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A Seminar Report

On

Cryogenic Technology in Rocket


Engines
By

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my great pleasure to acknowledge sense of gratitude to all, who have made it


possible for us to complete this seminar with success. It gives me great pleasure to
express my deep gratitude to my seminar for his support and help from time to time
during seminar work.

It is my pleasure to acknowledge sense of gratitude to r our Head of Department and


Principal for their great support and encouragement in seminar work.

Finally yet importantly I would like to thank all Staff Members and all our colleagues
for their valuable suggestions and support.

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ABSTRACT

A cryogenic engine is typical rocket engine designed to either escape Earth’s


gravity to send probes into spaced or to lift satellites into orbit. They use liquid
fuels that are cooled to very low temperatures and which would otherwise be in
gaseous state at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, such as hydrogen
and oxygen. These fuels are utilized in one of two main designs to produce
propellant force. Either the hydrogen is vaporized as the fuel and ignited by the
oxidizer of oxygen to generate standard hot rocket thrust, or they are mixed to
create superhot stream that exits the engine nozzle and creates thrust. Cryogenic
treatment is a material science and involves the process of reducing the temperature
of component over an extended period of time to extreme cold levels, usually
slightly below -250 °C. The significance of critical temperature is also apparent. In
the vapour compression cycle shows all the processes occur below the critical
temperature, as it typical for such cycles, and therefore condensation of the
working fluid is possible simply by rejecting heat to a sink at lower temperature.

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No. Title Page No.

Fig.1 Construction of cryogenic engine 11

Fig.2 Staged combustion engine 13

Fig.3 Xenon ion engine 22

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CONTENTS

Certificate ii
Acknowledgement iii
Abstract iv
List of figures v
Contents vi
1 Introduction 1
2. Literature Review 3
3. History of rockets 4
4. Construction of cryogenic engine 5
5. Principle 6
6. Components of cryogenic engine 7
7. Working 14
8. India’s first cryogenic engine 15
9. Next Generation of Rocket Engine 16
10. Advantages 17
11. Disadvantages 18
12. Conclusion 19
13. References 20

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is cryogenics?


Cryogenics is a branch of Physics and Engineering that involves the study of very low
temperatures, how to produce them, and how materials behave at those temperatures.
Cryogenics is the study of the production of extremely cold temperatures. This field of
science also looks at what happens to a wide variety of materials from metals to gases
when they are exposed to these temperatures. Cryogenics is a branch of physics
concerned with the production of very low temperatures and the effects of these
temperatures on different substances and materials. The temperatures studied in
cryogenics are those below -243.67 degrees Fahrenheit (120 Kelvin); such low
temperatures do not occur in nature.
These low temperatures have been used to liquefy atmospheric gases like oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, methane, argon, helium, and neon. The gases are condensed,
collected, distilled and separated. Methane is used in liquid natural gas (LNG), and
oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen are used in rocket fuels and other aerospace and
defense applications, in metallurgy and in various chemical processes. Helium is used
in diving decompression chambers and to maintain suitably low temperatures for
superconducting magnets, and neon is used in lighting.

1.2 CRYOGENIC ENGINE INTRODUCTION


Cryogenic rocket engines generate thrust like all other rocket engines-by accelerating
an impulse carrier to high speeds. In conventional aircraft engines the surrounding air
is the main impulse carrier and fuel is the energy carrier. This is why such an engine
requires the atmosphere not only to burn the fuel but also to generate thrust. But in
rocket engines the impulse and energy carriers are identical and are present as fuel in
the launcher.
The chemical energy stored in the fuel is converted into kinetic energy by burning it in
the thrust chamber and subsequent expansion in the nozzle.In order to compare a
variety of fuel combinations, a quantity known as specific impulse, which determines
the thrust per kilogram of emitted fuel per second used.The favorite fuel and oxidizer
combination used during the boost phase are Liquid Hydrogen(LH2) and Liquid

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Oxygen(LOX) which provide a specific impulse of 445 seconds, almost double that of
hydrazine.
To liquefy hydrogen has to be cooled to a temperature of minus 273C. It`s boiling
point is 20K only just above absolute on the temperature scale.
Fuelling the booster rockets is a complex and hazardous process, for as soon as
oxygen comes in contact with hydrogen, they spontaneously combust in a powerful
explosion. Over the years cryogenic engines have become the backbone for boosters,
used for placing heavy payloads in space, such as those used for the main engine for
the space shuttle.

