ARWtr2013

Advanced Research Workshop on Transformers. 28 -30 October 2013. Baiona– Spain

AC Insulation Design of Power Transformers

Álvaro PORTILLO LAURINO
Transformer Consultant
Brenda 5920, Montevideo, CP 11400, Uruguay
Phone: (+598) 26007982, e-mail: acport@adinet.com.uy

Abstract — The insulation design of power transformers is focused in withstand the operational voltages and the
different tests defined by standards trying to represent the different overvoltages conditions that the power system
can impose to the transformer. Define an insulation structure implies define the electrodes geometry, the proper
insulating materials used in each transformer part, the voltage distribution inside the transformer for each test, the
electrical stress produced in the insulating materials for these voltages and finally be sure that this electric stress in
each point are less than the admissible dielectric strength of the material placed in this point. In this work we will
give an overview of the complete insulation design process of high voltage "core-type" power transformers
operated in AC networks for engineers involved in design review tasks.

Keywords — power transformers, over voltages in service, dielectric tests, AC design methodology

I. INTRODUCTION
The power transformers in electric networks are subjected permanently to continuously operating voltages and
sometimes to transient overvoltage phenomena caused by faults, switching operations or lightning.

To probe his ability to work for many years in permanent and transient voltage service conditions the
transformers are subjected to factory acceptance dielectric tests, trying to represent in these tests the different
conditions that the power system can impose to the transformer. This tests are the result of more than 100 years
of experience and is generally accepted that if a transformer successfully passes these tests they have a very
high probability of work for many decades in service without dielectric problems. The challenge for the
transformer designer is define an insulation structure which comply with the dielectric tests.

The purpose of insulation of a transformer is to isolate parts or electrodes at different potentials from one
another but the design of an insulation structure is not only define this distances inside the transformer.
Previous to this is necessary to define completely the geometry and number of insulation barriers between
windings and between windings and ground, the insulation material type best suited for each part of the
transformer, the thickness of the conductor insulation, if is necessary or not the use of static end rings in the
windings, the type of winding (interleaved or not), etc.. These definitions have a big influence in the voltage
distribution inside the transformer and in the electric fields that appears during the dielectric tests.

Once the material types and geometry is completely defined voltage distributions inside the windings according
to the test voltages and to the corresponding winding connection during test are calculated. While for AC
voltages (50 to 200 Hz) the distribution follows linearly the number of turns and can be calculated very
precisely, the calculation of impulse voltage distribution requires the simulation of the transformer by means of
an equivalent circuit consisting of lumped R, L and C elements.

Then with this voltage distribution using numerical methods (like Finite Elements Method) is possible to
calculate the electric field or electrical stress in each point inside the transformer. This electrical stress must be
less than the admissible dielectric strength of the insulating material used in this point for this test condition. If
not, the insulation design is modified and verified again, and this procedure iteratively must leads to an
optimised solution.

In the oil-paper insulation system used in transformers the dielectric strength of the insulation arrangement is
principally determined by the dielectric strength of the oil. The solid insulation is used to subdivide long oil
gaps into smaller ones with higher dielectric strength. The designer task is evaluate the oil gaps created by the

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Advanced Research Workshop on Transformers. 28 -30 October 2013. Baiona– Spain

solid insulation barriers as well as the interfaces regions (solid-liquid) which are not parallel to equipotential
lines. The manufacturers have experimental developed curves of low probability electric fields for puncture and
creepage breakdown and partial discharges (PD) inception for the usual insulating materials and normally the
design is defined in a way that the test stress does not exceed the PD inception values of the insulating
materials.

Finally the success of the dielectric design depends on select high quality insulating materials with narrow
dimension tolerances and shape stability and applying adequate stabilization, drying and impregnation
processes to the insulation materials.

II. TRANSFORMER INSULATIONS

The transformer insulations are usually classified in external or major insulations and internal or minor
insulations.

External or major insulations include principally insulations outer the windings:

• winding to winding (gaps between windings)

• phase to phase (Fig.1)
• windings to ground: to core legs, to core yokes (Fig.2) and to tank
• winding leads: connections between windings, connections from windings to bushings (Fig.3),
connections from windings to OLTC (Fig.4), etc.

Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3 Figure 4

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Advanced Research Workshop on Transformers. 28 -30 October 2013. Baiona– Spain

Internal or minor insulations include principally insulations inside the windings:

• conductor to conductor (Fig.5)

• section to section: axially along windings (Fig.7 and Fig.8)
• layer to layer

Figure 5 Figure 6

Figure 7 Figure 8

The previous figures show other essential elements in order to achieve a good dielectric design:

• Angle caps (Fig.5)

• Angle rings (Fig.6)
• Static end rings (Fig.3 and Fig.8)
• Internal surge arresters (Fig.2)

III. DIELECTRIC TESTS

The transformers during operation are subject continuously to operating voltages and occasionally to
overvoltages. The overvoltages occurring in the power systems can be divided into lightning overvoltages
(aperiodic voltage waves with duration of one to tens of microseconds), switching overvoltages (damped
oscillatory voltage waves with duration up to thousands of microseconds), and temporary overvoltages (lasting
for few minutes) at or close to the power frequency.

Prior to delivery, at the factory dielectric acceptance tests [1], transformers must overcome successfully several
tests that simulate the permanent and transient conditions in service:

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Advanced Research Workshop on Transformers. 28 -30 October 2013. Baiona– Spain

• The applied voltage test at industrial frequency (50 or 60 Hz) is intended to verify the insulation withstand
to operational voltage and to temporary overvoltages. With the applied voltage test the withstand strength
of the external insulations (winding to winding and windings to earth) is verified. In this test there is not
turn-to-turn voltage.

