Ignition of Fuel Slurries Based on Waste

Products of Coal and Oil Refining

A Thesis
Presented to the
School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Mapúa University

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science in Manufacturing Engineering

Ramos, Chester Jericho O.

2015108036
Rulona, Elisha Bianca D.
2015102613
Sambrano, Dave
2015110907
Sazon, John Edward A.
2015151039

October 2018
 ABSTRACT

In coal washing, hundreds of millions of tons of wastes are annually produced leading for

the contamination in the environment which also affect human health. This study aims to develop

the CWS and CWSP technologies that can provide safer utilization of wastes and lessen the

anthropogenic actions. This also analyzes the ignition of organic coal-water slurries based on coal

washing waste products in terms of their differences in their characteristics and conditions. For

coal washing waste products, the following are considered; non-baking, coking, low-caking, fat,

gas, and flame coals. The results of this study for coal washing and oil refining are shown. The

ignitions’ minimum temperature and delay time for the tested slurries are estimated. Formulations

were made for the conclusions found on the influence of the properties and concentrations of the

slurry components to the combustion initiation characteristics.

ii
APPROVAL SHEET

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This part of the paper is dedicated to the people who became part of our journey, through

the ups and downs and for the institutes and departments that made this possible.

We would like to thank the people who conducted this study namely, Vershinina K. Yu.,

Lyrshchikov D. Yu., and P.A. Strizhak for providing such an excellent study which made this

paper possible.

The research was made possible by the effort of our group and guidance of our professor

in methodology of research. They give our most sincere gratitude to the people who became part

of our research. They also like to acknowledge the effort of the individual member to make this

research successful.

They would like to thank Dr. Mark Christian Manuel for teaching the fundamentals they

need in completing this research. His class in methods of research has given us the knowledge and

guidance that helped our group in fulfilling our goal to finish the research.

They would like to thank the School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering for

providing the course, methods of research, that taught us the basics in research making.

They would like to thank Mapua University for providing a reliable Wi-Fi connection that

help us progress in our research while working inside the institute.

Last but not the least, they would like to thank their family for providing support in their

study in Mapua University. They also served as our inspiration in finishing this research. They

would not be here if it were not for them, our family.

Above all else, they would like to give our deepest gratitude to God for His mighty grace

that helped us overcome the hardships they faced during the progress of this research.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii

APPROVAL SHEET ..................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ v

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Overview and Background ..................................................................................... 1

1.2 Statement of Problem .............................................................................................. 2

1.3 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................... 3

1.3.1 General Objectives ..................................................................................... 3

1.3.2 Specific Objectives ..................................................................................... 3

1.4 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................ 4

1.5 Scope and Limitation .............................................................................................. 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ 6

2.1 Burning Properties of Slurry Based on Coal and Oil Processing Waste (Glushkov
et al. 2016) .......................................................................................................................... 6

2.2 Gaseous Emissions from Co-Combustion of Sewage Sludge and Coal/Wood in a

Fluidized Bed (Åmand and Leckner 2004) ......................................................................... 8

2.3 Emission Characteristics of PCDD/Fs, PAHs and PCBs During the Combustion
of Sludge-Coal Water Slurry (Zhao et al. 2015) ............................................................... 10

v
 2.4 Environmentally and Economically Efficient Utilization of Coal Processing
Waste (Dmitrienko and Strizhak 2017) ............................................................................ 12

2.5 An Experimental Study of the Viscosity of Coal - Water Slurry with a

Biffractional Composition of its Dispersed Phase (Mingaleeva et al. 2012) .................... 14

2.6 Ignition of the Coal – Water Slurry Containing Petrochemicals and Charcoal
(Kuznetsov et al. 2016) ..................................................................................................... 16

CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION .................................................................. 18

3.1 Combustion of Solid Fuel ..................................................................................... 18

3.2 Combustion of Liquid Fuel ................................................................................... 21

3.3 Mechanism of Coal-water Fuel Combustion ........................................................ 22

3.4 Prediction of Ignition Temperature: The Equations Required (Essenhigh, Misra,

and Shaw 1989)................................................................................................................. 23

CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 25

4.1 Coal Mining to Coal Slurry................................................................................... 26

4.2 Performing the Experiment ................................................................................... 26

4.2.1 Measurement Variables ............................................................................ 27

4.3 Components of Coal Water Slurry Containing Petrochemicals (CWSP) ............. 29

4.3.1 Combustible Components ............................................................................ 29

4.3.2 Liquid Fuel ............................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................ 32

5.1 Results of the ignition and combustion................................................................. 32

5.2 Results of the Temperature of CWSP Droplets With Different Filter Cakes ....... 34

5.3 Results of calculated heat combustion of CWSP ................................................. 35

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .................................................... 44

vi
 6.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 44

6.2 Recommendation .................................................................................................. 45

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 46

APPENDIX A. STOICHIOMETRY EQUATIONS .................................................................... 50

APPENDIX B. GANTT CHART ................................................................................................. 51