1.3 CRYOGENIC LIQUIDS:


Cryogenic fuels, mainly liquid hydrogen, have been used as rocket fuels. Liquid
oxygen is used as an oxidizer of hydrogen, but oxygen is not, strictly speaking, a fuel.
For example, NASA's workhorse space shuttle uses cryogenic hydrogen fuel as its
primary means of getting into orbit, as did all of the rockets built for the Soviet space
program by Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolve developed a version of its popular
design Tu-154 with a cryogenic fuel system, known as the Tu-155. The plane uses a
fuel referred to as liquefied natural gas or LNG, and made its first flight in 1989.

1.4 What is Cryogenic Engineering?


Cryogenic Engineering is a branch of engineering that utilizes cryogenics for various
domestic, commercial, industrial, scientific, medical, aerospace and defence
applications. For example, the Ground Support Systems at Kennedy Space Centre for
the Ares-I and Ares-V rockets in support of the NASA manned space program.
Another is the DOE's Office of Electric Transmission and Distribution to develop
advanced cryogenic refrigeration systems for cooling the next generation of electric
power equipment based upon high-temperature superconductors. Cryogenic
engineering plays an important role in unmanned aerial vehicle systems, infrared
search and track sensors, missile warning receivers, satellite tracking systems, and a
host of other commercial and military systems.

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2. Literature review

The purpose of this paper is developing a method for simulation of a cryogenic staged
combustion-closed cycle engine. Since, aerospace systems are usually complicated and
important the simulation task becomes extremely important. If the propulsion system
of space vehicle is not successfully simulated, then designers must rely on huge tests
which are time and money consuming and also dangerous. The mathematical model of
the engine includes a set of equations which describe all the system's elements
operation. These equations correspond to mass, momentum and energy conservation
principles and are simplified to make easy the process of calculations. [1]

This paper is all about the rocket engine involving the use of cryogenic technology at a
cryogenic temperature (123 K). This basically uses the liquid oxygen and liquid
hydrogen as an oxidizer and fuel, which are very clean and non-pollutant fuels
compared to other hydrocarbon fuels like: Petrol, Diesel, Gasoline, LPG, CNG, etc.,
sometimes, liquid nitrogen is also used as an fuel. The efficiency of the rocket engine
is more than the jet engine. As per the Newton’s third law of mechanics, the thrust
produced in rocket engine is outwards whereas that produced in jet engine is inwards.
[2]

This paper is tell about design issues of liquid propellant engines are addressed,
demonstrating a clear need for a new approach in engine development taking into
account the complex chemical and physical processes in rocket engines. A brief
description about the organization of the research programs is followed by a short
presentation of the test facilities and the experimental setup’s in use. [3]

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3. HISTORY
3.1 History of Rockets
The mighty space rockets of today are the result of more than 2,000 years of invention,
experimentation, and discovery. First by observation and inspiration and then by
methodical research, the foundations for modern rocketry were laid.
Galileo Galilei, (1564 to 1642) - In addition to his many other accomplishments, this
Italian astronomer and mathematician rekindled the spirit of scientific experimentation
and challenged old beliefs relating to mass and gravity. He proved that an object in
motion does not need the continuous application of force to keep moving. He called
this property of matter, which causes it to resist changes in velocity, “inertia.”
Newton’s Laws of Motion, (1642 to 1727) - English scientist Sir Isaac Newton
condensed all rocket science into three elegant scientific laws. Published in
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica his laws, previously understood
intuitively by early racketeers, provided the foundation for all modern rocket science.
Robert H. Goddard, (1882 to 1945) - American college professor and scientist
Robert Goddard built and flew the world’s first liquid propellant rocket on March 16,
1926. Its flight, though unimpressive (it climbed only 12.5 meters), was the
forerunner of the Saturn V Moon rocket 43 years later.

