1

Chapter 1

Discussion

This chapter presents discussion of the relevant definitions used in this

paper as well as the formulas utilized for the computation of relevant parameters

involved in this documentation.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. ABSORPTION LOSS –refers to the signal loss caused by the dissipation

or conversion of electrical, electromagnetic energy into other forms of

energy as a result of its interaction with a material medium.

2. ANTENNA - a passive device which converts electrical power into radio

waves, and vice versa. It is can either be a transmitting or receiving

antenna.

3. ANTENNA GAIN - indicates how strong a signal an antenna can send or

receive in a specified direction

4. COORDINATES – two magnitude (longitude and latitude) that indicate the

position or location of any place on the Earth`s surface.

5. EARTH BULGE (EB) – the curvature of the Earth's surface, which limits
the range of communication methods that require a line-of-sight path

6. FREQUENCY (F) – number of cycles per second.

7. FADE MARGIN – The amount by which a received signal level may be

reduced without causing system performance to fall below a specified

threshold value.

8. FADING – refers the variation in signal strength due to some factors.

9. FREE SPACE LOSS (FSL) – is the loss in signal strength of an

electromagnetic wave that would result from a line-of-sight path through

free space if obstructing, scattering or reflecting influences were

sufficiently removed so as to have no effect on propagation.

 2

10. FRESNEL CLEARANCE (H) – is the criterion which determines whether

the earth is sufficiency removed from the radio horizon of signal to free

space propagation.

11. FRESNEL ZONE – is the area around the visual line-of-sight that radio

waves spread out into after they leave the antenna.

12. ISOTROPIC RECEIVE LEVEL (IRL) – receiver side’s output.

13. LINK BUDGET – is a summary of the transmitted power long with all the

gains and losses in the system and this enables the strength of the

received signal to be calculated.

14. MICROWAVES – an electromagnetic wave with a wavelength in the range

0.001–0.3 m, shorter than that of a normal radio wave but longer than

those of infrared radiation also equal to with frequencies between 300MHz

(0.3GHz) and 300 GHz.

15. MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS – communications system that uses a

beam of radio waves in the microwave frequency range to transmit video,

audio, or data between two locations.

16. NET PATH LOSS (NPL) – refers to the sum of all gains and losses within

the path length.

17. PATH ANALYSIS – form of multiple regression statistical analysis used to

evaluate causal models by examining the relationships between a

dependent variable and two or more independent variables.

18. PATH LOSS – is the reduction in power density (attenuation) of an

electromagnetic wave as it propagates through space. Path loss is a major

component in the analysis and design of the link budget of a

telecommunication system.
 3

19. PATH PROFILE – is a graphic representation of the physical features of a

propagation path in the vertical plane containing both endpoints of the

path, showing the surface of the Earth and including trees, buildings, and

other features that may obstruct the radio signal.

20. RADOME –is constructed of material that minimally attenuates the

electromagnetic signal transmitted or received by the antenna and is used

for enclosure that protects a microwave antenna.

21. RECEIVED SIGNAL LEVEL (RSL) – it is the amount of input signal into

the receiver from the waveguide. It is also referred to the sum of all losses

and gains on the transmitter output.

22. RECEIVER SENSITIVITY – refers to the lowest power level at which the

receiver can detect an RF signal and demodulate data.

23. REFLECTION LOSS – a discontinuity or impedance mismatch that occurs

in a line which results in part of energy being reflected back to the source.

24. RELIABILITY – the ability of the system or subsystem to perform within

the prescribed parameters in terms of good quality service.

25. TRANSMISSION LINE LOSS (TLL) – it is the actual power that is loss in

transmitting a signal from one point to another through a medium or along

the line.

26. TRANSMITTED POWER (PT) – is the actual amount of power (in watts) of

radio frequency energy that a transmitter produces at its output.

27. TRANSMITTER – a set of equipment used to generate and transmit

electromagnetic waves carrying messages or signals.

 4

28. WATER VAPOR LOSS –the absorption of radio frequency energy by

water vapor in the atmosphere that causes attenuation.