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Schematic representation of the experimental setup. ................................................... 7

Figure 2.2. Schematic representation of the plants. CTH on the left and TUHH on the right. ...... 9

Figure 2.3. Schematic representation of a normal and advanced air staging. (𝜆: air ratio) .......... 10

Figure 2.4. Schematic representation of the device ...................................................................... 11

Figure 2.5. Schematic representation of the experimental setup. ................................................. 13

Figure 2.6. Schematic of the experimental process and setup. ..................................................... 15

Figure 2.7. Schematic represention of the experimental setup. ................................................... 16

Figure 4.1. Order of Process of the Experiment ........................................................................... 25

Figure 4.2. Experimental setup: air blower(1), heater(2), fuel droplet(3), fast-response

thermocouple(4), high speed camera(5) and hollow cylinder(6). ................................................ 26

Figure 5.1. CWSP droplets Ignition and Combustion: (a) gas phase and the combustion of fuel and

(b)combustion of the fuel (heteregenuos). .................................................................................... 34

Figure 5.2. Period evolution of temperature at the CWSP droplets centers containing different

types of filter cakes (90%) and used turbine oil (10%) (Rd ≈ 1 mm, Tg ≈ 900 K, and vg ≈ 1.5) 35

Figure 5.3. Graph of ignition delay time CWSP and temperature for filter cakes. ...................... 40

Figure 5.4. Graph of ignition delay time CWSP and temperature for different liquid fuel; 1) turbine

oil, 2)black fuel oil, 3)compressor oil and 4)transformer oil (all these oils are used oils) ........... 40

Figure 5.5. Min. temperature of ignition of a 1mm diameter droplet of CWSP with a ratio of 90%

filter cake and 10% fuel;1) black fuel oil, 2)transformer oil, 3)automobile oil(all these oils are used

oils) ............................................................................................................................................... 41

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4. 1. Measurement Variables .............................................................................................. 28

Table 4. 2. Wet filter cake properties ........................................................................................... 29

Table 4. 3. Dry filter cake properties ............................................................................................ 30

Table 4. 4. Liquid petrochemicals................................................................................................. 31

Table 5. 1. Heat combustion of coal water slurry containing petrochemicals CWS (Mixture of 90%

:10% wet filter cake to used oil) ................................................................................................... 36

Table 5. 2. Stable ignition of 1 droplet of CWSP with a ratio of 90% filter cake and 10% used

turbined oil under min. temperature.............................................................................................. 42

ix
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This study is conducted to investigate about the differences of ignition coal-water slurries

and coal washing waste products conditions and characteristics lessening the anthropogenic action

of coal processes and burning. This chapter discusses the overview and background, problem,

objectives, significance of the study and its scope and limitation.

1.1 OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND

For the next decades, coal is expected to keep its leading position in the world-wide

energy balance as per the predictions of the experts. In 2013, almost 41% energy in the

world comes from coal burning while for the years 2014-2016 it increased for about 46%.

(International Energy Agency, 2012; International Energy Agency, 2014). However, the

processing and utilization of coal production in the industry can be harmful to the

environment.

In coal washing, hundreds of millions of tons of wastes are annually produced. They

are specifically kept in facilities and in dumps leading for the contamination in the

environment. (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2013). It is found that being

exposed to nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon dioxide (COx), sulfur (S) along with the other

pollutants which are produced during coal dust burning is considered a factor to the

increased rates of diseases in large cities; Shanghai, China., Taipei, Taiwan., Valley,

Nepal., and India, respectively. (Liu W. et al, 2016; Wu C. et al., 2016; Chen P. et al.,

1
 2015; Oliveira M.L. et al., 2014). Researches also say that heavy metals can contaminate

the soil and water in regions where there is coal extraction and burning. Furthermore, it is

found that acids rains are caused by the emissions of coal power stations. (Noli F. et al,

2016; Singh S. et al, 2016).

Burning of the materials such as low-grade coals and industrial combustible wastes

as the components of composite fuels is a method for better utilization of the said wastes.

In publications and researches, these composite fuels are called coal-water slurry (CWS)

and coal-water slurry containing petrochemicals (CWSP) depending on their composition.

(Kijo-Kleczkowska A., 2011; Zhang Y. et al, 2014; Jianzhong L. et al, 2014; Glushkov

D.O., 2016).

Various investigations proposed the environmental advantages and effects of slurry

burning by the reduction of burning temperature and by absorbing the sulfur and nitrogen

oxides by water vaporization. (Osintsev K.V., et al, 2012; Dmitrienko M.A., 2017;

Nyashina G.S., 2017).

