ge. Despite Victor
selecting its features as beautiful, upon animation the creature is instead hideous, with watery white eyes and yellow skin that barely
conceals the muscles and blood vessels underneath. Repulsed by his work, ictor
V flees when it awakens. While wandering the streets,
he meets his childhood friend, Henry Clerval, and takes Henry back to his apartment, fearful of Henry's reaction if he sees the
monster. However, the Creature has escaped.

Victor falls ill from the experience and is nursed back to health by Henry. After a four-month recovery, he receives a letter from his
father notifying him of the murder of his brother W
illiam. Upon arriving in Geneva, Victor sees the Creature near the crime scene and
climbing a mountain, leading him to believe his creation is responsible. Justine Moritz, William's nanny, is convicted of the crime
after William's locket, which had contained a miniature portrait of Caroline, is found in her pocket. Victor is helpless to stop her from
being hanged, as he knows no one would believe his story
.

Ravaged by grief and guilt, Victor retreats into the mountains. The Creature finds him and pleads for V
ictor to hear his tale.

The Creature's narrative

Intelligent and articulate, the Creature relates his first days of life, living alone in the wilderness and finding that people were afraid
of and hated him due to his appearance, which led him to fear and hide from them. While living in an abandoned structure connected
to a cottage, he grew fond of the poor family living there, and discreetly collected firewood for them. Secretly living among the
family for months, the Creature learned to speak by listening to them and he taught himself to read after discovering a lost satchel of
books in the woods. When he saw his reflection in a pool, he realized his physical appearance was hideous, and it terrified him as it
terrifies normal humans. Nevertheless, he approached the family in hopes of becoming their friend. Initially he was able to befriend
the blind father figure of the family, but the rest of them were frightened and they all fled their home, resulting in the Creature
leaving, disappointed. He traveled to Victor's family estate using details from Victor's journal, murdered William, and framed Justine.

The Creature demands that Victor create a female companion like himself. He argues that as a living being, he has a right to
happiness. The Creature promises that he and his mate will vanish into the South American wilderness, never to reappear, if Victor
grants his request. Should Victor refuse his request, The Creature also threatens to kill Victor's remaining friends and loved ones and
not stop until he completely ruins him.

Fearing for his family, Victor reluctantly agrees. The Creature says he will watch over Victor's progress.

Victor Frankenstein's narrative resumes

Clerval accompanies him to England, but they separate at Victor's insistence at Perth, Scotland. Victor suspects that the Creature is
following him. Working on the female creature on the Orkney Islands, he is plagued by premonitions of disaster, such as the female
hating the Creature or becoming more evil than him, but more particularly the two creatures might lead to the breeding of a race that
could plague mankind. He tears apart the unfinished female creature after he sees the Creature, who had indeed followed Victor,
watching through a window. The Creature later confronts and tries to threaten Victor into working again, but Victor is convinced that
the Creature is evil and that its mate would be evil as well, and the pair would threaten all humanity. Victor destroys his work and the
Creature vows that he will "be with [him] on [his] wedding night". Victor interprets this as a threat upon his life, believing that the
Creature will kill him after he finally becomes happy
. When Victor lands in Ireland, he is soon imprisoned for Clerval's murder,as the
Creature had strangled Clerval to death and left the corpse to be found where his creator had arrived, causing the latter to suffer
another mental breakdown in prison. After being acquitted, Victor returns home with his father, who has restored to Elizabeth some
of her father's fortune.

In Geneva, Victor is about to marry Elizabeth and prepares to fight the Creature to the death, arming himself with pistols and a
dagger. The night following their wedding, Victor asks Elizabeth to stay in her room while he looks for "the fiend". While Victor
searches the house and grounds, the Creature strangles Elizabeth to death. From the window, Victor sees the Creature, who tauntingly
points at Elizabeth's corpse; Victor tries to shoot him, but the Creature escapes. After Victor gets back to Geneva, Victor's father,
weakened by age and by the death of his precious Elizabeth, dies a few days later
. Seeking revenge, Victor pursues the Creature to the
North Pole, but collapses from exhaustion andhypothermia before he can find his quarry.

Captain Walton's conclusion

At the end of Victor's narrative, Captain Walton resumes the telling of the story, closing the frame around Victor's recounting. A few
days after the Creature vanished, the ship becomes trapped in pack ice and multiple crewmen die in the cold, before the rest of
Walton's crew insists on returning south once it is freed. Upon hearing the crew's pleas to their captain, Victor, angered, lectures them
with a powerful speech: it is hardship, not comfort and easiness, that defines a glorious undertaking such as theirs; he urges them to
be men, not cowards. The ship is freed and Walton, owing it to the will of his men, albeit regretfully, decides to return South. Victor,
even though in very weak condition, states that he will go on by himself.

Victor dies shortly thereafter, telling Walton, with his last words, to seek "happiness in tranquillity and avoid ambition". Walton
discovers the Creature on his ship, mourning over Victor's body. The Creature tells Walton that Victor's death has not brought him
peace; rather, his crimes have left him completely alone. The Creature vows to kill himself so that no others will ever know of his
existence. Walton watches as the Creature drifts away on an ice raft that is soon "lost in darkness and distance", never to be seen
again.

Background
The author, Mary Shelley, had a tragic life from the beginning. Shelley's mother, Mary Wollstonecraft, died shortly after giving birth
to her. Since Shelley did not know her mother, she had a close attachment to her father. Shelley's father, William Godwin, hired a
nurse to care for her and her half sister but she left and her father ended up remarrying. Shelley's stepmother did not like the close
bond Shelley had with her father. This caused Godwin to favor his other two daughters and sons.

Her father was a famous author himself and her education was of great importance. Shelley grew up surrounded by many different
writers and persons of political importance because of her father. This inspired her authorship at an early age. Shelley met Percy
Bysshe Shelley, who later became her husband, at the age of sixteen while he was visiting with her father at their home. Her father
did not agree with their relationship so they fled to France along with her stepsister, Claire Clairmont. Later, she gave birth to their
first child and soon after lost the child.

