CONFLICT: A DUALISTIC SOCIAL PHENOMENON IN ORGANISATIONS

CONFLICT: A DUALISTIC SOCIAL PHENOMENON IN ORGANISATIONS

Musah Ibrahim
National Development Planning Commission
Development Policy Division
ibrahim.musah@ndpc.gov.gh

Theoretical Compilation
March 2018

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 CONFLICT: A DUALISTIC SOCIAL PHENOMENON IN ORGANISATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Conflict is an inevitable aspect of human interaction, an unavoidable concomitant of

choices and decisions. The problem, then, is not to court the frustrations of seeking to
remove inevitability but rather of trying to keep conflicts in bounds (Zartman, 1997). The
concept of conflict, because of its ubiquity and pervasive nature, has acquired a multitude
of meanings and connotations, presenting us with nothing short of semantic jungle. Like
other terms, conflict generates considerable ambivalence and leaves many scholars’ and
administrators quite uncertain about (1) it meaning and relevance; and (2) how best to
cope with it. Conflict situations are inevitable in one’s personal life, in organizations or
even between nations. Conflict is a process in which one party suggests that its interests
are being opposed by another party. As a rule, people see only the observable aspect of
conflict; angry words, actions of opposition, etc. But this is only a small part of the conflict
process (Mcshane and Glinow, 2008).

Conflicts arise from both systemic and individual perceptions. Therefore, a lasting
resolution for any conflict requires both systemic and individual analysis and
intervention. Conflict resolution and peace building thus call for a collaborative approach
that addresses both of these levels. The parties to the conflict are the experts in defining
their needs and how to satisfy them. The role of a third party is to assist parties in
identifying and understanding those needs and values when negotiations have
deadlocked. Imposing outside resolution may provide temporary relief, but a lasting
arrangement can only be designed and implemented by the parties themselves (Abu-
Nimer, 2003).

DEFINING CONFLICT

The mention of ‘conflict’ echoes pejorative connotations in the minds of people;

associated with all the negative adjectives that one could brainstorm at a peek. There is a
wide consensus amongst social scientists that conflict is misconstrued and misperceived
by the general public. Folger (1993) defines conflict as “the interaction of interdependent
 CONFLICT: A DUALISTIC SOCIAL PHENOMENON IN ORGANISATIONS

people who perceive incompatible goals and interference from each other in achieving
these goals”. Thomas (2005) defines conflict as a “disagreement in opinions between
people or groups, due to differences in attitudes, beliefs, values or needs. Brandon and
Robertson (2007) claim people tend to incorrectly perceive conflict as negative and use
the word “conflict” to label situations that are not really conflicts. Cahn and Abigail (2007)
also clarified that conflict is often incorrectly perceived as a disruption of the normal
function of society. George Simmel (1955) meted out an incisive definition, adding that
“conflict as designed to resolve divergent dualisms is a way of achieving some kind of
unity, even if it will be through the annihilation of one of the conflicting parties”.

Folger, Scott, Poole and Stutman (2005,) define conflict as “The interaction of
interdependent people who perceive incompatibility and the possibility of interference
from others as a result of this incompatibility”. Tillett and French (2006) define conflict as
“when two or more people perceive that their values or needs are incompatible”. Cahn
and Abigail (2007) give a more differentiated definition of conflict, saying it exists when
there is a problematic situation, differing perceptions and desired outcomes,
interdependence, potential to adversely affect the relationship if unaddressed and a sense
of urgency. Masters and Albright (2002) posit that conflict exists when it is felt by
psychologically by at least one of the parties, that interdependence is a core aspect of
conflict and that conflict can be either real or perceived. What seems unequivocal about
the explanations and definitions above give succinct impression and comprehension on
how erroneous it is for conflict to be viewed solely as something negative.

CONFLICT IN ORGANISATIONS

In organizations, Adams (2013) explains conflict as the disagreement between employees,

departments, managers or groups of people within the business entity. Disagreements
may arise due to differences in points of view, ideology or unhealthy competition that
may yield either positive or negative consequences. Regardless of the type or level of
conflict, a number of major functional and dysfunctional consequences can arise from
 CONFLICT: A DUALISTIC SOCIAL PHENOMENON IN ORGANISATIONS

conflict. Russell and Peppers (2004) assert conflicts occur when the needs and goals of the
individual are not in harmony with the needs and goals of the organization.