The usage of coal washing wastes known as filter cakes as a combustible

component in coal-water slurry (CWS) and coal-water slurry containing petrochemicals

(CWSP) is environmentally friendly and cost and energy efficient. Filter cakes are found

in regions with coal mining industry. It is a slurry in CWS and is a mixture of components

of about 40-50% of water, 200 μm mean size of coal particles and inflammable minerals.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Coal burning causes a significant adverse effect in the environment since it can

contaminate the environment in which can also affect the human health. There are previous

of investigations of the coal-water slurry (CWS) and coal-water slurry containing

2
 petrochemicals (CWSP) however the components of composite liquid fuels are limited.

Given that, in what conditions can the CWS and CWSP be improved and developed for

reduced anthropogenic actions and how does the properties and concentrations of the

components of the slurry affect the combustion initiation characteristics?

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1.3.1 General Objectives

The study aims to know the coal water slurries processes and combustion for the

development of effective technologies of waste burning.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives are the following:

1.3.2.1 To examine different characteristics and conditions of ignition of coal–water

slurries prepared based on coal washing waste products.

1.3.2.2 To study the impact of different properties and concentration of the components

of slurry in combustion initiation characteristics.

1.3.2.3 To analyze processes of ignition and combustion droplets of coal-water slurry

containing petrochemicals (CWSP).

1.3.2.4 To study the components of liquid fuel in turbine, transformer, automobile and

compressor oils.

1.3.2.5 To predict the variation ranges in the ignition parameter of fuels based on coal

washing wastes.

3
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study aims to develop the CWS and CWSP technologies that can provide

safer utilization of wastes and lessen the anthropogenic actions. This study could be a

solution to prevent environment contamination affecting human health. The data and

results of this study can be used for future researches which are related to this topic.

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION

The study focuses on the processes of ignition and combustion of individual

droplets of coal–water slurries prepared on the basis of typical wastes of coal and oil

processing for the purpose of the development of effective technologies of waste burning.

Ten measurements are performed with the same conditions in each series of

experiments. This will ensure accurate and precise results. The parameters used and

measured are the following:

 Temperature (Tg)

 Oxidizer flow velocity (vg)

 Droplet center temperature (Td)

 Mean radius of the fuel droplet (Rd)

 Ignition delay time (τd)

 Burning time (τb)

 Total burning time (τt)

4
 The studied fuels have combustible components of filter cakes of different types of

coal are considered (nonbaking, coking, low-coking, fat, flame, gas coals). For the CWSP

slurries wastes of oil origin were used since liquid fuel is its second component. This

component in the fuel slurry have a mass fraction of 5-15%.

In accordance with the required proportions, ViBRA HT 84RCE (electronic

analytical scale) was used for initial weighing of the fuel components. For the fuel

preparation, MPW-302 (homogenizer) was used.

5
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter discusses some studies related to the combustion, emissions, and efficient

utilization of coal-water wastes. This chapter also includes other studies on the effects of

combustion of fuels in human health and the environment.

2.1 BURNING PROPERTIES OF SLURRY BASED ON COAL AND OIL PROCESSING

WASTE (GLUSHKOV ET AL. 2016)

The study characterized a coal−water slurry containing petrochemicals (CWSP)

which was obtained in the cleaning of bituminous coals (filter cakes) and waste oils in the

powerplant of Kuznetsk Basin, Russia; and the range of concentration as an alternative fuel

in power plants.

The experiment was conducted using a set up shown in Fig. 1 where the thermal

and physical properties of combustion, and the time of ignition delays of CWSP with a size

of 80−100 μm are measured.

6
 Figure 2.1. Schematic representation of the experimental setup.

According to the results the addition of combustible liquid components within the

range of 5% to 15% doesn’t influence the stability of CWSP since the mixture only remains

stable in an average of 7-9 days. However, limiting the combustible liquid and

incombustible component preserves the stability period of fuel compositions in CWSP.

The composition of CWSP can be optimised by varying its water content to regulate the

viscosity within a wider range, and decreasing its humidity to generate a higher combustion

value for power plant equipment usage. The ignition delay and complete combustion

periods; namely τd and τc respectively, of the CWSP droplets in warm air are considered to

be as low estimates and can be 5% to 15% longer relative to the conditions that can create

a fluidized bed. If the thermocouple junction (between 5 and 6 as shown on Fig. 2.1.) of

the fuel droplet is removed, τd and τc will be 12% to 20% shorter due to the soaring of the

droplets in the combustion chamber. The increase in oxidant volume concentration from

20% to 30% corresponds to an increase in amount of exothermic heterogeneous and gas-

7
 phase reaction which reduces τd and τc by 15% to 25% considering the properties and

components of CWSP in this study.

It is concluded that to obtain an optimal composition of CWSP, some

considerations must be identified to have an acceptable concentration of components

according to application and priority, such as the volume of resources, the combustion

value, stability, viscosity and others that are stated in the results. Thus, it is not directly

reliant on the combustion value of the basic component concentration alone (considering

their enthalpy of combustion).

