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The Costs and Benefits of Consuming

Author(s): Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi


Source: The Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Sep., 2000), pp. 267-272
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/254316
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The Costs and Benefits of Consuming

MIHALY
CSIKSZENTMIHALYI*

Consuming is defined as behavior whereby entropy is increased in exchange for


existential or experiential rewards. Existential rewards are well known-for ex-
ample, the satisfaction of Maslowian needs. But experiential rewards are perhaps
just as important:these refer to the temporary improvement in positive mood people
experience when they are acting in goal-directed, purposeful ways. Consuming is
one way for obtaining such experiences. It is suggested that in order to evaluate
the impact of consuming it is necessary to measure the entropy costs of the
behavior balanced against the psychic benefits it provides.

A lmost half a century ago, the social philosopher more closely at what leads us to consume, in orderto better
Hannah Arendt warned that advances in technology understand what motivates this behavior. It is no
and the increase in free time were providing humankind exaggerationto say that the futureof the world may depend
with the opportunityto consume the whole world. "That on it.
. . . consumption is no longer restricted to the necessities There are many ways to define "consuming,"depending
but, on the contrary,mainly concentrateson the superfluities on what aspect of the phenomenonone wishes to highlight.
of life . .. harborsthe grave dangerthateventuallyno object In the present case, I wish to bring attention to the most
of the world will be safe from consumptionand annihilation inclusive context in which consumingcould be viewed: that
throughconsumption"(Arendt1958). At the time these lines of the physical consequences of the process in terms of
may have sounded like hyperbole. But recent calculations energy exchange. Fromthis point of view, a definitionmight
suggest that if the rest of the world's population was to run as follows: Consuming consists of energy expended to
develop a lifestyle approachingthat of the United States or improve the quality of life by means of increasing entropy.
of WesternEurope, at least two additionalplanets such as In other words, consuming entails an exchange of psychic
ours would have to be harnessed to provide the required energy (usuallyin its symbolic form,i.e., money) for objects
energy and materials.Humans now consume 40 percentof or services that satisfy some humanneed. These objects are
all the net photosynthesizedbiomass producedon the planet, relativelyhigh in potentialenergy to begin with, but through
with the developed countries consuming at rates that are the process of consumingthey are brokendown into useless
often tenfold those of countries with less developed
things with low potential energy.
economies (Henderson 1999). Since at this time we have
This definitionseems paradoxicalin that entropy or the
no access to two spare planets to exploit, we should look
decay of orderedsystems and objects to more randomstates
with less potential energy is a naturalprocess for which
*Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi is currently the C. S. and D. J. Davidson no energy input is usually needed. The Second Law of
Professor at the Peter Drucker School of Managementof the Claremont Thermodynamics specifies that with time entropy must
GraduateUniversity in Claremont,CA, where he also directs the Quality increase in all closed systems. So why are we willing to
of Life ResearchCenter.Previously he was professorof psychology at the
University of Chicago for 30 years. He is best known for his books Flow
pay for something that would happenanyway? Why do we
(1990), Creativity(1996), and Finding Flow (1997). ProfessorCsikszent- go to great lengths hastening the onset of disorder in the
mihalyi is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the universe?The answeris, of course, thatwe expect to benefit
AmericanAcademy of Education,and the HungarianAcademy of Science. in certain ways from increasingentropy.
Addresscorrespondenceto the authorat 1021 N. DartmouthAvenue, Clare-
mont, CA 9171 1; e-mail: miska@cgu.edu.
For example, the steer that produced the rare steak one
buys at the supermarkettook a greatdeal of effortandenergy
267

? 2000 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc. 0 Vol. 27 0 September 2000


All rights reserved. 0093-5301/2001/2702-0008$03.00
268 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH

to raise, feed, butcher,and transport.It contains a relatively the culturein which we live, it is useful to startthe analysis
high numberof calories, proteins,and other substancesthat with a considerationof human needs. Of the many taxon-
can be transformedinto work. Because of this, it has a omies developed by psychologists, the one by Abraham
certain value. After the steak is consumed, however, its Maslow (1968, 1971) is one of the most succinct, and one
materials are broken down into waste with low potential that is familiarto studentsof consumerbehavior(Kilbourne
energy and no value. 1987). The model involves only five factors or levels, and
But as the food is transformed into waste, energy is it is reasonablycomprehensive.We might, therefore,use it
liberatedand transferredto the consumer.So the process of to help with a preliminaryclassification of what motivates
eating is not wasteful because the energy that went into the consumerbehavior.
productionof the steak goes to increase the diner's energy
(however,one might point out thatcomparedto eating other The "Lower"Needs: Survivaland Safety
foods, eating steaksis relativelymore wasteful).By contrast,
most consumption provides little or no returnof this kind According to Maslow's theory, the most basic needs that
to the consumer.Let us imagine, for instance, a fatherwho motivate a person are physiological survival needs: to eat,
feels the need to demonstratehis love for his small son by drink, have sex, breathe, sleep, be warm, and eliminate.
buying an expensive electric car for his birthday.Building When these needs are not met, the person will turn all of
the car took some raw materials, manufacturingeffort, a his or her psychic energy to the task of satisfying them. But
great deal of marketing, salesmanship, and transportation as soon as these needs are met, a "higher"set of needs will
costs. The price tag took a not indifferent bite out of the usually attracta person's attention.A greatdeal of consumer
father's pocketbook.For a few hoursthe boy plays with the behavioris directedto satisfy survivalneeds: food, clothing,
car, and father and son have some mildly pleasanttime out and shelterbeing paramount.However,as we shall see later,
of it. But soon the novelty wears off. The car does not run rarely does a productor service satisfy only basic needs; it
well on the carpet or the sidewalk, so the boy takes it out is more usual for a whole range of lower and higher needs
more and more rarely.Now it sits in the basement,a useless to be involved in every consumer exchange.
hulk slowly turningto rust, taking up space. Is the result of Next on Maslow's hierarchyare safety needs: to live in
such consumer behavior a net increase in entropy or not? a stable, predictableenvironmentand to be free of anxiety.
Of course if one took into account the entire cycle of Many consumer decisions are promptedby safety needs,
production and consumption we might see a different from buying a house in a "good" neighborhoodto buying
picture. Productionentails a negentropicactivity one that a handgun or antidepressantdrugs. Other exchanges, in-
takes raw materials and turns them into useful goods. Yet cluding paying to get an advanced academic degree, or in-
production also creates disorder in the planetary system: vesting in retirementannuities, are also promptedat least
agrobusiness leaves dangerous chemical residues and in part by the desire to achieve security.
washes away fertile topsoil; manufacturecreates pollutants
and exhausts limited naturalresources. So to calculate the Love and Belonging
net effect of consumption one first needs to add up the
positive outcomes: the increase in order due to productive Midpoint in Maslow's scheme, the need for love and
processes, and the improvementin the quality of life. Then belonging is rooted in our fear of isolation and loneliness.
one should subtractfrom this the negative outcomes: the Social animals like humans are genetically programmedto
entropy caused by the processes of production, and the seek out the companyof othermembersof the species. When
entropycaused by using up the goods produced.If the result alone (and especially when no pressing task demands at-
is negative, it means that consumption is acceleratingthe tention), the quality of experiencefor most people declines;
rate of decay; if positive, it suggests that it helps the depression and bad mood take over (Csikszentmihalyi
evolution of order in the universe. In the present essay, I 1991). In additionto this generic need for humancompany,
am going to focus only on one term of this equation:how human beings have also evolved a more specific desire to
does consumptionimprove the quality of life? be close and to share the experiences of one or a few other
persons, usually of the opposite sex. Thus, a need for af-
HOW CONSUMER BEHAVIOR MEETS fection, to love and be loved, is also fundamentalto human
EXISTENTIAL NEEDS motivation.
The implications of this set of needs for consumer be-
Because consumerbehavioris largely drivenby the desire haviorare many and diverse. For example, bars,restaurants,
to satisfy needs that have been programmedin our minds sport arenas, museums, and concert halls provide opportu-
either by the genes we inheritor the memes' we learnfrom nities to mix with others, to see and be seen. The entire
entertainmentindustry is predicatedon experiencing good
'A "meme" is a concept introduced by the British biologist Richard times vicariously in the company of virtualfellow revelers.
Dawkins (1976) to refer to programmedbehavioralunits that are learned,
ratherthan inheritedgenetically. It derives from the Greek word for imi-
The psychic energy of consumers is targetedwith ads that
tation, mimesis. Several writershave found the concept useful for describ- show masses of young people partying on beaches or in
ing the production,selection, and transmissionof culturalinformation(e.g., bars. If you buy this product,the subtext says, you will not
Blackmore 1999: Csikszentmihalyi 1993; Wright2000). have to be alone ever again.
THE COSTS AND BENEFITSOF CONSUMING 269