29. WAVEGUIDE LOSS – it is the amount of loss, usually expressed in dB per

unit length (dB or dB/m) of signal it travels in the waveguide.

FORMULAS
COORDINATES

Find a reference coordinates nearest to the site namely and

Then use:
X A'
x' A

Y B' y' B

where:
A’ and A is in millimeters (mm)
B’ and B is in millimeters (mm)
X’ is in minute
Y’ is in minute

SITE COORDINATES
Longitude= +X
Latitude= +

GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCE

A= |Longitudesite2- Longitudesite1|
B=90°- Latitudesite1
cos
C=90°- Latitudesite2
= (cos ) (cos ) + [(sin )(sin )(cos )]
2
= ℎ ℎ = ( °) ( 360° ) ; = 6370

EARTH BULGE ( ):
= 1 2
12.75 ( )
 5

where: d1 = distance of less elevated site to obstruction, (km)

d2 = distance of more elevated site to obstruction, (km)
4
k = effective earth radius factor ( 3 )

GROUND ELEVATION ( ) = +

where: e0 = elevation of the considered obstruction, (m)

eb = earth bulge, (m)
OBSTRUCTION HEIGHT ( ′ )
ℎ= + +

where: e0 = elevation of the considered obstruction, (m)

eb= earth bulge, (m)
TG= Tree Growth (15 m)

CENTER FREQUENCY ( )
′
+
=
( )
2

where: F = Transmit Frequency, (GHz)

F’ = Receive Frequency, (GHz)

FIRST FRESNEL ZONE (f1):

f1 = 17.3√ 1 2

where: d1 = distance of less elevated site to obstruction, (km)

d2 = distance of more elevated site to obstruction, (km)
D = great circle distance, (km)
Fc = center frequency, (GHz)

FRESNEL CLEARANCE (H):

1 (ℎ2 − ℎ1)
H= 0.6 x f1
H = - h’0 + h1

h1 = a1 + e1
h2 = a2 + e2

where: d1 = distance of less elevated site to obstruction, (km)

d2 = distance of more elevated site to obstruction, (km)
D = great circle distance, (km)
H = Fresnel Clearance, (m)
h0 = total height of the obstruction, (m)
 6

h1 = total height elevation at the lower site, (m)

h2 = total height elevation at the higher site, (m)
a1 = antenna height of less elevated site, (km)
a2 = antenna height of more elevated site, (km)
e1 = elevation of the less elevated site, (m)
e2 = elevation of the more elevated site, (m)
f1 = radius of first Fresnel zone, (m)

ANTENNA HEIGHT
an = hn + en

ANTENNA ORIENTATION
A = |Longitudesite2 - Longitudesite1|

− sin( 2− 1 )

tan 2 = [cot( 2 )][cos( 2+ 1)

+ cos( 2− 1 )

tan 2 = [cot( 2 )] [ sin( 2+ 1)

+ −

=( )−( )
2 2

+ −

=( 2
)−( 2
)

DIRECTION OF ANTENNA
N or S (90°-X) E or W
N or S (Y-90°) E or W

ANTENNA PANNING
1= 2 = tan−1( ℎ2 - h1)

where:
h1 = total height elevation at the lower site, (m)
h2 = total height elevation at the higher site, (m)
D = great circle distance, (km)
1= 2= Vertical Planning Angle
 7

COEFFICIENT OF REFLECTION

ℎ1 ℎ2 1
= = =
1 2

1+ √

Where:
h1 = total height elevation at the lower site, (m)
h2 = total height elevation at the higher site, (m)
d1 = distance of less elevated site to obstruction, (km)
d2 = distance of more elevated site to obstruction, (km)
= Coefficient of reflection

POINT OF REFLECTION
dR1 =
dR2 = D – dR1
Where: = coefficient of reflection

D = great circle distance, (km)

REFLECTION ANGLE
A = tan−1( ℎ1 −

1
−
)
B = tan−1 (
ℎ2 −

2
−
)

CONSIDERED LOSSES

ATMOSPHERIC LOSSES (AL)