Both Mary and Percy went away with Claire to visit her lover Lord Byron, in Geneva during the summer of 1816, the infamous Year
Without a Summer. Percy and Mary became good friends with Byron and used their time with him to discuss literature, politics, and
science. One evening after being trapped in the house because of storms Byron suggested they all have a competition of writing the
best ghost story. This is how Frankenstein was brought to life. Mary was eighteen years old when she wrote this novel. Shelley won
[10][11]
the contest by her creation of the novel, Frankenstein.

Literary Influences
Shelley was heavily influenced by both of her parents works. Her father was famous for Enquiry Concerning Political Justiceand her
mother famous for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Her father's novels also influenced her writing of Frankenstein. These
novels included Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams, St. Leon, and Fleetwood. All of these books were set in
Switzerland, similar to the setting in Frankenstein. Some major themes of social affections and the renewal of life that appear in
Shelley's novel stem from these works she had in her possession. Other literary influences that appear in Frankenstein are Pygmalion
(play) and Ovid with the use of an individual lacking intelligence and those individuals identifying the problems with society. Ovid
also inspires the use ofPrometheus in Shelley's title.[12]

Her time spent with Lord Byron, Percy Shelley, her baby, and her sister Jane influenced her creation of Frankenstein as well. Percy
and Byron's discussion on life and death surrounded many scientific geniuses of the time. They discussed ideas from
Erasmus Darwin
and the experiments from Luigi Galvani. Mary listened intently to these conversations and the ideas of Darwin and Galvani were
both present in her novel. The horrors of not being able to write a story for the contest and her hard life also influenced the themes
within Frankenstein. The themes of loss, guilt, and the consequences of defying nature present in the novel all developed from Mary
Shelley's own life. The loss of her mother, the relationship with her father, and the death of her first child created the monster and his
[11]
separation from parental guidance. Guilt stemmed from her not feeling good enough for Percy because of the loss of their child.

Characters
Victor Frankenstein – Protagonist and narrator of most of the story . Creates the monster.
The creature (Frankenstein's monster)– The hideous creature created by Victor Frankenstein.
Mrs. Margaret Saville– Resident of England. Sister of Robert W alton. Addressee of letters written by him.
Captain Robert Walton – Captain of the boat which picked up Victor. Brother of Mrs. Margaret Saville, and writer of
letters addressed to her.
Beaufort – A Merchant. Caroline Beaufort's father . One of the most intimate friends of Victor's father.
Caroline Beaufort – Beaufort's daughter, Victor's mother.
Ernest – Victor's brother. Seven years younger than Victor.
Henry Clerval – Victor's best friend from childhood. The son of a merchant of Geneva.
Justine Moritz – Daughter of Madame Moritz. Moved in with the Frankenstein family at age of 12, and hanged for
the murder of William.
Elizabeth Lavenza – Daughter of a Milanese nobleman. Her mother was a German and had died on giving birth to
her. Raised as Victor's “cousin” in the Frankenstein home.
William – Victor's youngest brother.
M. Krempe – professor of natural philosophy at university of Ingolstadt. He was an uncouth man, but deeply imbued
in the secrets of his science. Influenced Victor.
M. Waldman – A professor, at Ingolstadt. Influenced Victor.
Agatha – Daughter of De Lacey. Felix's sister.
Felix – Son of De Lacey.
De Lacey – Blind old man descended from a good family in France. Father of Agatha and Felix. His family was
observed by the monster, and unbeknownst to them, taught him to speak and read.
Safie – Daughter of a Turkish Merchant and a Christian Arab.
Mr. Kirwin – A magistrate.
Daniel Nugent – A witness against Victor in his murder trial.

Composition
How I, then a young girl, came to think of, and to dilate upon, so very hideous an idea?

— Mary Shelley[13]

During the rainy summer of 1816, the "Year Without a Summer", the world was locked in a long cold volcanic winter caused by the
eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815.[14] Mary Shelley, aged 18, and her lover (and later husband) Percy Bysshe Shelley visited Lord
Byron at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva in Switzerland. The weather was consistently too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy
the outdoor holiday activities they had planned, so the group retired indoors until dawn.

Sitting around a log fire at Byron's villa, the company amused themselves by reading German ghost stories translated into French
from the book Fantasmagoriana,[15] then Byron proposed that they "each write a ghost story".[16] Unable to think of a story, young
Mary became anxious: "Have you thought of a story? I was asked each morning, and each morning I was forced to reply with a
mortifying negative."[17] During one evening in the middle of summer, the discussions turned to the nature of the principle of life.
"Perhaps a corpse would be re-animated", Mary noted, "galvanism had given token of such things".[18] It was after midnight before
they retired, and unable to sleep, she became possessed by her imagination as she beheld the "grim terrors" of her "waking
dream".[19]
 I saw the pale student of unhallowed arts kneeling beside the thing
he had put together. I saw the hideous phantasm of a man stretched
out, and then, on the working of some powerful engine, show signs
of life, and stir with an uneasy, half vital motion. Frightful must it
be; for supremely frightful would be the effect of any human
endeavour to mock the stupendous mechanism of the Creator of the
world.[20]

In September 2011, astronomer Donald Olson, after a visit to the Lake Geneva villa
the previous year and inspecting data about the motion of the moon and stars,
concluded that her "waking dream" took place "between 2 a.m. and 3 a.m." on 16
June 1816, several days after the initial idea by Lord Byron that they each write a
ghost story.[21]

She began writing what she assumed would be a short story. With Percy Shelley's
encouragement, she expanded the tale into a full-fledged novel.[22] She later
described that summer in Switzerland as the moment "when I first stepped out from
Draft of Frankenstein ("It was on a
childhood into life".[23] Shelley wrote the first four chapters in the weeks following dreary night of November that I
the suicide of her half-sister Fanny.[24] This was one of many personal tragedies that beheld my man completed ...")
impacted Shelley's work. Shelley's first child died in infancy, and when she began
composing Frankenstein in 1816, she was likely nursing her second child, who
would also be dead atFrankenstein's publication.[25]

Byron managed to write just a fragment based on the vampire legends he heard while travelling the Balkans, and from this John
Polidori created The Vampyre (1819), the progenitor of the romantic vampire literary genre. Thus two seminal horror tales originated
from the conclave.

