Knife Edges And Pivots

 Introduction
 The Model
 The Selection
 Postscript
 Further reading
 Related case studies

IntroductionCU
Middle-aged readers may remember expensive watches with the words "17
Sapphires" printed on the face, roughly where the word "Quartz" now appears. The
message was that the mechanism had bearings made of sapphire (Al 2O3) and that
that was good. A really expensive watch had, not sapphires, but diamonds.

They are examples of good materials for knife edges and pivots. These are
bearings in which two members are loaded together in nominal line or point
contact, and can tilt relative to one another, or rotate freely about the load axis
(Figure 13.1). The main requirements of materials for such bearings are high
hardness (to carry the contact pressures) and high modulus (to give positional
precision and to minimize frictional losses). But in what combination? The answer
depends on the objective: maximum precision or maximum load-capacity.
Table 13.1 summarizes the requirements.

Figure 13.1 A knife edge and a pivot. They have small contact area, for precision,
and high strength, to avoid damage by contact stresses.
 FUNCTION Knife edges and pivots

OBJECTIVE (a) Maximize positional precision for given load

(b) Maximize load capacity for given geometry

CONSTRAINTS (a) Contact stress must not cause damage to either surface

(b) Adequate toughness (for pivots exposed to shock loading)

(c) Low thermal expansion (for high precision pivots)

Table 13.1 The design requirements

The Model
Consider maximizing precision first. The positional accuracy of a pivot or knife
edge increases, and its frictional losses decrease as the area of contact A is made
smaller and smaller. To maximize precision, we seek to minimize A, but as we do
so, the contact pressure rises. For a given load, F, the peak contact pressure p is
given by Herzian contact theory; it is:

(M13.1)

If both surfaces are to remain elastic, this pressure must not exceed their
hardness, H, divided by a safety factor, which we ignore. (It does not affect the
outcome of the analysis.) Thus

(M13.2)

Thus the area of contact is minimized, and the precision maximized, by selecting
materials with large values of the performance index

(M13.3)

Now consider the alternative objective: that of maximizing the load that the pivot
can support at fixed geometry. Herzian contact theory gives the maximum pressure
in the contact zone of a hemispherical pivot-tip pressed against a flat block by a
force F as
 (M13.4)

where R is the radius of curvature of the tip of the pivot, E is its elastic modulus
and C is a constant close to unity. The constraint remains the same: this pressure
must not exceed the hardness H of the pivot or the block. Thus

(M13.5)

The load is maximized, for a given geometry R, by choosing materials with large
values of the performance index

(M13.6)

The Selection
The performance indices involve H and E. Figure 13.2 shows the appropriate chart.
For precision you want high M1, and then ceramics are definitely the best choice:
Al2O3 (sapphire), silicon carbide and nitride, and — above all — diamond. Cermets
(composites of tungsten carbide and cobalt) are the only other class of solid which
competes with them. For load-bearing capacity, you want high M2 instead; then
high-carbon steels, tool steels and high-strength titanium alloys become
possibilities, although ceramics and cermets remain the most attractive candidates.
Figure 13.2(a) Chart of hardness H against modulus E, showing the index M1.
Figure 13.2(b) Chart of hardness H against modulus E, showing the index M2.

But there is more to it than that. Change of temperature will influence the positional
accuracy of a pivot. Precision is maintained by choosing materials with low thermal
expansion. Robustness, on the other hand, requires that the pivot or knife-edge
survive rough handling — and for this a degree of toughness is desirable.
Figure 13.3 shows a chart of fracture toughness plotted against thermal expansion
coefficient. Using this as a second stage, gives the selections in Tables 13.2(a)
and (b).
Figure 13.3 A chart of fracture toughness, K1c, against thermal expansion coefficient,
λ, showing the selection stage for robust, precise, pivots.

MATERIAL COMMENT

(GPa) (MPa)

Diamond 8000 0.2 Outstanding on all counts except cost.

Tungsten 4000 0.1 Excellent M1 and M2, good corrosion

Carbide, WC resistance, poor K1c

Silicon Carbide, 3000 0.1 Excellent M1 and M2, good corrosion

SiC resistance, poor K1c

Silicon Nitride, 2200 0.11 Excellent M1 and M2, good corrosion

Si3N4 resistance, poor K1c

Zirconium Excellent M1 and M2, good corrosion

Carbide, ZrC resistance, poor K1c

Sapphire, Al2O3 2000 0.09 Good M1 and M2, good corrosion resistance,
poor K1c
 Glass and Silica 1000 0.05 Good M1 but brittle — poor K1c

High-Carbon 400 0.02 Good M1 and M2, poor corrosion resistance,

Steel but excellent K1c

Table 13.2(a) Materials for precise knife edges and pivots

MATERIAL COMMENT

(GPa) (MPa)

High-Carbon 400 0.02 Good M1 and M2, poor corrosion resistance,

Steel but excellent K1c

Cermets 500 0.03 Better than steel on all counts except cost

Silicon Carbide, 3000 0.1 Excellent M1 and M2, good corrosion

SiC resistance, poor K1c

Silicon Nitride, 2200 0.11 Excellent M1 and M2, good corrosion

Si3N4 resistance, poor K1c

Diamond 8000 0.2 Outstanding on all counts except cost and

toughness

Table 13.2(b) Materials for robust knife edges and pivots

Postscript
The final choice depends on the details of its application. In sensitive force
balances and other measuring equipment, very low friction is important: then we
need the exceptionally high modulus of sapphire or diamond. In high load-capacity
devices (weighbridges, mechanical testing equipment), some ability to absorb
overloads by limited plasticity is an advantage, and hardened steel is a good
choice. If the environment is a potentially corrosive one — and this includes
ordinary damp air — glass or a ceramic may be best.

Further Reading
'Tribology Handbook' (1973) Ed. Neale, MJ, Butterworths, London, Section C6.

'Elsevier Materials Selector' (1991) Eds. Waterman, NA and Ashby, MF, Elsevier,
Amsterdam, Section 1.5.3, p. 358 et seq.

Related Case Studies

1. Materials for Springs
2. Elastic Hinges And Couplings
3. Materials for Static Seals
4. Diaphragms for Pressure Actuators
5. Minimising Distortion in Precision Devices