A L = A0 + 2 + AR
Where:
AL = Atmospheric Loss
Ao = Oxygen Absorption Loss, (dB)
AH2O = Water Vapour Loss, (dB)
AR = Rain Loss, (dB)

OXYGEN ABSORPTION LOSS (AO)

AO = [7.19x10
−3
+
6.09
+ 4.81
2
] ( )(10
−3
)( )

+ 0.227 ( − 57) 2
2 + 1.5

Where:
Ao= Oxygen Absorption Loss, (dB)
Fc = Centre Frequency, (GHz)
D = Distance of Path, (km)
 8

)
WATER VAPOR LOSS (
3 9

= [0.067 + +
2 2

( − 22.3) + 7.3 ( − 183.3) +6

4.3
+ ] ( 2)(12 10−4)( )
2
( − 323.8)
+ 10

Where:
AH2O= Water Vapour Loss, (dB)
Fc = Centre Frequency, (GHz)
D = Distance of Path, (km)

RAINFALL ATTENUATION (M)

log( ) − log( )
= 1 log( 1) − log( 2)

NOTE:
F1 < FC < F2
k1 < k < k2
a1 < a < a 2
= log −1 [log( 1) − [ ] [log 1) − log( 2)]

a = a1 – M (a1 – a2)
Where:
M= Rain Attenuation
Fc = Centre Frequency, (GHz)
a1 = antenna height of less elevated site, (km)
a2 = antenna height of more elevated site, (km)

EFFECTIVE RAIN PATH LENGTH

DO = 35e(-0.015)(R)
α
Y = (k) (R )
Where:R = Rainfall Amount, ( ℎ )
 9

RAIN LOSS (AR)

D
E =
1+

AR = (DE)(Y)

MISCELLANEOUS PATH LOSS (MPL) = + +

Where:
RL = Reflection Loss, (dB)
DL = Diffraction Loss, (dB)
AL = Absorption Loss, (dB)

FREE PATH SPACE LOSS (FSL) = 92.44 + 20 log + 20 log

COUPLING LOSS
ODU: There is typically a 3 dB in the coupler

TOTAL FIXED LOSS (TFL) =2( )+( )+2( )

Where:
TFL= Total Fixed Loss, (dB)
RL= Radome Loss, (dB)*radome specification
AML= Antenna Misalignment Loss, (dB)*0.25
IL= Insertion Loss, (dB) *connector specification

TOTAL LOSS (TL) = + +

Where:
TL = Total Loss, (dB)
FSL = Free Space Loss, dB)
TFL = Total Fixed Loss, (dB)
 10

ANTENNA GAIN (AG) 17.8 + 20 log + 20 log

=

Where:
Bm= antenna Diameter, (m) *antenna specification

TOTAL GAIN (TG) =( )(2)

Where:
AG = Antenna Gain, (dB)
TG = Total Gain (dB)
NET PATH LOSS =| − |

Where:
NPL= Net Path Loss, (dB)
TG = Total Gain (dB)
TL= Total Loss, (dB)

RECEIVED SIGNAL LEVEL (RSL) = −

Where:
NPL= Net Path Loss, (dB)
RSL= Received Signal Level, (dBm)
Pt= transmitter Power, (dBm) *radio specification

FADE MARGIN (FM) = −

Where:
RSL= Received Signal Level, (dBm)
FM= Fade Margin. (dB)
IT= Improvement threshold, (dBm) *radio specification

NON-DIVERSITY ANNUAL OUTAGE

− :
= 30 + 10 (6 ) − 10 ( ) − 70
=1−
 11

Where:
UNDP

Where:
a = Roughness factor /terrain
characteristics b = Climate factor
/characteristics

RELIABILITY
= 100%(1 −) = 100%(1
−)

IMPROVEMENT FACTOR OF SPACE DIVERSITY

7 10−5 210 ⁄10

=

= Non-diversity probability for a given Path OR = Over-all

Reliability
OVERALL RELIABILITY = 1 2

Where:
R = Reliability
OR= Overall Reliability