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4. Construction of cryogenic engine

Fig (1) construction of cryogenic engine

𝑭𝒏 = 𝒎̇ 𝒗𝒆 = 𝒎̇𝒗𝒆−𝒐𝒑𝒕 + 𝑨𝒆 (𝒑𝒆 − 𝒑𝒂𝒎𝒃 ) [6]

Where,

𝑚̇ = Exhaust gas mass flow


𝑣𝑒 = Effective exhaust velocity
𝑣𝑒−𝑜𝑝𝑡 = Effective jet velocity when Pa = Pe
𝐴𝑒 = Flow area at nozzle exit plane (or the plane where the jet leaves the nozzle if
separated flow)
𝑝𝑒 = Static pressure at nozzle exit plane
𝑝𝑎𝑚𝑏 = Ambient (or atmospheric) pressure

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5. Principal

The principle of rocket propulsion depends on the following two laws: -


(i) Newton’s third law of motion
(ii) Law of conservation of momentum
We have already read about these laws, and now we will see how they can be applied
for propelling the rocket.
The motion of a rocket is an interesting application of Newton’s third law of motion &
momentum principle. The rocket expels a jet of hot gases from its tail. This is say, an
action force. The jet of hot gases exerts a force on the rocket, propelling it forward;
this is the reaction force. From the momentum point of view, the hot gases acquire
momentum in the backward direction & the rocket acquires an equal amount of
momentum in the forward direction.
The simplest example to understand the propulsion of rockets is that of a balloon. A
balloon shooting forward (when the mouth of the balloon filled with air is released)
and a rocket hurtling into space are propelled by similar forces. The air in a closed
balloon exerts a uniform outward force. But when air rushes out of its neck (similar to
exhaust gases leaving rockets) disturbs this equilibrium. Thus an equal and opposite
force is exerted on the surface opposite to the neck. This drives the balloon forward.
As we have seen in the previous section propellants are used to provide thrust to the
rockets. These propellants on burning produces large amount of gas, which are
allowed to pass through nozzle. On passing through the nozzle, high pressure is
generated i.e. gas comes out with high pressure.
Now to increase the thrust, one basic property is used while designing the nozzle. The
neck of the nozzle is kept very small as compared to the body of the rocket. So the
pressure of the gas increases and so does the velocity. Thus high thrust is achieved.

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6. Components of cryogenic engine

Fig (2) Staged Combustion Engine

The major components of a cryogenic rocket engine are: combustion chamber (thrust
chamber), pyrotechnic igniter, fuel injector, fuel cryopumps, oxidizer cryopumps, gas
turbine, cryo valves, regulators, the fuel tanks, and rocket engine nozzle. In terms of
feeding propellants to combustion chamber, cryogenic rocket engines (or, generally,
all liquid-propellant engines) work in either an expander cycle, a gas-generator cycle,
a staged combustion cycle, or the simplest pressure-fed cycle.

The cryopumps are always turbopumps powered by a flow of fuel through gas
turbines. Looking at this aspect, engines can be differentiated into a main flow or a
bypass flow configuration. In the main flow design, all the pumped fuel is fed through
the gas turbines, and in the end injected to the combustion chamber. In the bypass
configuration, the fuel flow is split; the main part goes directly to the combustion
chamber to generate thrust, while only a small amount of the fuel goes to the turbine.