The group talked about Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment ideas as well. Shelley believed the Enlightenment idea that
society could progress and grow if political leaders used their powers responsibly; however, she also believed the Romantic ideal that
[26]
misused power could destroy society (Bennett 36–42).

Bath in 1816.[27]
Shelley wrote much of the book while residing in a lodging house in the centre of

Shelley's manuscripts for the first three-volume edition in 1818 (written 1816–1817), as well as the fair copy for her publisher, are
now housed in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The Bodleian acquired the papers in 2004, and they belong now to the Abinger
Collection.[28] In 2008, the Bodleian published a new edition of Frankenstein, edited by Charles E. Robinson, that contains
[29]
comparisons of Mary Shelley's original text with Percy Shelley's additions and interventions alongside.

Publication
Shelley completed her writing in April/May 1817, and Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus was published on 1 January
1818[30] by the small London publishing house Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, & Jones.[31][32] It was issued anonymously,
with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin, her father. It was
published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standardtriple-decker"
" format for 19th-century first editions.

The second edition of Frankenstein was published on 11 August 1823 in two volumes (by G. and W. B. Whittaker) following the
success of the stage play Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein by Richard Brinsley Peake.[33] This edition credited Mary
Shelley as the book's author on its title page.

On 31 October 1831, the first "popular" edition in one-volume appeared, published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley.[34] This
edition was heavily revised by Mary Shelley, partially to make the story less radical. It included a lengthy new preface by the author,
presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the story. This edition is the one most widely published and read now,
 although a few editions follow the 1818
text.[35] Some scholars prefer the original
version, arguing that it preserves the spirit of
Mary Shelley's vision (see Anne K. Mellor's
"Choosing a Text of Frankenstein to Teach" A variety of different editions
in the W. W. Norton Critical edition).

In 2008, a new edition of the novel, titled The Original Frankenstein, edited by Charles E.
Robinson, was published. Robinson examined the original manuscript by Mary Shelley and
[36]
noted the edits that Percy Bysshe Shelley made to it.

Mary Shelley by Richard

Rothwell (1840–41)

Frankenstein and the Monster

The Creature
Part of Frankenstein's rejection of his creation is the fact that he does not give it a name,
which causes a lack of identity. Instead it is referred to by words such as "wretch", "monster",
"creature", "demon", "devil", "fiend", and "it". When Frankenstein converses with the creature
in Chapter 10, he addresses it as "vile insect", "abhorred monster", "fiend", "wretched devil",
and "abhorred devil".

During a telling of Frankenstein, Shelley referred to the creature as "Adam".[38] Shelley was
referring to the first man in the Garden of Eden, as in her epigraph:

Did I request thee, Maker, from my clay

To mould Me man? Did I solicit thee
From darkness to promote me?
An English editorial
John Milton, Paradise Lost (X. 743–5)
cartoonist conceives the
Irish Fenian movement as
Although the creature would be described in later works as a composite of whole body parts
akin to Frankenstein's
grafted together from cadavers and reanimated by the use of electricity, this description is not
creature, in the wake of the
consistent with Shelley's work; both the use of electricity and the cobbled-together image of Phoenix Park murders in an
Frankenstein's monster were more the result ofJames Whale's popular 1931 film adaptation of 1882 issue of Punch.[37]
the story, and other early motion-picture works based upon the creature. In Shelley's original
work, Dr. Frankenstein discovers a previously unknown but elemental principle of life, and
that insight allows him to develop a method to imbue vitality into inanimate matter, though the exact nature of the process is left
largely ambiguous. After a great deal of hesitation in exercising this power, Frankenstein spends two years painstakingly constructing
the creature's proportionally large body (one anatomical feature at a time, from raw materials supplied by "the dissecting room and
the slaughter-house"), which he then brings to lifeusing his unspecified process.

The creature has often been mistakenly called "Frankenstein". In 1908 one author said "It is strange to note how well-nigh universally
the term "Frankenstein" is misused, even by intelligent people, as describing some hideous monster".[39] Edith Wharton's The Reef
(1916) describes an unruly child as an "infant Frankenstein."[40] David Lindsay's "The Bridal Ornament", published in The Rover, 12
June 1844, mentioned "the maker of poor Frankenstein." After the release of Whale's cinematic Frankenstein, the public at large
began speaking of the creature itself as "Frankenstein". This also occurs in Frankenstein films, including Bride of Frankenstein
(1935) and several subsequent films, as well as in film titles such as Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. Furthermore, the 1939
film Son of Frankenstein introduced an evil laboratory assistant, Ygor Bela
( Lugosi), who never existed in the original narrative.

Victor Frankenstein's name

Mary Shelley maintained that she derived the name Frankenstein from a dream-vision. Despite her public claims of originality,
however, a number of other sources have been suggested as Shelley's actual inspiration. The German name Frankenstein means
"stone of the Franks", and it is associated with various places in Germany, including Frankenstein Castle (Burg Frankenstein) in
Darmstadt, Hesse, and Frankenstein Castle in Frankenstein, a town in the Palatinate. There is also a castle called Frankenstein in Bad
Salzungen, Thuringia, and a municipality called Frankenstein in Saxony. Until 1945, Ząbkowice Śląskie, now a city in Lower
Silesian Voivodeship, Poland, was mainly populated by Germans and named Frankenstein in German, and was the site of a scandal
involving gravediggers in 1606, which has been suggested as an inspiration to the author.[41] Finally, the name is borne by the
aristocratic House of Franckensteinfrom Franconia.