2.2 GASEOUS EMISSIONS FROM CO-COMBUSTION OF SEWAGE SLUDGE AND

COAL/WOOD IN A FLUIDIZED BED (ÅMAND AND LECKNER 2004)

As a method improving the waste (sludge) management that came from the

combustion of basic fuels in different plants, the viability of the co-combustion of sludge

to different base fuels, generally coal or wood, are investigated using a fluidized bed

combustion to reduce the emision of NOx, in particular, and other gaseous emissions.

The experiment was conducted on two plants shown in Fig. 2.2., namely the

circulating fluidized bed (CFB) combustor located at Chalmers Technical University

(CTH) in G𝑜̈ teborg, Sweden, and a pilot scale CFB unit at the Technical University

Hamburg-Harburg (TUHH), Germany. Both plants used either Polish coal or wood pellets

as base fuels combined with the municipal sewage sludge (based on specific operating

conditions) are burned, and as analyzed, the gaseous emissions in both plants are practically

similar based on different conditions.

8
Figure 2.2. Schematic representation of the plants. CTH on the left and TUHH on the right.

The results show that the co-combination of dried sewage sludge and base fuel

doesn’t have a problem for the combustion process, however, the sludge storage will be

difficult to handle because mainly of the odor, and the biological activity which increases

the temperature and calorific value reduction if the moisture exceeded 10%. If the sludge

has low heating value, it needs specific fuel to be burned.

The German and EU emission limits for different gases (CO, NOx, SO2 and etch.)

has been met, however, in regulating SO2 emission from co-combustion with wood a

specified addition of limestone is required. The presence of char helps to regulate the

emission of NO from sewage sludge (since it has a large amount of nitrogen) and only

emits less than 25% of waste energy fraction in a CFB combustor. With the addition of air

staging (Fig. 2.3.) to measure and control gaseous emission, the result shows that it is not

important in CFB since the char itself in the combustion chamber can reduce NO and N2O.

9
 Figure 2.3. Schematic representation of a normal and advanced air staging. (𝜆: air ratio)

It is concluded that the co-combustion with coal is better in NO reduction,

however, CO & N2O emission is lower with wood but capturing the sulfur with limestone

is inefficient with wood that with coal.

2.3 EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF PCDD/FS, PAHS AND PCBS DURING THE

COMBUSTION OF SLUDGE-COAL WATER SLURRY (ZHAO ET AL. 2015)

This study focuses on the combustion kinetics of sludge-coal water slurry (SCWS)

in terms of its combustive temperature to know its capability of burning, and the emission

of inorganic pollutants and the following organic pollutants: dibenzo-p-dioxins and

dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs), which were undertaken on indoor lab-scale experiment.

The experiments were conducted using circulating fluidized bed incinerator shown

in Fig. 4 in which the dewatered sludge that came from the Luzhi printing and dyeing

wastewater treatment in China, became a partly replacement for coal in CWS (in which

becomes SCWS) by proportion having a volume ratios of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 percent

10
with respect to the moisture of the sludge and coal, were incinerated with an incineration

temperature of greater than 1000 oC, for about 5 hrs., with a total burned content of 100 kg.

Figure 2.4. Schematic representation of the device

According to the results, incinerating the SCWS is capable only if the proportion

do not exceed 40%, however, the process emits inorganic pollutants that has NOx, Sox, CO,

HF and HCl. Increasing the sludge content tends to increase NOx and to decrease SOx

concentrations, and the increase in total PAHs (bicyclic and tricyclic) content which ranges

from 2.0015 (0%) to 9.7064 (30%) 𝜇g/m3. For the PCBs, 0.6191 (0%) to 1.7852 (20%)

𝜇g/m3 where the minimum and maximum content acquired respectively that shows high

content of low ring chlorinated homologues. Lastly for the PCDD/Fs, with an increase in

sludge proportion the I-TEQ (Toxic Equivalent Quantity) of PCDD/Fs content ranges from

0.06844 (20%) to 0.10779 (30%) ng/m3 which met the requirment of EU standary (within

0.1 ng/m3) for SCWS incineration.

It is concluded that incineration process of the SCWS met all the standard required

for the emission of organic and inorganic pollutants and is typically dependent on how the

11
 proportion of sludge has been added to SCWS, thus, based on the results, the optimal

proportion of sludge ranges from 20% to 30%.

2.4 ENVIRONMENTALLY AND ECONOMICALLY EFFICIENT UTILIZATION OF

COAL PROCESSING WASTE (DMITRIENKO AND STRIZHAK 2017)

A solution was proposed to lessen the hazardous anthropogenic emission by using

coal water slurry fuels instead of the conventional pulverized coal combustion. This study

also focused on the combustion temperature and component concentrations of coal fuels

impact to the concentrations of the anthropogenic emissions. Furthermore, rather than

using coal itself, they used coal processing waste – filter cakes.