6.1.1 Propellant: LOX / Liquid hydrogen


The engines burn liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen from the Space Shuttle external
tank. They are used for propulsion during its ascent, in addition to the two more
powerful solid rocket boosters and partly the Orbital Maneuvering System. Each
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engine can generate almost 1.8 meganewtons (MN) or 400,000 lbf of thrust at lift off.
The engines are capable of generating a specific impulse of 453 seconds in a vacuum,
or 363 seconds at sea level (exhaust velocities of 4440 m/s and 3560 m/s respectively).
Overall, a space shuttle main engine weighs approximately 3.2 t (7,000 lb). The
engines are removed after every flight and taken to the Space Shuttle Main Engine
Processing Facility (SSMEPF) for inspection and replacement of any necessary
components.
The Space Shuttle's rocket engines are capable of operating at extreme temperatures.
The liquid hydrogen fuel is stored at −253 degrees Celsius (−423 degrees Fahrenheit).
However, when burned with liquid oxygen, the temperature in the combustion
chamber reaches 3,300 °C (6,000 °F), higher than the boiling point of iron. Each
engine consumes 1,340 liters (340 gallons) of propellant per second. If the engine
pumped water instead of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, an average-sized
swimming pool could be drained in 75 seconds - or 25 seconds for the sum of the three
used for the space shuttle launch.
The engines perform as follows: Fuel and oxidizer from the external tank enters the
orbiter at the orbiter/external tank umbilical disconnect and then the orbiter's main
propulsion system feed lines. There the fuel and oxidizer each branch out into three
parallel paths, to each engine. In each branch, prevalves must be opened to permit flow
to the low-pressure fuel or oxidizer turbopump.

6.6.2 Oxidizer system


The Low Pressure Oxidizer Turbopump (LPOTP) is an axial-flow pump driven by a
six-stage turbine powered by liquid oxygen. It boosts the liquid oxygen's pressure from
0.7 to 2.9 MPa (100 to 420 psi). The flow from the LPOTP is supplied to the High-
Pressure Oxidizer Turbopump (HPOTP). During engine operation, the pressure boost
permits the High Pressure Oxidizer Turbine to operate at high speeds without
cavitating. The LPOTP operates at approximately 5,150 rpm. The LPOTP, which
measures approximately 450 by 450 mm (18 by 18 inches), is connected to the vehicle
propellant ducting and supported in a fixed position by the orbiter structure.
The HPOTP consists of two single-stage centrifugal pumps (a main pump and a
preburner pump) mounted on a common shaft and driven by a two-stage, hot-gas
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turbine. The main pump boosts the liquid oxygen's pressure from 2.9 to 30 MPa (420
to 4,300 psi) while operating at approximately 28,120 rpm. The HPOTP discharge
flow splits into several paths, one of which is routed to drive the LPOTP turbine.
Another path is routed to and through the main oxidizer valve and enters into the main
combustion chamber. Another small flow path is tapped off and sent to the oxidizer
heat exchanger. The liquid oxygen flows through an anti-flood valve that prevents it
from entering the heat exchanger until sufficient heat is present to convert the liquid
oxygen to gas. The heat exchanger utilizes the heat contained in the discharge gases
from the HPOTP turbine to convert the liquid oxygen to gas. The gas is sent to a
manifold and is then routed to the external tank to pressurize the liquid oxygen tank.
Another path enters the HPOT second-stage preburner pump to boost the liquid
oxygen's pressure from 30 to 51 MPa. It passes through the oxidizer preburner
oxidizer valve into the oxidizer preburner and through the fuel preburner oxidizer
valve into the fuel preburner. The HPOTP measures approximately 600 by 900 mm
(24 by 36 inches). It is attached by flanges to the hot-gas manifold.
The HPOTP turbine and HPOTP pumps are mounted on a common shaft. Mixing of
the fuel-rich hot gas in the turbine section and the liquid oxygen in the main pump
could create a hazard. To prevent this, the two sections are separated by a cavity that is
continuously purged by the MPS engine helium supply during engine operation. Two
seals minimize leakage into the cavity. One seal is located between the turbine section
and the cavity, and the other is between the pump section and cavity. Loss of helium
pressure in this cavity results in an automatic engine shutdown.