Radu Florescu argues that Mary and Percy Shelley visited Frankenstein Castle near Darmstadt in 1814 during their return to England
from their elopement to Switzerland. It was at this castle that a notorious alchemist, Conrad Dippel, had experimented with human
bodies, and Florescu reasons that Mary suppressed mention of her visit in order to maintain her public claim of originality.[42] A
literary essay by A. J. Day supports Florescu's position that Mary Shelley knew of and visited Frankenstein Castle before writing her
debut novel.[43] Day includes details of an alleged description of the Frankenstein castle that exists in Mary Shelley's 'lost' journals.
According to Jörg Heléne, the 'lost journals', as well as Florescu's claims, cannot be verified.[44]

A possible interpretation of the name Victor is derived from Paradise Lost by John Milton, a great influence on Shelley (a quotation
from Paradise Lost is on the opening page of Frankenstein and Shelley even has the monster himself read it).[45][46] Milton
frequently refers to God as "the Victor" in Paradise Lost, and Shelley sees Victor as playing God by creating life. In addition,
Shelley's portrayal of the monster owes much to the character of Satan in Paradise Lost; indeed, the monster says, after reading the
epic poem, that he empathizes with Satan's role in the story
.

There are many similarities between Victor and Percy Shelley, Mary's husband. Victor was a pen name of Percy Shelley's, as in the
collection of poetry he wrote with his sister Elizabeth, Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire.[47] There is speculation that one of
Mary Shelley's models for Victor Frankenstein was Percy, who at Eton had "experimented with electricity and magnetism as well as
[48]
with gunpowder and numerous chemical reactions", and whose rooms at Oxford were filled with scientific equipment.

Percy Shelley was the first-born son of a wealthy country squire with strong political connections and a descendant of Sir Bysshe
Shelley, 1st Baronet of Castle Goring, and Richard Fitzalan, 10thEarl of Arundel.[49] Victor's family is one of the most distinguished
of that republic and his ancestors were counselors and syndics. Percy had a sister named Elizabeth; Victor had an adopted sister
named Elizabeth.

On 22 February 1815, Mary Shelley gave birth to a baby two months prematurely, and the baby died two weeks later. Percy did not
care about the condition of this premature infant and left with Claire, Mary's stepsister, for a lurid affair.[50] When Victor saw the
creature come to life he fled the apartment, though the newborn creature approached him, as a child would a parent. The question of
Victor's responsibility to the creature is one of themain themes of the book.

Modern Prometheus
The Modern Prometheus is the novel's subtitle (though some modern editions now drop the subtitle, mentioning it only in an
introduction).[51] Prometheus, in later versions of Greek mythology, was the Titan who created mankind at the behest of Zeus. He
made a being in the image of the gods that could have a spirit breathed into it.[52] Prometheus taught man to hunt, read, and heal their
sick, but after he tricked Zeus into accepting poor-quality offerings from humans, Zeus kept fire from mankind. Prometheus, being
the creator, took back the fire from Zeus to give to man. When Zeus discovered this, he sentenced Prometheus to be eternally
punished by fixing him to a rock of Caucasus, where each day an eagle would peck out his liver, only for the liver to regrow the next
day because of his immortality as a god. He was intended to suffer alone for eternity, but eventually Heracles (Hercules) released
him.

Prometheus was also a myth told in Latin, but was a very different story. In this version Prometheus makes man from clay and water,
again a very relevant theme to Frankenstein, as Victor rebels against the laws of nature (how life is naturally made) and as a result is
punished by his creation.

The Titan in the Greek mythology of Prometheus parallels Victor Frankenstein.

Victor's work by creating man by new means reflects the same innovative work of
the Titan in creating humans.

Some have argued that Mary Shelley saw Prometheus not as a hero but rather as
something of a devil, and blamed him for bringing fire to man and thereby seducing
the human race to the vice of eating meat (fire brought cooking which brought
hunting and killing).[53]

In 1910, Edison Studios released the

Byron was particularly attached to the play Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus, and
first motion-picture adaptationof
Percy Shelley would soon write his own Prometheus Unbound (1820). The term
Shelley's story.
"Modern Prometheus" was actually coined by Immanuel Kant in reference to
Benjamin Franklin and his experiments with electricity.[54]

Shelley's sources
Shelley incorporated a number of different sources into her work, one of which was the Promethean myth from Ovid. The influence
of John Milton's Paradise Lost, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, are also clearly evident within the
novel. Mary is likely to have acquired some ideas for Frankenstein's character from Humphry Davy's book Elements of Chemical
Philosophy, in which he had written that "science has ... bestowed upon man powers which may be called creative; which have
enabled him to change and modify the beings around him ...". References to the French Revolution run through the novel; a possible
source may lie in François-Félix Nogaret's Le Miroir des événemens actuels, ou la Belle au plus offrant (1790): a political parable
[55]
about scientific progress featuring an inventor named Frankésteïn who creates a life-sized automaton.

Percy Bysshe Shelley's 1816 poem "Mutability" is also quoted and its theme of the role of the subconscious is discussed in prose. The
Creature also quotes a passage of the poem. His name has never appeared as the author of the poem although other poets are cited by
name in the novel, implying that Mary wrote the poem and developed the psychological ideas. Another potential reason is to conceal
his contributions to the novel.

Within the past thirty years or so, many writers and historians have attempted to associate several then popular natural philosophers
(now called physical scientists) with Shelley's work on account of several notable similarities. Two of the most notable natural
philosophers among Shelley's contemporaries were Giovanni Aldini, who made many public attempts at human reanimation through
bio-electric Galvanism in London[56] and Johann Konrad Dippel, who was supposed to have developed chemical means to extend the
life span of humans. While Shelley was obviously aware of both these men and their activities, she makes no mention of or reference
to them or their experiments in any of her published or released notes.

Reception
Frankenstein has been both well received and disregarded since its anonymous publication in 1818. Critical reviews of that time
demonstrate these two views, along with confused speculation as to the identity of the author. The Belle Assemblée described the
novel as "very bold fiction" (139). The Quarterly Review stated that "the author has the power of both conception and language"
(185). Sir Walter Scott, writing in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, congratulated "the author's original genius and happy power of
expression" (620), although he is less convinced about the way in which the monster gains
knowledge about the world and language.[58] The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary
Miscellany hoped to see "more productions from this author" (253). On the other hand, the
[59]
Quarterly Review described it "a tissue of horrible and disgusting absurdity".