Organizations are living systems consisting of interacting units performing a task in a

mutually dependent manner within a structure of scarce resources. It seems
commonplace to suggest that conflicts would be present in such a setting. The parties in
an organization may have a conflict about the distribution of resources, or they may have
a more fundamental conflict about the very structure of their organization and the basic
nature of their interaction. Once the parties are in a situation of goal incompatibility, their
conflict develops in a dynamic fashion, initiating valuable and much-needed constructive
changes or leading to escalating strategies and destructive consequences.

Administrators must accept the need to influence the developmental dynamics of a

conflict, so that the parties' attitudes and actions will lead to better coordination and a
more appropriate interdependence. They must not seek to stifle or eliminate
organizational conflict for that is hardly a realistic goal. As Rico (1964) has noted, an
organization devoid of conflict "... may indicate autocracy, uniformity, stagnation and
mental fixity." It would also be protecting only the vested interests of the status quo.
Administrators must accept and indeed occasionally encourage conflict, because change
and other desirable consequences are products of conflict. The challenge administrators
face is to utilize such conflict management techniques that would ensure that as a conflict
passes from a latent to a manifest phase, it proceeds towards its potential and realizes its
constructive values.

Conflict situations are an important aspect of the workplace. A conflict is a situation when
the interests, needs, goals or values of involved parties interfere with one another. A
conflict is a common phenomenon in the workplace. Different stakeholders may have
different priorities; conflicts may involve team members, departments, projects,
organization and client, boss and subordinate, organization needs vs. personal needs.
Often, a conflict is a result of perception. Is conflict a bad thing? Not necessarily. Often, a
 CONFLICT: A DUALISTIC SOCIAL PHENOMENON IN ORGANISATIONS

conflict presents opportunities for improvement. Therefore, it is important to understand

(and apply) various conflict resolution techniques.

DUALISMS OF CONFLICT

As already indicted the mention of conflict predominantly echoes pejorative connotations

in the minds of people. According to Russell and Peppers (2004), conflict has both positive
and negative effects. It can be positive when it encourages creativity, new looks at o1d
conditions, the clarification of points of view, and the development of human capabilities
to handle interpersonal differences. All of us have experienced a surge of creativity when
we permit the ideas of others to trigger our imagination, as for example in a
brainstorming session. Conflict can be negative when it creates resistance to change,
establishes turmoil in organization or interpersonal relations, fosters distrust, builds a
feeling of defeat, or widens the chasm of misunderstanding. Such might be the situation
today in American society relative to school busing. Russell and Peppers (2004), further
clarified that irrespective of conflict ingrained with a positive connotation, unfortunately,
the term "conflict" has only the connotation of "bad" for many people; so much so that
they think principally in terms of suppression, giving little or no attention to its more
positive side. One author emphasizes this by stating: "It seems entirely likely that many,
if not most, organizations need more conflict, not less." Another states: "The absence of
conflict may indicate autocracy, uniformity, stagnation, and mental fixity; the presence
of conflict may be indicative of democracy, diversity, growth, and self-actualization."
Some social critics relate the military to the former by their references to the military mind
in which they equate absolute and unquestioning obedience with normal military
functioning.

According to Bercovitch (1983), as there is nothing pre-determined about its course or

development, it seems erroneous to view conflict from a negative perspective only as
destructive or dysfunctional. It is true that conflict may be uncomfortable, it may even be
a source of problems, but it is absolutely necessary if change is to occur, if organizations
 CONFLICT: A DUALISTIC SOCIAL PHENOMENON IN ORGANISATIONS

are to survive and adapt. Organizational change and innovation does not just happen; it
requires a stimulant. That stimulant is conflict.

THE POSITIVE SIDE OF CONFLICT

Adams (2013), contends that conflict accelerates change in an organization, especially in

small businesses, where it is easy to formulate and implement new policies. Conflict
prompts modification of policies and operation procedures in the organization. In cases
of extreme conflict, the organization may conduct a complete overhaul of its leadership,
bringing in managers with fresh ideas. A review of the goals and objectives of the
business to meet the needs of conflicting parties may result into achievement of goal
congruence and coherence in operations. Employees, departments and groups are
interdependent within the organization. Competition for scarce resources is a major
source of conflict due to different interests. Conflict forces the organizations leadership
to realign its objectives towards common goals in order to foster teamwork amongst
competing parties.

Conflict that results into healthy competition cultivates innovation and inventiveness
amongst employees. In times of conflict, there is a high sense of necessity that results into
the emergence of divergent viewpoints amongst employees. It is imperative among the
employees to develop new strategies and ways of conducting business in order to keep
up with internal competition from their colleagues. In instances where conflicting parties
engage in extreme disagreement, sub-optimization may result. When conflicting parties
push the pursuit of their own interest excessively, the organizations goals end up
compromised. Instead of working together to achieve the organization's goals, conflicting
parties engage in needless feuds that result in superiority contests. Distortion of goals
occurs as parties embark on undermining each other's efforts (Adams 2013).