6.6.2. Hydrogen fuel system


Fuel enters the orbiter at the liquid hydrogen feed line disconnect valve, then flows
into the orbiter liquid hydrogen feed line manifold and branches out into three parallel
paths to each engine. In each liquid hydrogen branch, a prevalve permits liquid
hydrogen to flow to the low-pressure fuel turbopump when the prevalve is open.
The Low Pressure Fuel Turbopump (LPFTP) is an axial-flow pump driven by a two-
stage turbine powered by gaseous hydrogen. It boosts the pressure of the liquid
hydrogen from 30 to 276 psia (0.2 to 1.9 MPa) and supplies it to the High-Pressure
Fuel Turbopump (HPFTP). During engine operation, the pressure boost provided by
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the LPFTP permits the HPFTP to operate at high speeds without cavitating. The
LPFTP operates at approximately 16,185 rpm. The LPFTP is approximately 450 by
600 mm (18 by 24 inches). It is connected to the vehicle propellant ducting and is
supported in a fixed position by the orbiter structure 180 degrees from the LPOTP.
The HPFTP is a three-stage centrifugal pump driven by a two-stage, hot-gas turbine. It
boosts the pressure of the liquid hydrogen from 1.9 to 45 MPa (276 to 6,515 psia). The
HPFTP operates at approximately 35,360 rpm. The discharge flow from the
turbopump is routed to and through the main valve and then splits into three flow
paths. One path is through the jacket of the main combustion chamber, where the
hydrogen is used to cool the chamber walls. It is then routed from the main
combustion chamber to the LPFTP, where it is used to drive the LPFTP turbine. A
small portion of the flow from the LPFTP is then directed to a common manifold from
all three engines to form a single path to the external tank to maintain liquid hydrogen
tank pressurization. The remaining hydrogen passes between the inner and outer walls
to cool the hot-gas manifold and is discharged into the main combustion chamber. The
second hydrogen flow path from the main fuel valve is through the engine nozzle (to
cool the nozzle). It then joins the third flow path from the chamber coolant valve. The
combined flow is then directed to the fuel and oxidizer preburners. The HPFTP is
approximately 550 by 1100 mm (22 by 44 inches). It is attached by flanges to the hot-
gas manifold.

6.6.3 Pre-burners and thrust control system


The oxidizer and fuel preburners are welded to the hot-gas manifold. The fuel and
oxidizer enter the preburners and are mixed so that efficient combustion can occur.
The augmented spark igniter is a small combination chamber located in the centre of
the injector of each preburner. The two dual-redundant spark igniters, which are
activated by the engine controller, are used during the engine start sequence to initiate
combustion in each preburner. They are turned off after approximately three seconds
because the combustion process is then self-sustaining. The preburners produce the
fuel-rich hot gas that passes through the turbines to generate the power to operate the
high-pressure turbopumps. The oxidizer preburner's outflow drives a turbine that is

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connected to the HPOTP and the oxidizer preburner pump. The fuel preburner's
outflow drives a turbine that is connected to the HPFTP.
The speed of the HPOTP and HPFTP turbines depends on the position of the
corresponding oxidizer and fuel preburner oxidizer valves. These valves are positioned
by the engine controller, which uses them to throttle the flow of liquid oxygen to the
preburners and, thus, control engine thrust. The oxidizer and fuel preburner oxidizer
valves increase or decrease the liquid oxygen flow, thus increasing or decreasing
preburner chamber pressure, HPOTP and HPFTP turbine speed, and liquid oxygen and
gaseous hydrogen flow into the main combustion chamber, which increases or
decreases engine thrust, thus throttling the engine. The oxidizer and fuel preburner
valves operate together to throttle the engine and maintain a constant 6-1 propellant
mixture ratio. The main oxidizer valve and the main fuel valve control the flow of
liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen into the engine and are controlled by each engine
controller. When an engine is operating, the main valves are fully open.