In two other reviews where the author is known as the daughter of William Godwin, the
criticism of the novel makes reference to the feminine nature of Mary Shelley. The British
Critic attacks the novel's flaws as the fault of the author: "The writer of it is, we understand, a
female; this is an aggravation of that which is the prevailing fault of the novel; but if our
authoress can forget the gentleness of her sex, it is no reason why we should; and we shall
therefore dismiss the novel without further comment" (438). The Literary Panorama and
National Register attacks the novel as a "feeble imitation of Mr. Godwin's novels" produced
Illustration by Theodor von
by the "daughter of a celebrated living novelist" (414). Despite the reviews, Frankenstein
Holst from the frontispiece of
achieved an almost immediate popular success. It became widely known especially through the 1831 edition[57]
melodramatic theatrical adaptations—Mary Shelley saw a production of Presumption; or The
Fate of Frankenstein, a play by Richard Brinsley Peake, in 1823. A French translation
appeared as early as 1821 (Frankenstein: ou le Prométhée Moderne, translated by Jules Saladin).

Critical reception of Frankenstein has been largely positive since the mid-20th century.[60] Major critics such as M. A. Goldberg and
Harold Bloom have praised the "aesthetic and moral" relevance of the novel,[61] although there are also critics such as Germaine
Greer, who criticized the novel as terrible due to technical and narrative defects (such as it featuring three narrators that speak in the
same way).[62] In more recent years the novel has become a popular subject for psychoanalytic and feminist criticism: Lawrence
Lipking states: "[E]ven the Lacanian subgroup of psychoanalytic criticism, for instance, has produced at least half a dozen discrete
readings of the novel".[63] The novel today is generally considered to be a landmark work of romantic and gothic literature, as well as
science fiction.[64]

Film director Guillermo del Toro describes Frankenstein as "the quintessential teenage book", adding "You don't belong. You were
brought to this world by people that don't care for you and you are thrown into a world of pain and suffering, and tears and hunger.
It's an amazing book written by a teenage girl. It's mind-blowing."[65] Professor of philosophy Patricia MacCormack says the
creature, brought to life by Victor Frankenstein, addresses the most fundamental human questions: "It's the idea of asking your maker
[65]
what your purpose is. Why are we here, what can we do?"

Derivative works
There are numerous novels retelling or continuing the story of Frankenstein and his monster
.

Films, plays and television

1823: Richard Brinsley Peake's adaptation, Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein, was seen by Mary Shelley
and her father William Godwin at the English Opera House.[66]
1826: Henry M. Milner's adaptation, The Man and The Monster; or The Fate of Frankensteinopened on 3 July at the
Royal Coburg Theatre, London.[67]
1887: Frankenstein, or The Vampire's Victim was a musical burlesque written by Richard Henry (a pseudonym of
Richard Butler and Henry Chance Newton).
1910: Edison Studios produced the first Frankenstein film, directed by J. Searle Dawley.[65]
1915: Life Without Soul, the second film adaptation of Mary Shelley's novel, was released. No known print of the film
has survived.
1920: The Monster of Frankenstein, directed by Eugenio Testa, starring Luciano Albertini and Umberto Guarracino.
1931: Universal Studios' Frankenstein, directed by James Whale, starring Colin Clive, Mae Clarke, John Boles,
Edward Van Sloan, Dwight Frye, and Boris Karloff as the monster.[65]
1935: James Whale directed the sequel to the 1931 film,Bride of Frankenstein, starring Colin Clive as Frankenstein,
and Boris Karloff as the monster once more.This incorporated the novel's plot motif of Frankenstein creating a bride
for the monster omitted from Whale's earlier film. There were two more sequels, prior to the Universal "monster rally"
films combining multiple monsters from various movie series or film
 films combining multiple monsters from various movie series or film
franchises.[65]
1939: Son of Frankenstein was another Universal monster movie with Boris
Karloff as the Creature. Also in the film wereBasil Rathbone as the title character
and Bela Lugosi as the sinister assistant Ygor. Karloff ended playing the
Frankenstein monster with this film.
1942: The Ghost of Frankensteinfeatured brain transplanting and a new
monster, played by Lon Chaney Jr. The film also starred Evelyn Ankers and Bela
Lugosi.
1942–1948: Universal did "monster rally" films featuring Frankenstein's Monster ,
Dracula and the Wolf Man. Included would beFrankenstein Meets the Wolf Man,
House of Frankenstein, House of Dracula and Abbott and Costello Meet
Frankenstein. The last three films introducedGlenn Strange as Frankenstein's
monster.
A photo of Charles Ogle as
1957–1974: Hammer Films in England did a string of Frankenstein films starring
Peter Cushing, including The Curse of Frankenstein, The Revenge of the monster in Frankenstein
Frankenstein and Frankenstein Must Be Destroyed. Co-starring in these films (1910)
were Christopher Lee, Hazel Court, Veronica Carlson and Simon Ward. Another
Hammer film, The Horror of Frankenstein, starred Ralph Bates as the main
character, Victor Frankenstein.[65]
1965: Toho Studios created the film Frankenstein Conquers the Worldor
Frankenstein vs. Baragon, followed by The War of the Gargantuas.
1972: A comedic stage adaptation,Frankenstein's Monster, was written by Sally
Netzel and produced by theDallas Theater Center.[68]
1973: The TV film Frankenstein: The True Story appeared on NBC. The movie
starred Leonard Whiting, Michael Sarrazin, James Mason, and Jane Seymour.
1981: A Broadway adaptation byVictor Gialanella played for one performance
(after 29 previews) and was considered the most expensive flop ever produced
to that date.[69]
1984: The flop Broadway production yielded a TV film starringRobert Powell,
Carrie Fisher, David Warner, and John Gielgud.
1992: Frankenstein became a Turner Network Television film directed by David
Wickes, starring Patrick Bergin and Randy Quaid. John Mills played the blind A promotional photo ofBoris
man.
Karloff, as Frankenstein's
1994: Mary Shelley's Frankensteinappeared in theatres, directed by and starring
monster, using Jack Pierce's
Kenneth Branagh, with Robert De Niro and Helena Bonham Carter. Its all-star
[65] makeup design
cast also included John Cleese, Ian Holm, and Tom Hulce.
2004: Frankenstein, a two-episode mini-series starringAlec Newman, with Luke
Goss and Donald Sutherland.
2007: Frankenstein, an award-winning musical adaptation by Jonathan Christenson with set, lighting, and costume
design by Bretta Gerecke forCatalyst Theatre in Edmonton, Alberta.[70]
2011: In March, BBC3 broadcast Colin Teague's live production from Kirkstall Abbey, Leeds, billed as Frankenstein's
Wedding, Live in Leeds.[71] About the same time, theNational Theatre, London presented a stage version of
Frankenstein, which ran until 2 May 2011. The play was written byNick Dear and directed by Danny Boyle. Jonny
Lee Miller and Benedict Cumberbatchalternated the roles of Frankenstein and the Creature. [65] The National
Theatre broadcast live performances of the play worldwide on 17 March.
2012: An interactive ebook app created byInkle and Profile Books that retells the story with added interactive
elements.[72]
2014: Penny Dreadful is a horror TV series that airs on Showtime, that features iVctor Frankenstein as well as his
creature.
2015: Frankenstein, a modern-day adaptation written and directed byBernard Rose.
2015: Victor Frankenstein is an American film directed byPaul McGuigan.[73]
2016: Frankenstein, a full length ballet production byLiam Scarlett.[74] Some performances were also live simulcasts
worldwide.[75]
Loose adaptations