O'Connell (2014), has tabled down positive aspects of conflict he believes cannot be
oversighted. According to him, conflict contributes to social change ensuring both
interpersonal and intergroup dynamics remain fresh and reflective of current interests
 CONFLICT: A DUALISTIC SOCIAL PHENOMENON IN ORGANISATIONS

and realities. He further asserted that, conflict serves to “discourage premature group
decision making,” forcing participants in the decision making process to explore the
issues and interests at stake. He clarified that conflict allows for the reconciliation of the
parties’ concerns, which can lead to an agreement benefiting both parties’ needs, and
often their relationship and organizations. He finally contended that, conflict strengthens
intragroup unity by providing an outlet for group members to discuss and negotiate their
interests within the group. Without intragroup conflict, the health of the group typically
declines.

THE NEGATIVE ASPECT OF CONFLICT

Adams (2013), posits that, businesses may lose precious time and resources at times of
conflict. Instead of concentrating on meeting their objectives, employees waste time on
divisive issues. Misuse of business materials and funds is quite rampant when conflicting
parties engage in "warfare." Wrangles, stress and emotional confrontations reduce the
workers' productivity, and eventually, the profitability of the business.

Conflict can distract individuals and groups from their primary purposes, leaving them
with less time and resources for other activities. When conflict involves the use of “heavy
contentious tactics,” it can cause the individuals or groups involved in the conflict as well
as individuals or groups not involved in the conflict to divert time and resources away
from other needs. Conflict can have both short term and long term effects on the physical
and psychological health of the individuals involved in or affected by the conflict. In
worst case scenarios the psychological consequences can include deep trauma and
diminished coping mechanisms. Conflict can lead to “collective traumas,” which lead to
“chosen trauma” and can be transmitted to future generations in the form of resentment
against one’s ancestors’ enemies. Chosen trauma gives rise to group identity and keeps
the flame of conflict burning (O'Connell 2014).

According to Lohrey (2015), daily operational goals can become more difficult to achieve
as a conflict situation decreases both morale and productivity. Doug Hovatter, an
 CONFLICT: A DUALISTIC SOCIAL PHENOMENON IN ORGANISATIONS

associate professor at West Virginia University, says that ongoing conflict can affect the
company culture as it creates an environment of hostility, suspicion and distrust. Job
satisfaction, productivity and your employees' commitment to the company can decrease
as the negative effect on the overall company culture increases. He further clarifies that,
unhealthy competition, or situations in which employees try to one-up each other at your
company’s expense, may occur as clashing employees try to prove their own solution is
the best way to proceed. Teamwork and team spirit can suffer as employees refuse to
help one another for fear of being outdone and each works to bring the other down.
Backstabbing, sabotage and open hostility are common results.

CONCLUSION

The potential for conflict to produce both positive and negative results closely mirrors
our individual perspectives regarding conflict and can be mapped along a continuum
from a positive or benefit-centric perspective on one end to a negative or cost-centric
perspective on the other. Research suggests that an individual’s perspective regarding
conflict strongly impacts their ability to effectively address it. As our perspective of
conflict charts our path for engaging and navigating our differences, our view of conflict
must be balanced, realistic, and flexible. Such a perspective recognizes that conflict is a
normal, natural aspect of human interaction that inevitably manifests to varying degrees
in almost everyone’s life. The perspective also understands that, though conflict has
potential costs, it does not have to be negative or destructive. When properly understood
and addressed constructively, conflict can be managed in a way that minimizes its
potential, but not inevitable, negative impacts (O'Connell 2014).

It will be erroneous for conflict to be viewed solely as something negative. Understanding

its true course will help on the basis of dealing with the inevitability of any conflict
situation. Recognizing the positive aspects of conflict will help organisations and
adequately inform decision making. Consciousness of the negative aspects of conflict will
most likely help organisations to streamline mechanisms to deal with it as and when any
 CONFLICT: A DUALISTIC SOCIAL PHENOMENON IN ORGANISATIONS

inconveniencies arise. Therefore, it is imperative to peek at conflict from a dualistic

perspective in order to deal with when it requires to do so.
 CONFLICT: A DUALISTIC SOCIAL PHENOMENON IN ORGANISATIONS

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