6.6.4 Cooling control system


A coolant control valve is mounted on the combustion chamber coolant bypass duct of
each engine. The engine controller regulates the amount of gaseous hydrogen allowed
to bypass the nozzle coolant loop, thus controlling its temperature. The chamber
coolant valve is 100 % open before engine start. During engine operation, it will be
100 % open for throttle settings of 100 to 109 % for maximum cooling. For throttle
settings between 65 to 100 %, its position will range from 66.4 to 100 % open for
reduced cooling.

6.6.5 Combustion chamber and nozzle


Each engine main combustion chamber receives fuel-rich hot gas from a hot-gas
manifold cooling circuit. The gaseous hydrogen and liquid oxygen enter the chamber
at the injector, which mixes the propellants. A small augmented spark igniter chamber
is located in the center of the injector. The dual-redundant igniter is used during the
engine start sequence to initiate combustion. The igniters are turned off after
approximately three seconds because the combustion process is self-sustaining. The

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main injector and dome assembly is welded to the hot-gas manifold. The main
combustion chamber also is bolted to the hot-gas manifold.
The inner surface of each combustion chamber, as well as the inner surface of each
nozzle, is cooled by liquid hydrogen flowing through brazed stainless steel tube-wall
coolant passages. The nozzle assembly is a bell-shaped extension bolted to the main
combustion chamber. The nozzle is 2.9 m (113 inches) long, and the outside diameter
of the exit is 2.4 m (94 inches). A support ring welded to the forward end of the nozzle
is the engine attach point to the orbiter-supplied heat shield. Thermal protection is
necessary because of the exposure portions of the nozzles experience during the
launch, ascent, on-orbit and entry phases of a mission. The insulation consists of four
layers of metallic batting covered with a metallic foil and screening.
For a nozzle able to run at sea level, the SSME nozzle has an unusually large
expansion ratio (about 77) for the chamber pressure. A nozzle that large would
normally undergo flow separation of the jet from the nozzle which would cause
control difficulties and could even mechanically damage the vehicle. Instead the
Rocketdyne engineers varied the angle of the nozzle, reducing it near the exit. This
raises the pressure just around the rim to between 4.6 and 5.7 psi, and prevents flow
separation. The inner part of the flow is at much lower pressure, around 2 psi or less.

6.6.6 Main valves


The five propellant valves on each engine (oxidizer preburner oxidizer, fuel preburner
oxidizer, main oxidizer, main fuel, and chamber coolant) are hydraulically actuated
and controlled by electrical signals from the engine controller. They can be fully
closed by using the MPS engine helium supply system as a backup actuation system.
The main oxidizer valve and fuel bleed valve are used after shutdown. The main
oxidizer valve is opened during a propellant dump to allow residual liquid oxygen to
be dumped overboard through the engine, and the fuel bleed valve is opened to allow
residual liquid hydrogen to be dumped through the liquid hydrogen fill and drain
valves overboard. After the dump is completed, the valves close and remain closed for
the remainder of the mission.

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6.6.7 Gimbal
The gimbal bearing is bolted to the main injector and dome assembly and is the thrust
interface between the engine and orbiter. The bearing assembly is approximately 290
by 360 mm (11.3 by 14 inches).
The low-pressure oxygen and low-pressure fuel turbopumps are mounted 180 degrees
apart on the orbiter's aft fuselage thrust structure. The lines from the low-pressure
turbopumps to the high-pressure turbopumps contain flexible bellows that enable the
low-pressure turbopumps to remain stationary while the rest of the engine is gimbaled
for thrust vector control. The liquid hydrogen line from the LPFTP to the HPFTP is
insulated to prevent the formation of liquid air.