The need to belong is also served by conformity.When had for their owner, reasons dealing with self-esteem were
we dress according to fashion, use the latest kitchen appli- among the most frequently mentioned, sharing first place
ance, or take a vacation at the "in" resort we feel that we with goods thatwere cherishedfor reasonsof belongingness
are part of a group we aspire to belong to, and that we are and love (Csikszentmihalyiand Rochberg-Halton1980).
accepted by its members.Again, advertisingbuilds heavily The need for self-actualization,accordingto Maslow, be-
on this need that once was known as "keepingup with the comes preeminentafter the other four more basic needs are
Joneses," but which is apparentlyas old and universal as satisfied. It would seem that of all the needs, self-actuali-
anything is in human nature. zation has the least predictableimpact on consumerbehav-
Consuming relates to the need to love and be loved by ior. A person driven to achieve personal growth is more
providing opportunities to demonstrate one's feelings likely to lead a frugal life, perhaps to retire to an ashram
throughgifts. From extravagantbaby showers to elaborate or monastery,than to invest heavily in goods. The kind of
funeral arrangements,through graduationpresents and di- persons Maslow used as models of self-actualiza-
amond rings, we express our feelings for each other by tion-Thomas Jefferson, Eleanor Roosevelt, Albert Ein-
allowing the loved one to own things that took a great deal stein, Albert Schweitzer were not big spenders, and in
of energy to make or bring about, so that he or she can many ways strove to become independentof the market.
dispose of it and preside over its disintegration. Yet it has been arguedthatcertainfeaturesusuallyassociated
Goods used to express belonging or love have symbolic with the sacred realms of life, such as ritual, mystery, and
value. It is generally assumed that the more expensive the communitas, can also accompany mundane consumer be-
gift, the greater the appreciationor love felt by the giver, havior (Belk, Wallendorf,and Sherry 1989).
and thus the greaterthe obligation the recipient should feel In fact, on closer look it seems that many consumerde-
in return.Thus, the energy expended on the gift is returned cisions may be driven by the need for self-actualization.
as goodwill. Objects that convey love and belonging need After all, traveling to sit at the feet of a genuine Buddhist
not be valuable in economic terms,however.The most cher- guru entails buying at least a round-tripairfare ticket to
ished things in people's homes are rarely items that were India.The scholarin his studyconsumes esotericknowledge
bought, but rather things that embody the psychic energy that is expensive to produce and to preserve. Art, music,
of a loved one, like a quilt sewn by one's grandmother,or and the appreciationof luxury items may also producetran-
an athletictrophywon by one's child (Csikszentmihalyiand scendent experiences. Perhapsonly a few extremely dedi-
Rochberg-Halton 1980). Thus gifts cannot be reduced to cated altruistic individuals, such as Albert Schweitzer,
lower-orderneeds involving instrumentalgoals and calcu- MotherTheresa,and the saintly moral exemplarsdescribed
lation of exchange;at least occasionallythey areexpressions by Colby and Damon (1992) can be said to have pursued
of relatively selfless agapic love (Belk and Coon 1993). self-actualization without increasing entropy in their
environment.
The HigherNeeds: Esteem and Self-Actualization A yardsticksuch as Maslow's model suggests thatit may
be possible to measure the value of consumer behavior in
The need for self-esteem-to feel competent, respected, terms of how variouschoices satisfy basic existentialneeds.
and superior is presentalreadyin children,and is presum- It may be possible to answer such questions as, How ex-
ably active even when the lower-orderneeds are not entirely pensive, in termsof energy expended,is it to satisfy security
met. But they become fully active after survival, safety, and needs? Or esteem needs? For person X or Y? For a given
belongingness needs are more or less taken care of. At that communityor nation?Having such informationwould allow
point we can indulge in purchasing goods that show our us to make rationaldecisions about the value of consumer
uniqueness and separateus from the rest of the crowd. As choices thatcurrentlyare madewithoutconscious awareness
Belk (1988) notes, "Evidencesupportingthe generalprem- of the real costs and benefits involved.
ise that possessions contributeto sense of self is found in This would be possible if consumerbehaviorwere driven
a broad arrayof investigations." solely by the predictable,universal needs that Maslow and
Goods that fulfill esteem needs are symbolic in nature, others have identified.Unfortunately,consumerchoices are
even though they often serve other motives as well. For made for a variety of otherreasons thatare even less clearly
instance, one's car could be used to drive to work, and thus understoodand that may place just as great a burden on
satisfies survival needs; it could also have been purchased planetaryresources. We might designate this other class of
because it is safe and reliable. But if we pay extra for status needs as experiential needs, to distinguish them from the
attributes,the car will then become a symbol indicatingour existential needs discussed thus far.
superiorityand social worth.
Not all objects consumed for esteem reasons are com-
petitive status symbols. Many are acquired because they HOW CONSUMER BEHAVIOR MEETS
allow the personto practiceand perfect a special skill which EXPERIENTIAL NEEDS
is importantto his or her identity, such as musical instru-
ments, tools, photo equipment, books that reflect the per- The Maslowian model suggests that individuals are al-
son's interests, sports and gardening equipment, and so ways motivatedby some discrete,specific need for survival,
forth. In our study of the meaning that household objects safety, and so on. In reality this is not the case. In everyday
270 JOURNALOF CONSUMERRESEARCH