1967: I'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night and its sequel, Frankenstein Unbound (Another
Monster Musical), are a pair of musical comedies written by Bobby Pickett and Sheldon Allman. The casts of both
feature several classic horror characters including Dr
. Frankenstein and his monster.
1973: The Rocky Horror Show, is a British horror comedy stage musical written by Richard O'Brian in which Dr.
Frank N. Furter has created a creature (Rocky), to satisfy his (pro)creative drives. Elements are similar I'm
to Sorry
 the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night.
1973: Andy Warhol's Frankenstein. Usually, Frankenstein is a man whose dedication to science takes him too far,
but here his interest is to rule the world by creating a new species that will obey him and do his bidding.
1974: Young Frankenstein. Directed by Mel Brooks, this sequel-spoof has been listed [76] as one of the best movie
comedies of any comedy genre ever made, even prompting an American film preservation program to include it on
its listings. It reuses many props from James Whale's 1931Frankenstein and is shot in black-and-white with 1930s-
style credits. Gene Wilder portrayed the descendant of Dr. Frankenstein (who insists on pronouncing it
"Fronkonsteen"), with Peter Boyle as the Monster.
1975: The Rocky Horror Picture Showis the 1975 film adaptation of the British rock musical stageplay, The Rocky
Horror Show (1973), written by Richard O'Brien.
1984: Frankenweenie is a parody short film directed byTim Burton, starring Barrett Oliver, Shelley Duvall and Daniel
Stern.
1985: The Bride starring Sting as Baron Charles Frankenstein andJennifer Beals as Eva, a woman he creates in the
same fashion as his infamousmonster.
1986: Gothic, directed by Ken Russell, is the story of the night that Mary Shelley gave birth toFrankenstein. Starring
Gabriel Byrne, Julian Sands, Natasha Richardson.
1988: Frankenstein (フランケンシュタイン) is a manga adaptation of Shelley's novel byJunji Ito.
1989: Frankenstein the Panto. A pantomime script by David Swan, combining elements of Frankenstein,Dracula,
and traditional British panto.
1990: Frankenstein Unbound. Combines a time-travel story with the story of Shelley's novel. Scientist Joe Buchanan
accidentally creates a time-rift which takes him back to the events of the novel. Filmed as a low-budget independent
film in 1990, based on a novel published in 1973 byBrian Aldiss. This novel bears no relation to the 1967 stage
musical with the same name listed above.
1991: Khatra (film) is a Hindi movie of Bollywood made by director H. N. Singh loosely based on the story,
Frankenstein.
1995: Monster Mash is a film adaptation ofI'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out, You'll Have to Spend the Night starring
Bobby Pickett as Dr. Frankenstein. The film also features Candace Cameron Bure, Anthony Crivello and Mink Stole.
1998: Billy Frankenstein is a very loose adaptation about a boy who moves into a mansion with his family and brings
the Frankenstein monster to life. The film was directed byFred Olen Ray.
2003: Reading Frankenstein,[77] a new media performance work in which Mary Shelley is a genetic engineer and
artificial life scientist and her Creature a hybrid form of computational a-life. It was co-created by director Annie Loui
and artist-writer Antoinette LaFarge for UC Irvine.
2004: Frankenstein made-for-TV film based onDean Koontz's Frankenstein.
2005: Frankenstein vs. the Creature from Blood Cove , a 90-minute feature film homage of classic monsters and
Atomic Age creature features, shot in black and white, and directed byWilliam Winckler. The Frankenstein Monster
design and make-up was based on the character descriptions in Mary W ollstonecraft Shelley's novel.
2009: The Diary of Anne Frankenstein, a short film from Chillerrama.
2009: Anuman Interactive (French publisher) launchesFrankestein, a hidden objects game freely inspired by Mary
Shelley's book, on iPhone and iPad.[78]
2011: Frankenstein: Day of the Beastis an independent horror film based loosely on the original book.
2011: Victor Frankenstein appears in the ABCshow Once Upon a Time, a fantasy series on ABC that features
multiple characters from fairy tales and classic literature trapped in the real world.
2012: Frankenweenie, Tim Burton's feature film remake of his 1984short film of the same name.
2012: In the Adventure Time episode "Princess Monster Wife", the Ice King removes body parts from all the
princesses that rejected him and creates a jigsaw wife to love him.
2012: A Nightmare on Lime Street, Fred Lawless's comedy play starringDavid Gest staged at the Royal Court
Theatre, Liverpool.[79]
2014: I, Frankenstein is a 2014 fantasy action film. The film starsAaron Eckhart as Adam Frankenstein andBill
Nighy. The film is based on the graphic novel.
2014: Frankenstein, MD, A web show by Pemberly Digital starring Victoria, a female adaptation of Victor.
2015: The Supernatural season 10 episodes Book of the Damned, Dark Dynasty and The Prisoner feature the Styne
Family which member Eldon Styne identifies as the descendants of the house of Frankenstein. According to Eldon,
Mary Shelley had learned their secrets while on a visit to Castle Frankenstein and wrote a book based on her
experiences, forcing the Frankensteins underground as the Stynes. The Stynes, through bioengineering and surgical
enhancements, feature many of the superhuman features of Frankenstein's monster .
2015: The Frankenstein Chroniclesis a British television drama series, starringSean Bean as John Marlott and
Anna Maxwell Martin as Mary Shelley.
2016: Second Chance, a TV series known at one point asFrankenstein, was inspired by the classic.[80]