• The Induced voltage test (short and long duration) at industrial frequency (between 100 to 200 Hz) is
intended to verify the insulation withstand to operational voltage and to temporary overvoltages. With the
induced voltage test we verified principally the internal insulations (turn to turn, section to section) and
also external insulations (phase to phase, winding to winding and windings to earth). The long duration
induced voltage test with PD measurement is intended to verify that the transformer will be free of partial
discharges under normal operating conditions.

• The Switching impulse test is intended to verify the capability of insulation to withstand slow rise time
(greater than 100 µs) transient voltages typically associated with switching operations in service. With this
test the internal and external insulations are verified to switching transients. The fundamental test wave
frequency is in the order of 2.5 kHz.

• The Lightning impulse test (full wave and chopped wave) is intended to verify the insulation withstand
to fast rise time (around 1 µs) transients overvoltages occurring in the power system as a result of
lightning strikes. With this test the internal and external insulations are verified to lightning transients. The
fundamental test wave frequency is in the order of 250 kHz.

For each of this tests, it's necessary to determine the distribution of voltage inside the transformer coils. Once
these voltages are determined the electric fields in the insulation materials during these tests are calculated.

The design of the different insulations inside the transformer is decided by one or more of these test levels. The
section to section insulation is generally decided by impulse stresses, whereas the end insulation (between
windings and yokes) may get predominantly decided by the power frequency test voltages. The turn to turn
insulation (conductor insulation) is decided by either the impulse stress or working voltage stress.

IV. VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION IN WINDINGS

The distribution of voltage to ground along the coils (Fig.9a), for the different tests, is illustrated in the
following figures:

Figure 9a Figure 9b Figure 9c Figure 9d

Fig.9b shows the distribution of voltage in the applied voltage test (not turn-to-turn voltage), Fig.9c shows the
distribution of voltage in the induced voltage test (voltage inductively distributed, proportional to the number
of turns, through all windings) and Fig.9d shows the distribution of voltage in the atmospheric impulse test
(oscillating voltages that produces non-uniform stresses in winding under test).

In the atmospheric impulse test the voltage distribution depends of the capacitances and inductances (self and
mutual) of the windings. The initial voltage distribution inside the windings is capacitive and at the end of the
transient this voltage distribution is inductive. During the transient the voltage in each point of the winding is
oscillatory with frequencies equal to the natural frequencies of the transformer and with a damping depending
of the transformer losses.

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Advanced Research Workshop on Transformers. 28 -30 October 2013. Baiona– Spain

In the case of switching impulse test the voltage distribution is almost linear, similar to that experience during
an induced voltage withstand test (Fig.9c), and when specifying switching impulse test is not performed short-
duration induced voltage test (Table 1 of IEC 60076-3 [1]).

V. EXTERNAL INSULATION DESIGN

In a paper-oil insulation system, stressed with AC voltage, the maximum admissible field stress of pressboard
is higher than 20 kVrms/mm, whereas for an oil gap of around 5 mm values less than 12 kVrms/mm are
admissible. This difference is augmented by the fact that the permittivities of the two materials differ by a
factor 2, resulting in field values twice as high in oil that in the adjacent board. Furthermore, the relative
strength of oil for an increasing gap width decreases. Therefore, in a paper-oil insulation system the solid
material is used only to subdivide oil gaps and to insulate electrodes. The design of such systems concentrates
in general on the electric strength of the oil gaps and of solid-liquid interfaces.

Was observed with laboratory experiments [2] that the breakdown strength of an oil gap, with homogeneous
stress, expressed in kVrms/mm, decreases exponentially when the gap width is increased. Oil design-curves
were derived from these experiments [3] and were found to be suitable, through prototype test of transformer
insulation structures and more than 30 years of successful experience in the design of power transformers, for
the design of transformer insulation configurations.

These curves express the maximum admissible design value as a value of uniform electric field of low
probability of partial discharge inception for 1 minute AC test voltage (less than 1%). The oil design curves are
shown in Fig.10.

Figure 10. Oil design curves

Different oil design-curves are given for:

• Degassed oil, insulated electrodes, e.g. between barrier-type cylinders. Curves for degassed oil are

௉஽ି஺஼ = (1)
applicable when testing new transformers:
ଶଵ.ଶ
ௗ బ.యల

௉஽ି஺஼ = (2)
• Gas-saturated oil, insulated electrodes:
ଵଽ.଴
ௗ బ.యల

• Degassed oil, non-insulated electrodes. This may be used for winding cooling ducts between the support
cylinder and the winding. The conductor insulation of the winding is not included in the calculation.
This is a safety factor for conductor corners where additional inhomogeneity exists:

௉஽ି஺஼ = (3)
ଵ଻.଼
ௗ బ.యల

௉஽ି஺஼ = (4)
• Gas-saturated oil, non-insulated electrodes:
ଵସ.ଶ
ௗ బ.యల

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Advanced Research Workshop on Transformers. 28 -30 October 2013. Baiona– Spain

Where EPD-AC (in kVrms/mm) is the partial-discharge inception electric stress and d (in mm) is the oil duct
width.

Partial discharges should be excluded even during dielectric tests of insulations structures. This design concept
is extremely important. Localization of partial discharges during transformer testing is unsafe and should be
avoided to the greatest possible extent

Another type of breakdown that can occur in insulation structures consisting of solids and fluids is creep
breakdown. This occurs along a solid surface that is in contact with a liquid or gas. These potential breakdown
surfaces are nearly unavoidable in insulation design. For example, the oil gaps present in the region between
windings are kept in place by means of sticks placed around the circumference (Fig.7). The surfaces of these
sticks bridge the gap, providing a possible surface breakdown path in parallel with the oil gap. Because
breakdown along such surfaces generally occurs at a lower stress than breakdown in the oil through the gap
itself, surface breakdown is often a design limiting.