6.6.8 Controller
An important innovation was the inclusion of an integrated controller in the engine
itself: the SSME controller. This digital computer (originally composed with two
redundant Honeywell HDC-601 computers, and later replaced with a system with two
redundant Motorola 68000 processors) has two tasks: control the engine and its
burning process, and check itself. This arrangement greatly simplified the wiring
between the engine and the shuttle, because all the sensors and actuators are connected
directly to it. Using a dedicated system also simplified the software and improved its
reliability.
Two independent computers, A and B, form the controller, giving redundancy to the
system. The failure of the system A will automatically switch to the system B without
impeding operational capabilities; the failure of the system B will provide a graceful
shutdown of the engine.

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7. Working

Cryogenic Engines are rocket motors designed for liquid fuels that have to be held at
very low "cryogenic" temperatures to be liquid - they would otherwise be gas at
normal temperatures. Typically Hydrogen and Oxygen are used which need to be held
below 20 K (-423°F) and 90 K (-297°F) to remain liquid.

The engine components are also cooled so the fuel doesn't boil to a gas in the lines that
feed the engine. The thrust comes from the rapid expansion from liquid to gas with the
gas emerging from the motor at very high speed. The energy needed to heat the fuels
comes from burning them, once they are gasses. Cryogenic engines are the highest
performing rocket motors. One disadvantage is that the fuel tanks tend to be bulky and
require heavy insulation to store the propellant.

The Space Shuttle's main engines used for liftoff are cryogenic engines. The Shuttle's
smaller thrusters for orbital maneuvering use non-cryogenic hypergolic fuels, which
are compact and are stored at warm temperatures. Currently, only the United States,
Russia, China, France, Japan and India have mastered cryogenic rocket technology.
The cryogenic engine gets its name from the extremely cold temperature at which
liquid nitrogen is stored. Air moving around the vehicle is used to heat liquid nitrogen
to a boil. Once it boils, it turns to gas in the same way that heated water forms steam in
a steam engine. A rocket like the Ariane 5 uses oxygen and hydrogen, both stored as a
cryogenic liquid, to produce its power. The liquid nitrogen, stored at -320 degrees
Fahrenheit, is vaporized by the heat exchanger. Nitrogen gas formed in the heat
exchanger expands to about 700 times the volume of its liquid form. This highly
pressurized gas is then fed to the expander, where the force of the nitrogen gas is
converted into mechanical power.

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8. India’s First Cryogenic Engine (GSLV-D5)

GSLV-D5 is the eighth flight of India's Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle


(GSLV). It is also the fourth developmental flight of GSLV. GSLV-D5 vehicle is
configured with its first and second stages similar to the ones flown during earlier
GSLV missions. The third stage is the Indigenous Cryogenic Stage. The metallic
payload fairing with a diameter of 3.4 metre is adopted for GSLV-D5. S-band
telemetry and C-band transponders enable GSLV-D5 performance monitoring,
tracking, range safety / flight safety and Preliminary Orbit Determination (POD).
GSLV-D5 was launched from the Second Launch Pad (SLP) at Satish Dhawan Space
Centre SHAR, Sriharikota on January 05, 2014

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9. Next Generation of Rocket Engine

Generally any rocket engine burns their respective fuels to generate the thrust. If any
other engine has capacity to generate thrust efficiently then it can be called rocket
engine. Currently NASA scientists are working on ‘Xenon Ion Engine’ which
accelerates the ions or atomic particles to extremely high to create thrust more
effectively and efficiently by usage of electrostatic or electromagnetic force by the
principle of Lorentz force or Columbian force.

Fig (3) Xenon Ion Engine

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10. Advantages

Storable liquid stages of PSLV and GSLV engines used presently release harmful
products to the environment.