See also
 Frankenstein authorship question
Frankenstein argument
Frankenstein complex
Frankenstein in Baghdad
Frankenstein in popular culture
Golem
Homunculus
Johann Conrad Dippel
List of dreams

Notes
1. Stableford, Brian (1995)."Frankenstein and the Origins of Science Fiction"(http://knarf.english.upenn.edu/Articles/st
able.html). In Seed, David. Anticipations: Essays on Early Science Fiction and its Precursors. Syracuse University
Press. pp. 47–49. ISBN 978-0815626404. Retrieved July 19, 2018.
2. Staff writer (1 January 1818)."Books Published This Day"(https://www.newspapers.com/image/32751068). The
Times (10342). London, England. p. 4– via Newspapers.com. "This day is published, in 3 vols., price 16s. 6d., a
Work of Imagination, to be entitled Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus."
3. Hobbler, Dorthy and Thomas. The Monsters: Mary Shelley and the Curse of Frankenstein
. Back Bay Books; 20
August 2007.
4. Garrett, Martin. Mary Shelley. Oxford University Press, 2002
5. Seymour, Miranda. Mary Shelley. Atlanta, GA: Grove Press, 2002. pg 110-111
6. The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasyby Brian Aldiss (1995),page 78 (https://books.google.com/books?
id=N1WWSRVeOC8C&pg=PA78#v=onepage).
7. Bergen Evans, Comfortable Words, New York: Random House, 1957
8. Bryan Garner, A Dictionary of Modern American Usage, New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press,1998
9. Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of American English, Merriam-Webster: 2002
10. "Frankenstein: Penetrating the Secrets of Nature: The Birth of Frankenstein"
(https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/fran
kenstein/exhibition1.html). www.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2018-11-20.
11. Badalamenti, Anthony (Fall 2006). "Why did Mary Shelley W
rite Frankenstein". Journal of Religion and Health. 45:
419–439. JSTOR 27512949 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/27512949).
12. Pollin, Burton (Spring 1965). "Philisophical and Literary Sources of Frankenstein".
Comparative Literature. 17: 97–
108. JSTOR 1769997 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1769997).
13. "Preface", 1831 edition ofFrankenstein
14. Sunstein, 118.
15. Dr. John Polidori, "The Vampyre" 1819, The New Monthly Magazine and Universal Regist
er; London: H. Colburn,
1814–1820. Vol. 1, No. 63.
16. paragraph 7, Introduction, Frankenstein 1831 edition
17. paragraph 8, Introduction, Frankenstein 1831 edition
18. paragraph 10, Introduction, Frankenstein 1831 edition
19. Shelley, Mary. Paragraphs 11–13, "Introduction" Frankenstein (1831 edition) (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42324/4
2324-h/42324-h.htm) Gutenberg
20. Quoted in Spark, 157, from Mary Shelley's introduction to the 1831 edition of
Frankenstein.
21. Radford, Tim, Frankenstein's hour of creation identified by astronomers(https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/s
ep/26/frankenstein-hour-creation-identified-astronomers), The Guardian, Sunday 25 September 2011 (retrieved 5
January 2014)
22. Bennett, An Introduction, 30–31; Sunstein, 124.
23. Sunstein, 117.
24. Hay, 103.
25. Lepore, Jill (February 5, 2018)."The Strange and Twisted Life of 'Frankenstein' " (https://www.newyorker.com/magaz
ine/2018/02/12/the-strange-and-twisted-life-of-frankenstein)
. The New Yorker.
26. Bennett, Betty T. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley: An Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
27. Kennedy, Mave (26 February 2018)." 'A 200-year-old secret': plaque to mark Bath's hidden role in Frankenstein"
(htt
ps://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/feb/26/a-200-year-old-secret-plaque-to-mark-baths-hidden-role-in-frankenstei
n). theguardian.com. Retrieved 13 November 2018.
28. "OX.ac.uk" (http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/scwmss/wmss/online/1500-1900/abinger/abinger
.html). Bodley.ox.ac.uk.
15 December 2009. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
29. Mary Shelley, with Percy Shelley (2008).Charles E. Robinson, ed.The Original Frankenstein(https://web.archive.or
g/web/20150925134955/http://www.bodleianshop.co.uk/the-original-frankenstein.html). Oxford: Bodleian Library.
ISBN 978-1-851-24396-9. Archived from the original (http://www.bodleianshop.co.uk/the-original-frankenstein.html)
on 25 September 2015.
30. Robinson, Charles (1996).The Frankenstein Notebooks: A Facsimile Edition(https://books.google.com/books/about/
The_Frankenstein_Notebooks.html?id=9q6tjgEACAAJ) . 1. Garland Publishing, Inc. p. xxv. "She began that novel as
Mary Godwin in June 1816 when she was eighteen years old, she finished it as Mary Shelley in April/May 1817
when she was nineteen . . . and she published it anonymously on 1 January 1818 when she was twenty ."
31. Bennett, Betty T. Mary Wollstonecraft. Shelley: An Introduction.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998
32. D. L. Macdonald and Kathleen Scherf, "A Note on the ext",
T Frankenstein, 2nd ed., Peterborough: Broadview Press,
1999.
33. Wollstonecraft Shelley, Mary (2000). Frankenstein (https://books.google.com/books?id=qykBJvG0iJQC&pg=P
A3&lpg
=PA3#v=onepage). Bedford Publishing. p. 3.ISBN 9780312227623.
34. See forward to Barnes and Noble classic edition.
35. The edition published byForgotten Books is the original text, as is the "Ignatius Critical Edition".Vintage Books has
an edition presenting both versions.
36. James Grande (2008-11-25)."The Original Frankenstein, By Mary Shelley with Percy Shelley ed Charles E
Robinson" (https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/the-original-frankenstein-by-mary-shell