For the solid-liquid interfaces the maximum admissible creep tangential stress EC-AC (in kVrms/mm, 1%
probability of PD inception) along clean pressboard surfaces in degassed oil, in terms of the creep distance dC
(in mm) along the surface, can be calculated using the following formula (70% of formula (1)) :

஼ି஺஼ = (5)
14.8
 ଴.ଷ଺

In the end insulation area the pressboard must be used in such a manner that creep stress are practically
precluded. To achieve this the pressboard-oil boundary surfaces must run, as far as possible, parallel to the
equipotential surfaces.

Several parameters influence the breakdown behaviour of transformer oil and in consequence to this the oil-
design curves. The most evident parameter is the duration of voltage application on an insulation configuration.
Breakdown test has shown that oil-paper insulation exhibits an exponential decrease of strength when the
duration of the voltage application is increased.

To obtain this volt-time breakdown characteristic, for aperiodic and periodic voltage temporal waves, in the
same basis for a wide duration time range (1 hour to microseconds), the common practice is to take the peak
voltage and for the transient duration the time during which the voltage exceeds 90% of its peak value.

This volt-time breakdown characteristic can be represented with a equation of the type:


 = ஶ 1 +  (6)
 ଵ/௡

and the values for different points corresponding to the dielectric tests and operative voltages, with a failure
probability of 0.1%, are shown in Table I and Fig.11 (Fig.9 in IEEE Std C57.142 [4]):

Table I. Breakdown Voltages Normalized to the Full

Wave Impulse Level

Breakdown
Duration (µs)
Level
Front-of-wave 0.5 1.3
Chopped wave 3 1.1
Full wave 8 1.0
Switching surge 300 0.83
1 minute AC 17.27 × 106 0.50
1 hour AC 1034 × 106 0.40
Nominal AC ∞ 0.25

Figure 11. Breakdown Voltages Normalized to the Full

Wave Impulse Level

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Advanced Research Workshop on Transformers. 28 -30 October 2013. Baiona– Spain

Accordingly, design curves must reflect this dependence; therefore these curves are defined for a reference
duration (1 minute, AC, power frequency). A multiplication factor is introduced to adapt the design curves for
different time duration, e.g. lightning impulse (BIL), switching impulse (SIL), 1 hour induced voltage, etc.

This factor is called Design Insulation Level (DIL) and it increases (reduces) the respective design curve value
if the voltage application time is shorter (longer) than 1 minute:

஽ூ௅ =
 ×
௉஽ି஺஼ (7)

EDIL (in kVpeak for impulse and switching tests and in kVrms for 1 hour induced voltage) can be regarded as a
withstand level with a very low probability of partial discharges. Values of DIL factors normally used by
manufacturers are give in Table II and Fig.12.

Table II. Typical Design Insulation Levels

DIL
Chopped wave Impulse 1.2/50 µs 2.53
Full wave Impulse 1.2/50 µs (BIL) 2.30
Switching Impulse 250/2000 µs (SIL) 1.80
1 minute, AC 50 Hz 1.00
1 hour, AC 50 Hz 0.80
AC operating voltage 0.50

Figure 12. Typical Design Insulation Levels

This DIL factors are in line with the test voltage levels listed in Table 2 in IEC 60076-3 [1]. The average of
LI/AV in this table is 2.35 (values between 2.26 to 2.63 for Um between 36 kV and 550 kV) and the average of
SI/AV in this table is 1.91 (values between 1.84 to 2.03 for Um between 100 kV and 550 kV)

The electric strength of pure cellulose is substantially greater than that of oil. Fig.13 shows the partial
discharge inception voltage field strength of pressboard as function of thickness plotted for AC test voltage (50
Hz, 1 min) and impulse voltage (1.2/50 µs) using 25-mm spherical electrodes at room temperature [3]. It must
be taken into account that an unfavorable electrode configuration, i.e. 25 mm diameter spheres, was employed
for measuring the discharge inception field strength.



௉஽ି஺஼   = ଴.ଷଶ (8)
33.1


 

௉஽ିூெ௉   = ଴.ଶଶ (9)
94.6


Figure 13. Electrical Strength of Pressboard

The design evaluation of paper-oil insulation systems consist of calculation of stress and the subsequent
comparison of stress values with admissible design values.

The calculation of stress is divide into three parts:

• First, voltage distributions within windings according to the specific test voltages and to the corresponding
windings connections during the tests are calculated.

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Advanced Research Workshop on Transformers. 28 -30 October 2013. Baiona– Spain

• After calculating the voltages inside the transformer under all the test conditions, these voltages are
converted to the equivalent voltage at 1 minute (short duration) power frequency voltage. The maximum of
these equivalents in each insulation clearance will define the insulation design in this insulation clearance.

• Finally, usually using the Finite Elements Method (FEM) or analytical formulas for simple geometries, the
electric field within the insulation clearances is determined for the maximum equivalent voltage.

Applying the rules presented in this introduction we will detail the design of the external insulations in the
following paragraphs.

a) Winding to winding insulation

The winding to winding insulation, also called main gap between windings, is shown schematically in Fig.14. It
is formed by pressboard cylinders separated by oil ducts kept in position by means of pressboard sticks.
Oil End collars

Key spacers
Winding A

Winding B

HV Winding
LV Winding

Sticks

Pressboard barriers
Pressboard Pressboard barriers

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 14. (a) Insulation structure between two windings, (b) Side view, (c) Top view

For the voltage distribution we will suppose applied voltage test conditions since this is the most demanding
test condition for this insulating configuration. This means that one of the windings is at uniform voltage U and
the other winding is at uniform voltage 0 (connected to ground).