life, people often find themselves in an existential vacuum rent proratesat $10 an hour,then it means that my time is
where no clear need suggesting a specific goal presentsitself worth at least $35 an hour even without counting the cost
to consciousness. Normal Americanteenagers,for instance, of clothing, furniture,and so forth that may also be con-
when they are paged at randommoments of the day, report tributingto the value of my time.
30 percent of the time that what they are doing is not what Thus, consuming is one of the ways we respond to the
they want to do, and that they cannot think of anythingelse void that pervadesconsciousness when thereis nothingelse
they would ratherbe doing instead. Although this pattern to do. Shoppingand surroundingourselves with possessions
is strongest when teenagers are in school, it is also typical is a relatively easy way to forestall the dread of nonbeing,
of responses at home (Csikszentmihalyi and Schneider even though it may have serious consequences in terms of
2000). While we have fewer data from adults, what there increasingentropy.
is suggests that they also spend quite a large part of their Yet consuming, beyond a certain point, seems to con-
days in a state where, as far as they are concerned, "there tribute little to a positive experience. Contraryto popular
is nothing to do." opinion, things thatcan be boughtdo not enhancehappiness
This pattern is significant because when a person feels by much. The evidence for this statement, while circum-
that there is nothing to do, the quality of experience tends stantial,is quite convincing. A numberof studies show that
to decline. One feels less alert, active, strong, happy, and beyond a ratherlow threshold,materialwell-being does not
creative. Self-esteem declines. Contraryto what one might correlate with subjective well-being (Csikszentmihalyi
expect, such a negative experiential state is more likely to 1999; Diener 2000; Myers 2000). For instance, while the
occur at home in free time and less often at work, where average American's income measured in constant dollars
goals are usually clear and attentionis morereadilyengaged has doubled in the last 40 years, the level of happinessthey
(Csikszentmihalyiand LeFevre 1989). reporthas not changed. Winning the lottery creates a small
What this suggests is that in addition to the existential blip of happiness that lasts a few months, after which the
needs described by Maslow and others, we also have a lucky winner's happiness returnsto what it was before. In
need perhaps peculiar to human beings to keep con- a current longitudinal study tracking over 800 American
sciousness in an organized state, focused on some activity teenagersthroughhigh school andbeyond, we findthatteens
that requires attention. When there is nothing to do and from the most affluent suburbstend to be less happy and
attention starts to turn inward, we begin to ruminate,and have lower self-esteem than those from middle-class com-
this generally leads to depression. By and large, when we munities, and even than those living in inner city slums
start thinking about ourselves rather than about what we (Csikszentmihalyiand Schneider2000). Severalresearchers
need to accomplish,attentionturnsto deficits.We aregetting have shown that excessive concern with financial success
old and fat, we are losing ourhair,ourchildrendon't worship and materialvalues is associated with lower levels of life
us as they should, or we haven't accomplishedmuch in life. satisfactionand self-esteem, presumablybecause such con-
As a result, our mood begins to turnsour (Csikszentmihalyi cerns reflect a sense of "contingentworth" predicatedon
1993, 1997; Csikszentmihalyi and Figurski 1982). The having ratherthan being (Kasser and Ryan 1993; Richins
downward spiral of ruminationis interruptedonly when and Dawson 1992).
attention is again engaged by some need that suggests a In one study we correlatedthe happiness that American
goal: preparingdinner,taking the dog for a walk, or, if all adults reported experiencing in their free time with the
else fails, watching the news on TV. Yet trying to fill un- amountof fossil and electrical energy that the activity they
structuredtime with passive entertainmentdoes not work were doing at the time consumed (Graef, Gianinno, and
well; the quality of experience while watchingTV is barely Csikszentmihalyi1981). If a personwas readinga magazine
more positive than that of the slough of despond thatawaits when the pager signaled, for example, more energy was
the unfocused mind (Kubey and Csikszentmihalyi1990). expended than if he or she had been reading a book, since
The experientialneed to keep consciousness tuned is re- producing a magazine (in terms of manufacturingpaper,
sponsible for a great deal of consumerbehavior.It could be printing,sales, distribution,and so on) requiresmore BTUs
said of shopping, as MacLuhansaid of television, "the me- of energy per unit of reading time than it takes to produce
dium is the message."In otherwords, it often does not matter a book. Thus if there were a direct relationshipbetween
what we are shoppingfor the point is to shop for anything, energy consumption and quality of experience, a person
regardless.It is a goal-directedactivity, and thus it fills the shouldbe happierwhen readinga magazinethanwhen read-
experiential vacuum that leads to depression and despair. ing a book. Instead, we found the opposite: a slight but
The fact that we have to pay, that is, expend the equivalent significant negative relationshipbetween the average BTU
of psychic energy, for what we acquire lends an additional load of activitiesandthe happinesspeople experiencedwhile
importanceto the activity. If we spend money, it must be doing them. There was an interestinggender difference:for
worthwhile. As Linder (1971) pointed out, the value of the men BTUs did not relate to happiness at all, whereas for
goods we consume in leisure becomes a measure of the women the relationship was quite strong in the negative
value of our time. If in one hour's time I drink $20 worth direction. According to the Departmentof Energy, about 7
of a single-malt Scotch, while listening to a stereo that de- percent of all the energy consumed in the United States is
preciates at the rate of $5 an hour, in an apartmentwhere spent on discretionaryleisure activities, from traveling to
THECOSTS AND BENEFITSOF CONSUMING 271