The experiment was conducted using a set up shown in Fig. 2.5. For the analyzer

menu, fuel type mode is selected which consists of specific coefficients to be used in

calculating parameters. The preset used for the gas analyzer was coal gas for better

analyzation and estimation of the concentrations of the anthropogenic emissions in

combustion.

12
 Figure 2.5. Schematic representation of the experimental setup

Results showed that by using the coal water slurry than the conventional pulverized

coal combustion reduced gaseous emissions’ concentration through the chemical reaction

happened in the combustion. The ranges of concentration for carbon dioxide, carbon

monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and sulfur dioxide showed the following results of 2-10%, 65-

580ppm, 130-550 ppm and 150 ppm respectively. These results were better compared to

the previous investigations which showed higher ranges of concentrations of the

anthropogenic emissions.

To minimize and reduce the anthropogenic emission in CWS combustion, coals

and CWS must have 2.5 - 5% and 45 - 55% content of moisture. It also needs at least 30 -

40% high content of the combustible volatiles. Ash levels for coals and CWS should be

low for about 15 - 18% and 20 - 35%. Moreover, it should also have low content and low

13
 level of nitrogen and sulfur. Maximum environmental effect may be possible by having

enough and necessary combustion temperatures in CWS. Stable ignition can happen at

temperatures ranging from 550 °C - 750 °C.

It is concluded that burning coal processing waste included in coal-water slurry

(CWS) can be environmentally friendly and safer utilization. CWS does not only lessen

the emissions in the environment with lower concentrations but can also lessen and free

different regions from coal processing wastes.

2.5 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE VISCOSITY OF COAL - WATER SLURRY

WITH A BIFFRACTIONAL COMPOSITION OF ITS DISPERSED PHASE

(MINGALEEVA ET AL. 2012)

This study presents the physical picture that describes the interaction among coal

particles in coal-water slurry CWS (prepared from Kuznetsk lean coal only) with the

following parameters that influencing its viscosity: content of solid phase, suspension

temperature, composition of coal, state of the surface of particles, and others. The

rheological characteristics of CWS together with the pulverized bifractional composition

of coal that has different particle sizes (coarse and fine) are studied.

The Experiment was done through a process circuit shown in Fig. 2.6. in which the

theological properties and the preparing of CWS has been done.

14
 Figure 2.6. Schematic of the experimental process and setup.

The results explained that with a drop viscosity and fuidity point both occurs when

CWS components that is dispersed has particles with a large amount of difference with

each other since the large particle in the surface is approximated to be 1 (1st approximation)

and the force of attraction has a factor of 2 higher than the similar force, arised during

interaction of two spherical particles with the same radius, resulted for the small particles

to stick to the large particle’s surface that when a shear force is applied, the formed

structure ties will be broken between the stucked small particles in the different large

particles. This results are acquired through a varying shear rates ranges from 0 to 72.5 s-1

dependent on the fine particles in CWS fraction viscosity, having a minimal value at this

condition.

The data in this study concluded that in having a shear rate in a wide range anf

viscosity to be minimal, the prepared CWS in its dispersed phase that has a folid phase as

a fraction of mass to 60% must satisfy the composition as follows: the small particles 90

15
 µm in diameter must have a fraction of 25–30 wt % of the mass total of the solid particle,

and 200 µm in diameter is a must for the large particles.

2.6 IGNITION OF THE COAL – WATER SLURRY CONTAINING PETROCHEMICALS

AND CHARCOAL (KUZNETSOV ET AL. 2016)

The study presents the integral ignition characteristics in the oxidant flow

experimentally, namely the period of ignition delay, and the sustainable minimum

temperature in which coal - water - slurry containing petrochemicals (CWSP) initiate

combustion. The examination of these characteristics is done with a single droplet of

CWSP together with the charcoal comparing it CWS based on brown coal or filter cakes.

These processes was attained with an oxidizer flow temperature ranges from 600 K to 1000

K and velocity 0.5 m/s to 5 m/s.

Figure 2.7. Schematic representation of the experimental setup.

16
 The experiment was done with the setup shown in Fig. 2.7. where the measurements

of the needed data (period of ignition delay, and the sustainable minimum temperature) of

the CWSP droplet (ranges 0.5 mm to 2 mm) mixed with charcoal combustion is gathered.

The result show that charcoal is promising compared with the other base fuels since

even a small addition by weight, ranges from 10% to 15% of the relative concentration of

the charcoal, together with CWS or CWSP are needed to obtain a low minimum ignition

temperature having a less ignition delay period, this implies the optimality of charcoal in

CWSP. Lowering the content of ash with a higher combustion heat makes the charcoal an

important component for CWSP, since it further intensify the combustion of CWS fuels.

The results also shows that CWS based filter cakes or even the lowest grade of coal based

CWS, when combined to charcoal for it to have a fuel composition, can also intensify the

combustion process which makes the CWS from brown coal and filter cakes are also

applicable for combustion application. The period of ignition delay with the mixture of

CWSP and charcoal is shown likely to be similar with charcoal itself but has a great

difference if CWS that came from brown coal and filter cakes is combusted.