From the point of view of the electric field calculation this configuration is very simple. Disregarding curvature
effects, the electric field is uniform along all the height of the windings and can be calculated using the
elementary formulas of a plane capacitor:

 

ை௜௟ =
௉௦௕ = (10)
ை௜௟ ௉௦௕ ை௜௟ ௉௦௕
ை௜௟   ௉௦௕  
ை௜௟ ௉௦௕ ை௜௟ ௉௦௕
+ +

Where U is the applied voltage between the windings, d is the total oil width, d is the total pressboard
width and ε (= 2.2) and ε (= 4.4) are the permittivities of oil and pressboard respectively.

To simplify we suppose that we have n cylinders between the windings, and all cylinders have the same width
and all the oil ducts have the same width (this is not usual in practical cases):

ை௜௟ ௉௦௕
ை௜௟ ௉௦௕ (11)
+1 
∗
= ∗
=

In this case, for AC test (1 min, 50 Hz), with degassed oil and insulated electrodes, applying equation (1) for oil
and equation (8) for pressboard the design conditions will be:

 

ை௜௟ = < ∗ ଴.ଷ଺
௉௦௕ =
21.2
< ∗ ଴.ଷଶ (12)
ை௜௟ ௉௦௕  
33.1

ை௜௟   ை௜௟ ௉௦௕  ை௜௟ + ௉௦௕  ௉௦௕

ை௜௟ ௉௦௕ ை௜௟ ௉௦௕
+

Like an example, consider the design of a 245 kVrms main gap.

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 ARWtr2013
Advanced Research Workshop on Transformers. 28 -30 October 2013. Baiona–
Baiona Spain

The voltages to be applied in the tests according to the IEC 60076-3

60076 3 [1] nomenclature are:

Um 245/ SI 850/ LI 1050/ LIC 1155/ AC 460 kV

According to DIL factor approach the main gap will be designed for:

850 1050 1155

 
 460, , ,   473 ௥௠௦
1.80 2.30 2.53

We will calculate two different configurations for the main gap with the details shown in Tables III and IV.
IV

 
 
 
 
 
Table III. Geometry
∗ ∗
# n
1 74 6 56 18 8 3
2 70 7 56 14 7 2

         

Table IV. Oil and Pressboard Stresses in kVrms/mm and Safety Factors (SF)
#
1 7.28 10.
10.03 1.38 3.64 23.29 6.40
2 7.51 10.52
0.52 1.40 3.75 26.52 7.07

Where the safety factors are defined as:

     
    13
 


This example shows how is possible optimizing a winding to winding insulation (4 ( mm reduction) with
practically the same dielectric safety factor for the oil (1.40 vs 1.38).. The optimized design (#2)
( will use around
25% less pressboard, less
ess cooper in the outer winding and also smaller overall oil volume,
volume tank weight and
dimensions.

The analysis of the pressboard safety factors show clearly that the dimensioning of insulation between windings
depends fundamentally of the sizing of the oil gaps.

b) Phase to phase insulation

Disregarding curvature effects, the phase to phase insulation is designed in the same way of winding to winding
insulation discussed in previous paragraph (Fig.15).

Figure 15. Phase to phase

hase insulation Figure 16.. Winding to core legs insulation

c) Winding to core legs insulation

Disregarding curvature effects, the windings to core legs insulation is designed also in the same way of winding
to winding insulation (Fig.16) for windings with insulation class up to 36 kV. For windings with higher
insulation classes is necessary the use of electrostatic shields around the core leg, connected to core potential, to
eliminate the problem presented by the sharp angular edges of the core steps.

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Advanced Research Workshop on Transformers. 28 -30 October 2013. Baiona–
Baiona Spain

d) Winding to core return legs insulation

Disregarding curvature effects, the design of windings to core return legs insulation (Fig.17),
(Fig.1 present in single
phase transformers and three phase transformers with 5 columns cores, is similar to the winding to winding
insulation design. Generally is necessary the use of electrostatic shields around the return legs, connected to
core potential, to eliminate the problem presented by the angular sharp points of the steps of the core.
core

Figure 17. Winding to core return legs insulation Figure 18.. Winding to tank insulation

e) Winding to tank insulation

Disregarding curvature effects, the windings to tank insulation is designed in the same way of winding to
winding insulation (Fig.18), provided there are no connections to the on-load tap changer and bushings between the
winding and the tank. When those connections exists (Fig.2 and Fig.4), the curvature effects must be taken into account,
the design is much more complicated, and the required distances are greater. Many times is necessary made 3D electric
field calculations using FEM [5].

f) Winding leads insulation

The principal characteristic of winding leads insulation structures are the highly non-uniform
uniform electric fields.

uniform electrical fields a very conservative approach would be to limit local maximum stresses to
For non-uniform
values given by the oil design curves for the full full length gap. In this case the larger part of the gap is not
stressed at the limit of its dielectric strength. This is not satisfactory as it leads to excessive dimensions and
high costs.