snowmobiling, from skiing to TV watching. It is important andpoweredby sunlight.But to facilitatethis transformation


to realize, therefore,that a substantialamountof this energy in taste, it will probably be necessary to legislate a new
could be saved without impairing the quality of life, and fiscal policy-one that taxed goods in proportionto the
perhapsactually improving it. amount of entropy their production and consumption
Why is there a negative relationshipbetween energy con- entailed.
sumed and happiness? The answer to this question may Craftspersons,chefs, athletes, musicians, dancers,teach-
suggest a new way of thinking about consuming, one that ers, gardeners,artists,healers, poets-these are the workers
maximizes the quality of experience while minimizing the creating goods that increase human well-being without de-
amountof entropyproducedas a result.The reasonactivities grading the complexity of the world. Is it impossible to
with low external physical energy requirementsresult in develop an economy based on a majorityof workersof this
greaterhappiness is that they usually requiregreaterinputs kind? Where consumptioninvolves the processing of ideas,
of psychic energy. Having a good conversationmakes very symbols, and emotional experiences ratherthan the break-
little demandson environmentalenergy,but it demandscon- down of matter?Let us hope this transitionis not impossible,
centrated attention and mental activity, and can be very because otherwise the futurelooks grim indeed. And if the
enjoyable. So are activities such as reading, gardening, transition does come about, the Journal of ConislumerRe-
painting, working on crafts, writing poetry, or doing math- search will be filled with articles about music, art, poetry,
ematics. In general, people reportbeing happierwhen they and dance-the creative energy of the new economy.
are actively involved with a challengingtask, and less happy In the meantime, what suggestions does this perspective
when they are passively consuming goods or entertainment provide to those doing research in the field? Perhaps the
(Csikszentmihalyi1997, 1999). main message is that ignoring the causes and consequences
of consumer behavior is dangerous.It would be unaccept-
able for neurologists to study an addictive drug without
CONSUMING IN THE THIRD taking into account the pros and cons of its use. Similarly,
MILLENNIUM researchthat deals with consumerbehaviorwithoutconsid-
ering the context in which it is embedded cannot claim to
Ever since Adam Smith, we have learned to say that contributeto basic knowledge, and remainslittle more than
productionis justified by consumption;thatthe needs of the
applied marketresearch.
consumer dictate what the economy should provide (Borg-
Science proceeds by developing an agreed-uponset of
mann 2000; Smith [17761 1985). This relationshipwas so
measurementsand definitions.For consumerresearchto ad-
obvious to Smith that he did not believe it was worth ar-
vance in the direction foreshadowed here, it seems that
guing; ever since, it has become a mantraof economics. In
agreementon the following dimensions should be useful:
reality, however, the situation has turnedout to be exactly
the opposite: it is the imperativeto producethat is dictating Whatare the costs of a specific unitof consumerbehavior,
the need to consume. Economic forecasts are based on in- in terms of the consumer?The social networkof which the
creasing demands: unless people buy more houses, more consumer is a part? The ecological network? Such costs
cars, more sporting equipment and clothes, the economy may best be expressed in the common languageof entropy.