In conclusion, in creating an optimal combustion characteristic of CWSP, varying

the components of the solid fuel is a must since it is dependent on the phase of application

in the industry.

17
 CHAPTER 3

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION

3.1 COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUEL

Since solid fuel, coal and coke, are used base fuel used in the study, the theoretical

combustion must be given importance since the fundamental of this study is the efficiency

of the combustion where it will be mixed with slurries. Coal is flammable sedimentary rock

primary contains carbon, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen which make it combustible. Coke is

basically the product of destructive distillation wherein the coal is heated to 400 oC without

the presence of oxygen. The equations below show the theoretical combustion process of

coal based on its different components in which emits a product that if combine is called a

flue gas.

3.1.1. Combustion of Carbon C,

𝐶 + 𝑂2  𝐶𝑂2 (Eqn.3.1)

Balancing the Equation:

1moleC + 1mole𝑂2  1moleC𝑂2

𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
1mole[12 ]C + 1mole[16 ] (2)𝑂2  1mole[16 ] (2)𝑂2
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

12lbC + 32lb𝑂2  44lbC𝑂2

1
(12lbC + 32lb𝑂2  44lbC𝑂2) (12)

2 2
It is concluded that 1 lb of C requires 2 3 lbs of 𝑂2 to produce 3 3 lbs of C𝑂2

18
3.1.2. Combustion of Hydrogen, H2

(2)𝐻2 + 𝑂2  (2)𝐻2 (Eqn.3.2)

Balancing the Equation:

2moles𝐻2 + 1mole𝑂2  2moles𝐻2 𝑂

𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
2moles[1 ](2)𝐻2 + 1mole[16 ] (2)𝑂2  2mole[18 ] 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

4lb𝐻2 + 32lb𝑂2  36lb𝐻2 𝑂

1
(4lb𝐻2 + 32lb𝑂2  36lb𝐻2 𝑂) (4)

It is concluded that 1 lb of 𝐻2 requires 8 lbs of 𝑂2 to produce 9 lbs of 𝐻2 𝑂

3.1.3. Combustion of Sulfur, S

S + 𝑂2  𝑆𝑂2 (Eqn.3.3)

Balancing the Equation:

1molesS + 1mole𝑂2  1moles𝑆𝑂2

𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
1moles[32 ] 𝑆 + 1mole[16 ] (2)𝑂2  1mole[64 ] 𝑆𝑂2
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

32lb𝑆 + 32lb𝑂2  64lb𝐶𝑂2

1
(32lbS + 32lb𝑂2  64lb𝐶𝑂2) (32)

It is concluded that 1 lb of S requires 1 lb of 𝑂2 to produce 2 lbs of 𝑆𝑂2

3.1.4. Generalization for the emission of flue gas in air

𝑂 2 𝑙𝑏𝑂2 𝑙𝑏𝑂 𝑙𝑏𝑂2 (Eqn.3.4)

(𝐹 )= 2 3 + 8 𝑙𝑏𝐻2 + 1
𝑙𝑏𝐶 2 𝑙𝑏𝑆

Where: 𝑂
– Oxygen Fuel Ratio
𝐹

19
For a given gravimetric analysis of coal:

𝑂 2 𝑙𝑏𝑂2 𝑙𝑏𝐶 𝑙𝑏𝑂 𝑙𝑏𝐻 𝑙𝑏𝑂2 𝑙𝑏𝑆 (Eqn.3.5)

(𝐹 )= 2 3 (𝐶 𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙)+ 8 𝑙𝑏𝐻2 (𝐻2 𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙) + 1 (𝑆 𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙)
𝑙𝑏𝐶 2 𝑙𝑏𝑆

Instead of supplying pure 𝑂2, supply air

(Gravimetric)

Air = 23.1% 𝑂2+76.9% 𝑁2

(Volumetric)

Air = 21% 𝑂2 +79% 𝑁2

Then,

𝐴 𝑂 𝑙𝑏𝑂
2 1 (Eqn.3.6)
(𝐹 )= 𝐹 (𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 )( 𝑙𝑏𝑂2 )
0.231
𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑖𝑟
Where:
𝐴
− Air Fuel Ratio
𝐹

3.1.5. Heating Values

Heating values is characterized as the quantity of heat that was produced by

combustion or the theoretical energy released by the fuel after combustion, can be

characterized by two types: Higher Heating Value and Lower Heating Value. Equations

3.7 and 3.8 are characterized by Dulong’s Formula.