The trend worldwide is to change over to eco-friendly propellants. Liquid engines


working with cryogenic propellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) and semi
cryogenic engines using liquid oxygen and kerosene are considered relatively
environment friendly, non-toxic and non corrosive. In addition, the propellants for
semi-cryogenic engine are safer to handle & store. It will also reduce the cost of
launch operations.

This advanced propulsion technology is now available only with Russia and USA.
India capability to meet existing mission requirements. The semi cryogenic engine will
facilitate applications for future space missions such as the Reusable Launch Vehicle,
Unified Launch Vehicle and vehicle for interplanetary missions.

 High Specific Impulse


 Non-toxic and non-corrosive propellants
 Non-hypergolic, improved ground safety

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11. Disadvantages:

 Low density of liquid Hydrogen - more structural mass


 Low temperature of storage - complex storage
 Transfer systems and operations
 Hazards related to cryogens
 Overall cost of propellants relatively high
 Need for ignition system

Drawbacks of Cryogenic Propellants - :

1. Highly reactive gases

Cryogens are highly concentrated gases and have a very high reactivity. Liquid
oxygen, which is used as an oxidizer, combines with most of the organic materials to
form explosive compounds. So lots of care must be taken to ensure safety.

2. Leakage

One of the most major concerns is leakage. At cryogenic temperatures, which are
roughly below 150 degrees Kelvin or equivalently (-190) degrees Fahrenheit, the seals
of the container used for storing the propellants lose the ability to maintain a seal
properly. Hydrogen, being the smallest element, has a tendency to leak past seals or
materials.

Hydrogen can burst into flames whenever its concentration is approximately 4% to


96%. It is hence necessary to ensure that hydrogen leak rate is minimal and does not
present a hazard. Also there must be some way of determining the rates of leakage and
checking whether a fire hazard exists or not. The compartments where hydrogen gas
may exist in case of a leak must be made safe, so that the hydrogen buildup does not
cause a hazardous condition.

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12. Conclusion

As we have seen in the above project, we can say that the Cryogenic Rocket Engine is
the best rocket engine available at the time.
It can produce very high thrust by using gases like hydrogen and oxygen which are
freely and abundantly available in atmosphere.
The exhaust of a Cryogenic Engine is combination of hydrogen and oxygen i.e., water
only.
Till the next generation of very high thrust producing rocket engines the Cryogenic
Rocket Engine is the best rocket engine.

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13. References

[1] ‘A Method for Simulation of a Cryogenic Liquid Propellant Engine’ by Mahzad


Chitsaz1, a, Ehsan A. Tahmasebi2,b and Hasan Karimi M.3,c
1,2,3K.N.Toosi University of Technology, Aerospace Department, Tehran, Iran
amahzad_chitsaz@yahoo.com, be.a.tahmasebi@gmail.com, ckarimi@kntu.ac.ir in
Applied Mechanics and Materials Vols. 110-116 (2012) pp 2370-2376

[2] Cryogenic rocket engine by Akhil Chhaniyara ISSN 2278 – 0149 Vol. 2, No. 4,
October 2013

[3] Research on high pressure cryogenic combustion by O.J. Haidn, M. Habiballah


Aerospace Science and Technology 7 (2003) 473–491

[4] ‘Technology Challenges for Deep-Throttle Cryogenic Engines for Space


Exploration ‘by Kendall K. Brown and Karl W. Nelson, Liquid Engine & MPS
Systems Branch, NASA Marshall Space Flight Centre, Huntsville, AL. 35812
(256) 544-5938, fax (256) 544-5876

[5] ‘Advanced Rocket Engines’ by Oskar J. Haidn Institute of Space Propulsion,


German Aerospace Center (DLR) 74239 Lampoldshausen Germany

[6] George P. Sutton & Oscar Biblarz (2001). Rocket Propulsion Element (7th Ed.).
Wiley Interscience. ISBN 0-471-32642-9.

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