ey-with-percy-shelley-ed-charles-e-robinson-1017483.html). The Independent. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
37. Frankenstein:Celluloid Monster(https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/frankenstein/escaping.html) at the National Library of
Medicine website of the (U.S.) National Institutes of Health
38. "Frankenstein: Penetrating the Secrets of Nature / Exhibit ext"
T (https://web.archive.org/web/20061204162542/http://
www.ala.org/ala/ppo/currentprograms/frankenstein/exhibittext.pdf) (PDF). National Library of Medicineand ALA
Public Programs Office. Archived from the original (http://www.ala.org/ala/ppo/currentprograms/frankenstein/exhibitte
xt.pdf) (PDF) on 4 December 2006. Retrieved 31 December 2007. from the traveling exhibitionFrankenstein:
Penetrating the Secrets of Nature(http://www.ala.org/ala/ppo/currentprograms/frankenstein/frankensteinpenetrating.
cfm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20071109215920/http://www .ala.org/ala/ppo/currentprograms/frankenstei
n/frankensteinpenetrating.cfm)9 November 2007 at theWayback Machine
39. Author's Digest: The World's Great Stories in Brief(https://books.google.com/books?
id=rBoOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA238), by Rossiter Johnson, 1908
40. The Reef, page 96.
41. zapomniana, Historia (24 January 2016)."Afera grabarzy z Frankenstein"(https://historiamniejznanaizapomniana.wo
rdpress.com/2016/01/24/afera-grabarzy-z-frankenstein/)
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42. Florescu 1996, pp. 48–92.
43. Day, A.J. (2005). Fantasmagoriana (Tales of the Dead) (https://books.google.com/books?id=szyuBymktB4C&pg=P
A
150). Fantasmagoriana Press. pp. 149–151.ISBN 978-1-4116-5291-0.
44. Heléne, Jörg (12 September 2016)."Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, Castle Frankenstein and the alchemist Johann
Conrad Dippel" (https://darmundestat.wordpress.com/sonstiges/mary-shelleys-frankenstein-castle-frankenstein-and-t
he-alchemist-johann-conrad-dippel). Darmstadt. Retrieved 2017-06-23.
45. Wade, Phillip. "Shelley and the Miltonic Element in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein." Milton and the Romantics, 2
(December, 1976), 23–25. (http://www.english.upenn.edu/Projects/knarf/Articles/wade.html)
46. Jones 1952, pp. 496–7.
47. Sandy, Mark (20 September 2002)."Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire" (http://www.litencyc.com/php/sworks.php?r
ec=true&UID=3010). The Literary Encyclopedia. The Literary Dictionary Company. Retrieved 2 January 2007.
48. "Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822)"(http://www.dickinson.edu/~nicholsa/Romnat/pbshelley.htm). Romantic Natural
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49. Percy Shelley#Ancestry
50. "Journal 6 December—Very Unwell. Shelley & Clary walk out, as usual, to heaps of places ... A letter from Hookham
to say that Harriet has been brought to bed of a son and heir. Shelley writes a number of circular letters on this
event, which ought to be ushered in with ringing of bells, etc., for it is the son of his
wife." Quoted in Spark, 39.
51. For example, the Longman study edition published in India in 2007 by Pearson Education
52. In the best-known versions of the Prometheus story, by Hesiod and Aeschylus, Prometheus merely brings fire to
mankind. But in other versions, such as several of Aesop's fables (See in particular Fable 516), Sappho (Fragment
207), and Ovid's Metamorphoses, Prometheus is the actual creator of humanity .
53. (Leonard Wolf, p. 20).
54. RoyalSoc.ac.uk (http://royalsociety.org/exhibitions/2006/benjamin-franklin/) "Benjamin Franklin in London." The
Royal Society. Retrieved 8 August 2007.
55. Douthwaite, "The Frankenstein of the French Revolution" chapter 2 of The Frankenstein of 1790 and other Lost
Chapters from Revolutionary France F( rankenstein of 1790 and other Lost Chapters from Revolutionary France
(htt
p://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/F/bo13265096.html) , 2012).
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Conger, Syndy M., Frederick S. Frank, and Gregory O'Dea, eds. Iconoclastic Departures: Mary Shelley after
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Further reading
Richard Holmes, "Out of Control" (review ofMary Shelley, Frankenstein, Or, The Modern Prometheus:Annotated for
Scientists, Engineers, and Creators of All Kinds
, edited by David H. Guston, Ed Finn, and Jason Scott Robert,MIT
Press, 277 pp.; and Mary Shelley, The New Annotated Frankenstein, edited and with a foreword and notes byLeslie
S. Klinger, Liveright, 352 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 20 (21 December 2017), pp. 38, 40–
41.
Editions

1818 text

Shelley, Mary Frankenstein: 1818 text(Oxford University Press, 2009). Edited with an introduction and notes by
Marilyn Butler.

1831 text

Fairclough, Peter (ed.)Three Gothic Novels: Walpole / Castle of Otranto, Beckford / Vathek, Mary Shelley /
Frankenstein (Penguin English Library, 1968). With an introductory essay by Mario Praz.
Shelley, Mary Frankenstein (Oxford University Press, 2008). Edited with an introduction and notes by
M. K. Joseph.

External links
Frankenstein at Project Gutenberg

Frankenstein 1818 editionat Project Gutenberg

Frankenstein public domain audiobook atLibriVox
Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley Chronology andResource Site
"On Frankenstein", review by Percy Bysshe Shelley
Inside look at the "Read originalFrankenstein by Mary Shelley"

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