𝑂2 (Eqn.3.7)
𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 33,820 𝐶 + 144,212 (𝐻2 − ) + 9,304 𝑆
8

Where:

HHV – Higher Heating Value

𝐿𝐻𝑉 = 𝐻𝐻𝑉 − 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 ℎ𝑓𝑔 (Eqn.3.8)

20
 Where:

𝐿𝐻𝑉 − Lower Heating Value

𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 − Mass of H2O

ℎ𝑓𝑔 − Specific enthalpy “Heat of Vaporization”

3.2 COMBUSTION OF LIQUID FUEL

Like solid fuels, liquid Fuels are also used in the study to identify different the

quality of waste combustible slurries which will be combined with the oils obtained from

the turbine, transformer, automobile and compressor for them to be the base fuel of the

CWSP slurries. The equation below shows the different formulas for the combustion of

liquid fuel based on the specific component

3.1.6. Specific Gravity

141.5 (Eqn.3.9)
API = − 131.5
𝑆.𝐺.

Where:

API – American Petroleum Institute Gravity

𝑆. 𝐺. − Specific Gravity

140 (Eqn.3.10)
BAUME = 𝑆.𝐺. − 130

Where:

BAUME – Hydrometer Scale developed by French Pharmacist Antoine Baume

3.1.7. Calorific Value

For kerosene:

HHV = 18,440 + 40 (API - 10) BTU/lb (Eqn.3.11)

21
 For gas fuels, oil or distillate light oils:

HHV = 18,650 + 40 (API – 10) BTU/lb (Eqn.3.12)

Faragher Marrel and Essax Equation:

HHV = 17,645 + 54 (API) BTU/lb for heavy cracked fuel oil (Eqn.3.13)

Naval Boiler Laboratory Formula: (Eqn.3.14)

HHV = 18,250 + 40 (Be – 10) BTU/lb for all petroleum products.

Bureau of Standard:

HHV = 22,230 – 3,780 (S.G.)2 BTU/lb (Eqn.3.15)

3.1.8. Definition of terms

 Viscosity – the measure of the resistance of oil to flow

 Flash Point – the maximum temperature of which an oil emit vapor that will ignite

 Pour Point – the lowest temperature at which the fuel will flow when it is chilled

without disturbance.

 Fire point – the temperature at which oil burns.

 Ignition Quality – the ability of a fuel to ignite spontaneously

 Humidity - the amount of water vapor present in air

 Volatility – the tendency of a particular substance to vaporized

3.3 MECHANISM OF COAL-WATER FUEL COMBUSTION

In describing the combustion process of coal-water slurry drops, the model of physic-

chemical which consists of independent parallel-serial stages are suggested:

22
  On the drop surface – moisture of evaporation coming from the surface

 Inside the drop surface – heat progress of the drop and moisture evaporation from the

interior of the drop,

See appendix a for Stoichiometry Equations

3.4 PREDICTION OF IGNITION TEMPERATURE: THE EQUATIONS REQUIRED

(ESSENHIGH, MISRA, AND SHAW 1989)

The following equation given are used to formulate the ignition equation which is

dependent on the kinetic reactivity and other parameters. The basic way to formulate the

detailed equation requires the heat loss (𝑄𝐿 ), that is the particle dropped into hot reactive

gas. The generation of this heat is required for the assumptions of the order of reaction

which influences the boundary of dissusion layer. If the total reaction rate (external +

internal contributions) is written as 𝑅𝑠 then,

𝑄𝐺 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑅𝑠 ℎ𝑐 (Eqn.3.16)

𝜆 (Eqn.3.17)
𝑄𝐿 = 2𝐴𝑠 ( ) (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑔 )
𝑑

Where:

𝑄𝐺 − heat generation rate (cal/s)

𝐴𝑠 − total surface area of particle (𝑐𝑚2 )

𝑔
𝑅𝑠 − reaction rate per unit surface area(𝑐𝑚2 −𝑠)

ℎ𝑐 − heat of reaction (cal/g)

𝑄𝐿 − heat loss rate (cal/g)

𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝜆 − thermal conductivity of air (𝑐𝑚2 −𝐾)

𝑑 − particle size (cm)

23
𝑇𝑠 − particle temperature (K)

𝑇𝑔 − gas temperature (K)

24
 CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY

The process that the researches did in performing the experiment in which they test the

ignition of Coal Water Slurries containing Petrochemicals (CWSP). On this chapter, the details on

the whole process is stated, from extracting the coal slurry down to testing the CWSP for ignition

and combustion.

Coal Mining

Crushing of Coals

Washing of Coals

Collection of Waste form Coal

Washing Filter cakes are collected

Mixing CWS with an Additive Liquid Petrochemical (used oil)

Testing an Individual
Fuel Droplet

Testing the Ignition of CWSP

Analyzing the Results from the

Proces

Conclusion of the Test

Figure 4.1. Order of Process of the Experiment

25
4.1 COAL MINING TO COAL SLURRY

The process of turning coal waste in to a usable form of ignition starts form coal

mining. Coal slurry does not come from the final product of the coal, but rather comes

during the process. The coal is washed after being crush which removes any unwanted

particles for the final product of coal. During this process, a great amount of liquid waste

are collected from washing the coals. The liquid waste that was produced from the process

is the coal slurry or coal sludge.