On the other hand it would be risky to compare the average electric field stress with the design curves. In
highly non-uniform
uniform fields average values can be low compared with the maximum value in the gap. These
highly stressed gap parts intervals might be overstressed.

electric field profile 


The method for determining the electric strength in the
t case of non-uniform
uniform fields was developed and verified

in the high field region, average stresses ஺௏  are calculated for gap intervals  wich are sucessively
by experiment [6]. Suppose a oil gap with highly non-uniform
non (Fig.19a). Beginning

increasing from   0 up to the total length    :

1 
   
 14
 

These average stresses are compared with the oil design curves values for a gap interval  (Fig.19a). The
dielectric strength ௉஽  must be higher than the average stress ஺௏  for all the gap intervals  from   0
to   . For the dielectric strength ௉஽  is recommended use the most conservative equation (4). The
difference can be regarded as safety margin and the ratio  becomes smallest for a critical gap interval ௖௥௜௧
(Fig. 19b):

 
  15
 

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(a) (b)
Figure 19.
1 Design curves for non-uniform electric fields

This method is widely used to define maximum permissible voltages in insulating structures with highly non-
non
uniformed electrical fields and breakdown tests showed that these voltages are equivalent to a breakdown
probability of 2%.

We will present this methodology with an example. Consider a paper insulated conductor inside a metal
cylinder. This simple geometrical configuration can represent a winding output lead inside a bushing turret.

We will analyze three cases:

1) Conventional lead exit with single wide oil gap (Fig.20a). This configuration is not recommend
because long oil gap with very non-uniform
non uniform field profiles present high scatter of breakdown voltages
and are prone to "anomalous breakdowns"
2) Lead exit system with pressboard barriers and equal subdivided
subdivide oil gaps (Fig.20b)
(Fig.
3) Improved lead exit system with pressboard barriers and subdivided
subdivide in narrow and strong oil gaps
adapted to local field stress (Fig.20c)

(a) Case 1 (b) Case 2 (c) Case 3

Figure 20. Three different lead exit systems

The electric field  , the average cumulative electric field ೔  and the partial discharges inception field
strength  ೔ , are calculated in function of radial coordinate  for each insulation material  using the following
formulas:

 
    
 1
  ∑     
 


1 1   
೔    
 
  
   16
    ೔     ೔       
 



14.8
 ೔  
   .

       1, 2, … . . , 

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Numerical data:

Conductor insulation: Paper 15 mm thick - Pressboard barriers: 1.5 mm thick

1) ଵ = 30  , ଶ = 45  , ଷ = 245 
Radial dimensions and permittivities for each case:

ଵ = 3.4 , ଶ = 2.2
2) ଵ = 30  , ଶ = 45  , ଷ = 110.5  , ସ = 112  , ହ = 177.5  , ଺ = 179  , ଻ = 245 
ଵ = 3.4 , ଶ = 2.2 , ଷ = 4.4 , ସ = 2.2 , ହ = 4.4 , ଺ = 2.2
3) ଵ = 30  , ଶ = 45  , ଷ = 54  , ସ = 55.5  , ହ = 73.5  , ଺ = 75  , ଻ = 245 
ଵ = 3.4 , ଶ = 2.2 , ଷ = 4.4 , ସ = 2.2 , ହ = 4.4 , ଺ = 2.2

case are summarized in Table V for  = 395 .

The results for the three lead exits systems analyzed are shown in Figures 21, 22 and 23 and the detailed results for each

Figure 21. Case 1 Figure 22. Case 2

Figure 23. Case 3

 
Table V. Minimum Safety Factors
Oil Gap 1 Oil Gap 2 Oil Gap 3
Case 1 1.19 @ r =125 mm −−−−− −−−−−
Case 2 1.18 @ r =110.5 mm 2.30 @ r =177.5 mm 3.39 @ r =245 mm
Case 3 1.62 @ r =54 mm 1.64 @ r =73.5 mm 1.64 @ r =245 mm

In Case 1 the minimum safety factor is in the middle of the oil gap. In cases 2 and 3 the minimum safety factor in each oil
gap is located at the end of the gap. We can see that Case 2 is the worst from the point of view of safety factors. The use
of pressboard barriers is not enough to improve the dielectric design. Also plays a very important role the position of the
pressboard barriers (compare Case 2 and Case 3). Case 3 shows that is possible determine the position of pressboard
barriers in a way that the safety factors of all oil gaps are practically equals (1.62 to 1.64).

g) End winding and winding to core yokes insulations

Fig.24 shows a typical pattern of equipotential lines and electrical field map in the end insulation area. The insulation is
composed of rigid barriers (cylinders and angle rings) which provide appropriate subdivision of the insulation distance in
such a way that the same electric strength results in all the oil ducts.

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We can make a distinction between three different zones: a vertical zone (A) with homogeneous electrical field (winding
to winding insulation), a horizontal zone (B) with heterogeneous electrical field and larger distances and the radial
stressed zone (C), the most critical by far. This zone (C) is not only critical due to increased field gradients near the high
voltage winding but the exact position of the equipotential lines must also be taken into account. Solid insulation and its
form stability insure the maintenance of gaps and with that the electric stress across the oil ducts as well.

Figure 24. Equipotential lines and electric field map in the end insulation region

To study the insulation strength the procedure is the same analyzed in the previous paragraph for non-uniform electric
fields. Selecting different critical field lines (perpendicular to equipotencial lines), like the ones indicated in
Fig.24, we compare along this line the average stress   with the dielectric strength  . In any case it
is advisable to limit the maximum value of the electric field to values less than 12 kV/mm for AC (50Hz, 1
min) and 25 kV/mm for lightning impulse.

To calculate the electric field in this end insulation regions is necessary to use numerical methods. The Finite
Elements Method (FEM) is the most used. The electric field calculation is not obvious, like was in the example
in the previous paragraph, but the methodology is the same. In FEM calculations due to the approximation of
curve electrode with straight lines forming edges (enhancement of local field) and also due to the finite size of
the elements resulting in a constant value of the electric field within each element, errors of 5 to 10% occurred
in the elements neighbouring the electrodes contour. In all other finite elements, local values of electric field
with a precision of < ±1% were achieved.