will falter. To buy-even if one does not have the means Even though entropy is manifested differently in psycho-
and has to fall ever deeper in debt-is a patriotic act. To logical, social, andbiological systems, at each of these levels
refrain from consuming is antisocial; it is seen as a threat it refers to an increase in disorder and loss of capacity to
to the community.We have locked ourselves into a vicious do work.
cycle that forces us to increase entropy in the environment To balance the costs of consumptionwe should be able
without providing commensuratevalue. to measure accurately its benefits. These tend to be of a
Is there a way to break out of this cycle? Obviously, we negentropic kind, that is, they involve greater order and
could not simply reduce consuming to the level appropriate greater disposable energy at the levels of the person, the
to satisfy Maslow's survival and safety needs-even if we social system, and the environment.These benefits are not
wanted to-without weakening the productive sector and always congruentwith each other.For instance,the purchase
causing unemploymentto run rampant.But it might be pos- of a Ferrarimay help the self-esteem of an executivepushing
sible to reinvent consumption in such a way that it would 50, but cause conflict with his wife.
satisfy both existential and experiential needs at minimal Also, it is importantto keep in mind that the relation
energetic costs while at the same time preserving the between costs and benefits is usually quadraticratherthan
economy. linear.Up to a certainpoint, materialresourcesadd greatly
The first step in this directioninvolves a clear accounting to the quality of life. But where is the point of inflection
of the real costs of different consumer choices. Eventually after which the relationshipmay no longer exist, or actually
this should lead to a new sense of good and bad, beautiful become negative?
and ugly. If the true entropic costs of a sport utility vehicle We already know that materialpossessions alone do not
were kept in mind, for instance, even the most attractive improve the quality of life. We know thatexcessive concern
vehicle of that sort would seem indecently coarse. Instead for materialgoals is a sign of dissatisfactionwith life. We
we would marvel at the beauty of a car made of bamboo know that trying to avoid the mental chaos of everyday life
272 JOURNALOF CONSUMERRESEARCH

by resortingto acquisitionsand passive entertainmentdoes sive Experience in Everyday Life," Journal of Personality,
not work very well. Yet we insist in the vain hope that we 50 (1), 15-28.
can achieve happinessthroughconsumption-regardless of and JudithLeFevre (1989), "OptimalExperiencein Work
consequences. Certainly one of the greatest services that and Leisure,"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
56 (5), 815-822.
consumer research can do for humankindis to document
and Eugene Rochberg-Halton(1980), The Meaning of
these realities, and diffuse them to as wide a public as Things: Domestic Symbols and the Self, New York: Cam-
possible. bridge University Press.
Vague as these concepts are at this point, the progressof and Barbara Schneider (2000), Becoming Adults, New
scholarshipin the field will greatlybenefitfrom takingthem York:Basic.
seriously. Eventually it should be possible to develop rea- Dawkins, R. (1976), The Selfish Gene, Oxford:OxfordUniversity
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level of rationalitythan is possible with currentcriteria. Happiness,"AmericanPsychologist, 55 (1), 34-43.
Graef, Ronald, Susan McManamaGianinno, and Mihaly Csiksz-
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