In addition to oil gaps strength and structural stability of the barrier insulation, the avoidance of creep stresses
on the boundary layers of the barriers is very important. Therefore, it must be taken into account during the
design that the boundary layer between oil and pressboard approximately correspond to the equipotential lines.

The creepage strength of end insulation is studied in the same way. Selecting critical creepage lines along the
boundary layer between oil and pressboard we compare along these lines the average tangential stress  
with the creepage dielectric strength
‫ܥ‬−‫(  ܥܣ‬Eq.5).

In Fig.24 is shown the classical configuration of pressboard insulation and equipotential lines. In this case,
insulation radii conform more o less to the equipotential lines. The radius center point of all angle rings radii
coincides with that of the static end ring. The static end rings are used to shield the sharp conductor edges. The
radius of static end rings is another design parameter that must be selected carefully.

In references [5] and [7] are shown practical examples of the cumulative stress methodology to design of high
voltage power transformers. In particular [7] analyzes the challenges and needs development in designing
insulating structures using vegetable oil in place of mineral oil.

VI. INTERNAL INSULATION DESIGN

For the design of internal insulations the same rules explained in Numeral V can be applied with the exception
of DIL factor. DIL must not be applied for internal design of the windings insulation. These insulations shall be
designed for each type of stress (service, AC tests, impulse tests, etc.)

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The internal insulation design is strongly dependent of the type of winding and of the measures taken by the
designer to improve the lightning impulse voltage distribution by means of winding series capacitance increase
(interleaved disk windings and intershield disk windings)

a) Conductor to conductor insulation

In the majority of cases the conductors are isolated with pure cellulose Kraft paper. The paper strips are applied
overlapped over the conductor and the total obtained thickness is between 0.2 to 2.0 mm (double thickness
between 0.4 to 4.0 mm).

In small series capacitance windings, with uneven lightning impulse voltage distribution, the design is generally
defined by the expected lightning impulse stresses. In windings with high series capacitance the distribution of
lightning impulse voltage is uniform but, due to interleaving, a multiple of the power frequency interturn
voltage may appear between geometrically adjacent conductors, so that in many cases the power frequency
stresses will be decisive in the insulation design.

The electric field between conductors is assumed to be uniform for normal conductors and coverings.

The admissible field stress in paper insulation is dependent of the used covering system. The stacking paper
processes can differ from one to another. Some use lapping with different amounts of overlap and different
thicknesses of the individual layers.

The admissible field stress for Kraft paper for different tests can be calculated using equation (17). The
exponent  will be around 0.22 for impulse test and around 0.33 for AC test or service conditions. The constant
 change with the different tests. In Fig.25 are shown the typical values of admissible field stress for Kraft
paper for service, AC tests (50 Hz, 1 min) and lightning impulse test.



஺஽ெ = (17)
௡

Figure 25. Kraft Paper - Admissible Field Stress

b) Section to section insulation

A oil duct is generally provided between sections of the disc-type and helical-type windings to ensure the
required dissipation of heat (Fig.26). Due to the creepage distance formed by the pressboard spacers placed
between the sections, the admissible voltage stress  in these ducts is much lower than that tolerable for an
oil gap of equal thickness.

Figure 26. Section to Section Insulation

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Some manufacturers use curves defining the admissible section to section strength  in function of the
thickness of conductor insulation, parametric in the distance between the sections. A more direct approach is to
use directly an equation similar to equation (5) for the admissible creepage stress in uniform fields for AC (50
Hz, 1 min) and lightning impulse voltages.

ோௌି஺஼ =
ோௌି௅ூ = ଴.ଶସ (18)

13.0 34.5
 ଴.ଶସ 

Other values that are verified are the oil electric field at the internal and external edges of the conductors of
each section  and  . The limits for these stresses are around 11 kV/mm for AC (50 Hz, 1 min) and 29
kV/mm for lightning impulse voltages.

All these values and formulas are only orientations and can vary widely between manufacturers.

c) Layer to layer insulation

Layer windings are rarely used in power transformers. Some applications are low voltage windings with
Continuously Transposed Cables (CTC) and in some type of regulating windings. In these cases the layer to
layer insulation are basically oil ducts with or without pressboard barriers in between.

In the high voltage windings of little power transformers (10-15 MVA up to 36 kV) layer windings are widely
used and in the layer to layer insulation is used the Diamond Dotted Paper (DDP) or Diamond Pattern Paper
(DPP). The use of this B-stage resin coated papers increases the short circuit strength of the transformer coils.

VII. TYPE, QUALITY AND PROCESSES OF INSULATING MATERIALS

a) Types of insulating materials used in power transformers

Historically it has been used DIN 7733 (1962) to classify the different types of pressboard. But that standard is
no longer valid from 1996 as a result of the unification process of European standards conducted by
CENELEC.

The standard DIN 7733 has been replaced by DIN EN 60641-1, DIN EN 60641-2, DIN EN 60641-3-1 and EN
60641-3-2, which coincide with IEC 60641-1, IEC 60641-2, IEC 60641-3-1 and IEC 60641-3-2 respectively.

Table VI. Pressboard and Presspaper Types

Basic Type
Calendered pressboard
characterized by high chemical
purity
Soft calendered pressboard
characterized by high purity and
high oil absorption and capable of
being shaped
Precompressed pressboard, a very
hard and rigid board characterized
by high purity and mechanical
strength
Presspaper of high density and
high chemical purity
Precompressed pressboard, a very
hard and rigid board characterized
by high purity and mechanical
strength, 100% sulphate wood pulp
IEC 60641 IEC 60763 DIN 7733 Weidmann
Applications
[8] [9] [10] [11]
Curves pieces like cylinders with
small diameters, punchings,
B2.1  3050 TI stamped pieces and machine
formed insulation components
Thicknesses: 0.2 to 3 mm
B4.1 (soft Extremely curves pieces like tubes
calendered) and folded insulation components
 3051 T III
or B5.1 Thicknesses: 0.5 to 3 mm
(mouldable)
Strips, spacers, cylinders, plates,
washers and supports
B3.1  3052 T IV
Thicknesses: 1 to 8 mm
As interlayer insulation
P2.1  3055 
Thicknesses: 0.1 to 1 mm
Pressure rings, static rings, beams,
LB3.1.1
clamping plates, support strips, etc.
 or 3052 TX
Thicknesses: up to 120 mm
LB3.1.2

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In Table VI are correlated the types of pressboard and presspaper defined in DIN 7733, IEC 60641, IEC 60763
and nomenclature used by Weidmann (Swiss manufacturer of insulating materials).

We can see from the table that there are a special type of pressboard for each transformer part or component. It
is essential apply the pressboard type suitable for each application in the design of a transformer insulation
system.

There are also a lot of types of paper [12] for conductor insulation, connections, leads, etc.. The conductor
insulation can be normal Kraft paper or thermally upgraded Kraft paper. For re-insulation tasks, in
transpositions and connections to taps in windings, high elongation insulation papers are used (Crepe Paper).
The extensibility of Crepe Paper facilitates wrapping irregular contours and can be useful for insulate joining
and forming tapping leads.

In welded or pressed cable connections, to avoid high electric fields in his sharply edges, are used high
elongation papers for electrostatic shielding (Aluminium Crepe Paper and Semiconductor Crepe Paper)

b) Quality and geometric stability

Is highly recommended to use highest quality insulating materials in the construction of all the insulating
structures used in power transformers. For transformer with insulation class higher than 170 kV should not be
used corona prone wood and paper phenolic laminates in blocks, clamping rings and leads supports. Clamping
rings, lead support structures, nuts and bolts made of pressboard are structural elements completely free of
partial discharges since they are fully oil impregnable.

The geometrical tolerances and form stability of insulating materials influence the design of insulating
structures since in the worst case situations these can lead to dangerous increases of the oil gaps. Therefore
insulating materials and components are selected in a way to contribute to minimize these tolerances, e.g.
cylinders and spacers made of hot press dried high quality pressboard.

The empirical knowledge gains while using design curves confirms the fact that the narrow tolerances of oil
gaps, such as encountered when using precompressed board components, do not have to be specially
considered in the design methods. Thus, they base generally on nominal dimensions.

c) Stabilization and pressing

In the case of insulation material, major interest is primarily focused on their dielectric characteristics.
However, mechanical stresses must not be underestimate, e.g. the short circuit strength of windings. This
depends to a large extent on the mechanical behavior of pressboard spacers, clamping rings and supports. If the
above mentioned insulations parts are not able to withstand, the very considerable stresses, e.g. pressure surges
up to 100 N/mm2, a serious defect may result, which can lead to the explosive destruction of the transformer.

The mechanical characteristics of pressboard are determined by the raw material selection, its treatment during
the manufacture of insulating materials and finally by its preparation by the manufacturer.

With regard to proper material selection, pure, unused sulfate cellulose without any additives has proved to be
the right raw material. Properly manufactured and compressed according to the hot-pressing process
(precompressed board), with planed and calibrated surfaces, the spacers, clamping rings and supports fulfill the
basic requirements for a pressure-stabilized winding.

In view of the short circuit strength of the winding, in factory it is mandatory that the entire winding be
stabilized and dried under relatively high pressure and that the winding must be retightened to the specified
initial compression after oil impregnation. When stabilized correctly, precompressed board spacers are
pressure-resistant under continuous load and during operation as well, and the most important from the short
circuit strength point of view, retain his elasticity.

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d) Drying and Impregnation

Drying and oil impregnation of the paper and pressboard insulation are of great importance. The major reasons
for this are as follows:

• Reduction of electric strength when the moisture content is too high

• Accelerated aging in the presence of moisture (paper with 1% moisture content ages ten times faster
than one with only 0.1%)
• Breakdowns due to a disturbance of the moisture equilibrium
• Low partial discharge inception voltage and higher partial discharge intensity in the presence of
moisture. The longer the drying time, the higher the partial discharge inception voltage

To achieve a quick and good drying, kerosene vapor-phase drying equipment is one of the most used system to
drying big power transformers in factory.

Conductor paper insulation is the easiest to dry. It is only a few millimeters thick and has proportionately large
surface. At any rate, there are sufficiently wide gaps in the insulation for the elimination of water vapor
regardless of whether it is butt wrapped or lap wrapped.

The drying procedure for insulators such cylinders is very important and must be carried out carefully. Here, a
distinction should be made between the so-called support cylinders on which the winding is attached (6 to 8
mm thick) and intermediate cylinders predominantly used for subdividing oil spaces (2 to 3 mm thick). Even
thick precompressed board support cylinders are easily dried. This is primarily due to the fact that drying can
generally occur towards both surfaces and drying depth only corresponds to half the cylinder thickness or (3 to
4 mm).

The drying of strips between cylinders is also trouble-free. Drying does not occur in the surface direction, but
occurs crosswise to it, in the ply direction, however the width of these strips is generally only 10 to 30 mm and
consequently drying under vacuum for approximately one day is sufficient.

Similar considerations apply to precompresed board radial spacers. In the worst case, we must also assume that
the surfaces of these small pieces are covered by the winding and the drying occurs parallel to the plies. As we
will see later, it is possible without great difficulty to dry pressboard radial spacers in one to two days since
their width is seldom greater than 50 mm.

The drying of angle rings and caps as well as other moldable pressboard parts does not impose any difficulties.
Their density is less than 0.9 g/cm3. This means that there are sufficiently large pores available and that
moisture can be quickly removed under vacuum.

Precompressed or laminated board clamping rings require special attention to assure complete drying. This is
due to the fact that clamping ring dimensions are generally very large. Diameters up to 3 meters and
thicknesses of 100 mm or more occur quite frequently. These types of rings or plates are glued together from
sheets approximately 5 mm thick. The adhesive layer prevents practically any drying perpendicular to the ring
laminations. Drying is therefore only parallel to the layer direction, except of course, in the case of the surface
layers. In contrast to strips and spacers, clamping rings and plates are very wide and under these circumstances
drying times can be very long.

The drying time for a 100 x 100 mm laminated board were 120 hours at a drying temperature of 90ºC and a
vacuum of approximately 0.1 Torr. Drying time is reduce to 50 hours when drying temperature is increased to
120ºC. At 135ºC the drying time is only 25 hours. A drying temperature higher than 120-125ºC should be
cautioned against in view of aging and increased thermal stress in the material.

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Thus, only laminated board support blocks and pressure rings may be regarded as insulators which are difficult
to dry. If we adapt the drying conditions, i.e. primarily temperature and time, to these parts, we can be assumed
that all other insulation components have been completely dried as well.

After solid and liquid insulating materials have been separately and completely dried, the paper and pressboard
must be oil-impregnated under a good vacuum. The breakdown values of pressboard are highly influenced by
the quality of the vacuum during impregnation. The difference in the dielectric strength of pressboard
impregnated under a good and a relative poor vacuum is very considerable. For this reason is recommend a
vacuum of less than 1 Torr during the impregnation process.

Aim of a transformer engineer should be to design and manufacture a partial discharge free transformer and for
it a good impregnation of insulation process is essential.

Some difficulties can occur during the impregnation of large support blocks or laminated board clamping rings.
In a similar manner to the drying operation, the glued material is impregnated parallel to the lamination. It is
possible to provide complete impregnation for large laminated board components, but the time required can be
extraordinarily long. For example 380 hours are required for impregnating a 200 mm wide clamping ring at
room temperature. This period can be reduced by heating the oil. At a 90ºC oil temperature, the impregnation
period is only around 30 hours.

The possibility of reducing the impregnation period should be observed when there is relatively little time
available between impregnation and high voltage testing. In such cases, a heat run would be recommended. It is
often observed that the partial discharge measurement turns out substantially better after the heating operation
than before. Also, the provision of drying and impregnation holes on large area supports has proven beneficial.

e) Maintenance

In the maintenance, the moisture content of cellulose insulation, must be controlled during transformer
operation. Although the transformer is completely isolated from the environment, water is generated inside due
to the aging of insulating materials with temperature. With moisture contents in solid insulation above 2%, the
allowable electric field values are greatly reduced. With the moisture content increase, the aging rate of
cellulose insulation is increased many times for the same working temperatures.

The same applies to the gases dissolved in the oil. As discussed, the oil design curves take into account this
effect with a reduction of the allowable electric field values in the order of 10 to 20% in the case of gas-
saturated oil.

Both, the excess moisture and of gases dissolved in the oil, reduces the temperature at which bubbles may be
formed, thereby significantly reducing the possibility of overloading of transformers.

REFERENCES
[1] IEC 60076-3 Ed. 3.0 (2013-07), "Power Transformers - Part 3: Insulation levels, dielectric tests and
external clearances in air"

[2] H.Kappeler, "Recent forms of Excecutions of 380 kV Transformer Bushings", CIGRE, Paper Nº126,
1958

[3] H.P.Moser, "Transformerboard", Weidmann, Special print of Scientia Electrica, Springer Verlag,
Berlin, 1979

[4] IEEE Std C57.142-2010, "IEEE Guide to Describe the Occurrence and Mitigation of Switching
Transients Induced by Transformers, Switching Device, and System Interaction"

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[5] A.Santos, D.F.Harmel, "Modelagem numérica de campo elétrico em transformador de 550 kV a través
dos métodos de elementos finitos 3D e do cumulative stress", XXII SNPTEE, 13 a 16 de outubro 2013,
Brasilia-DF, Brasil

[6] F.Derler, H.J.Kirch, Ch.Krause, E.Schneider, "Development of a Design Method for Insulating
Structures Exposed to Electric Stress in Long Oil Gaps and Along Oil/Transformerboard Interfaces",
7th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, Paper 21.16, Dresden, 1991

[7] T.B.Marchesan, D.F.Harmel, "Emprego de óleo vegetal isolante em transformadores de potência: uma
abordagem dielétrica", XV eriac (Encontro Regional Ibero-americano do CIGRE), Foz do Iguaçu-PR,
Brasil, 19 a 23 de maio de 2013

[8] IEC 60641 Series, "Specification for pressboard and presspaper for electrical purposes"

[9] IEC 60763 Series, "Specification for laminated pressboard"

[10] DIN 7733 - June 1962, "Laminated Products − Pressboard for Electrical Engineering − Types"

[11] Weidmann Brochure, "Transformerboard - Cellulosic Insulation of Unsurpassed Quality",

www.weidmann-electrical.com

[12] IEC 60554 Series, "Specification for cellulosic papers for electrical purposes"

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