4.2 PERFORMING THE EXPERIMENT

In testing the ignition and combustion of a Coal Water Slurry containing

Petrochemicals (CWSP), a method was used in which it is suitable for this experiment.

Using a miniature junction of a fast response thermocouple (Fig. 4.2.), a small drop of fuel

is place on its miniature junction. They use a software called Tema Automotive to perform

the experiment. In addition to that high-speed filming camera and particle image

velocimetry was also used in this study.

Figure 4.2. Experimental setup: air blower (1), heater(2), fuel droplet(3), fast-response
thermocouple(4), high speed camera(5) and hollow cylinder(6).

26
 The thermocouple junction (Pt/Pt-Rh) used is set-up to have a measurement

ranging from 273 to 1873 K, a systematic error of ±1 K, response time is limited

within 0.1s and a 0.1 mm diameter for the junction. This thermocouple then is

placed in a hollow cylinder combustion chamber made from silica glass with a 0.1

mm inner diameter and 1 m length. Three holes with 9 mm diameter is in the

cylinder wall to measure the temperature of the oxidizer and to contain the

thermocouple along with the fuel droplet inside the hollow cylinder combustion

chamber. The approximate radius of CWSP is 1 mm. In the combustion chamber,

the temperature ranges from 600-100 K while the velocity of the oxidizer flow

ranges from 0.5-3 m/s.

4.2.1 Measurement Variables

The following parameters were measured: temperature (𝑇𝑔 ) and velocity

(𝑣𝑔 ) of the oxidizer flow, temperature at the droplet center (𝑇𝑑 ) initial size (mean

radius 𝑅𝑑 ) of the fuel droplet, ignition delay time (𝜋𝑑 ), burning time (𝜏𝑏 ), and total

burning time (𝜏𝑡 = 𝜏𝑑 + 𝜏𝑏 ). The parameter (𝜏𝑑 ) covers the time from the

beginning of droplet heating (its placing into the combustion chamber) to the

beginning of heterogeneous ignition of the carbon residue (it was ensured that the

inequality (𝑇𝑑 ) 𝑇𝑔 was satisfied and simultaneously the growth rate of (𝑇𝐷 ) was

10 K/s or higher. The parameter (𝜏𝑏 ) is the time from the instant of carbon residue

ignition to its complete burnout it is characterized by deviation of 𝑇𝐷 from the

steady value (as τ →∞) by less than 0.05𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 d (𝑇𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum temperature

of the droplet during its combustion).

27
 A total of 10 experiments was performed and to ensure reasonable

reproducibility of results, it is conducted with the an identical conditions. The errors

of measurement tools used in the present work are listed in Table 4.1.

Table 4. 1 Measurement Variables

Measured physical variable Measurement tool Systematic error

Thermoelectric transducers
±3 K,
Oxidizer temperature, 𝑇𝑔 (chromel-Alumel
response time within 10 s
thermocouples)

Oxidizer flow velocity, 𝑉𝑔 UnionTest AN10 anemometer ± 3%

Volume concentration of
Testo 340 gas analyzer ± 0.2%
oxygen in air

Phantom Miro M310 high

Droplet radius, 𝑅𝑑 speed camera, Tema ≤ 4%
Automotive software

Temperature at the droplet Thermoelectric converter ±1 K,

center, 𝜏𝑔 (Pt/Pt-Rh thermocouple) response time within 0.1 s

Thermoelectric converter ±1 K,
(Pt/Pt-Rh thermocouple) response time within 0.1 s

Ignition delay time, 𝜏𝑑 Phantom Miro M310 high

speed camera, Tema ≤ 4%
Automotive software

Phantom Miro M310 high

Total burning time, tt speed camera, Tema ≤ 4%
Automotive software

A total of 10 experiments was done in which the condition for every experiment

was identical throughout the process. This will ensure that the result will be fair and errors

will be minimize. In the determining the systematic errors during the experiment, the

process of D.O. Glushkov et al. (2016) was used.

28
4.3 COMPONENTS OF COAL WATER SLURRY CONTAINING PETROCHEMICALS

(CWSP)

4.3.1 Combustible Components

The run of mine coal with addition of specialized reagents was washed by

water and was separated to the concentrate and waste during flotation. Used water

was moved in special reservoirs where coal particles are placed. Pumped water

suspension was directed to a screw press to displace the water resulting for a wet

residue. This wet residue is composed of filter cake and it was mix with water, coal

particles and mineral components. Approximately 100 μm is the size of the solid

particles found in the filter cakes.

Filter cakes of different coal types is the main component in CWSP that

makes it ignite and combust, this consist of gas coals, coking, non-baking, low

caking and lastly fat flame. Tables 4.2 and 4.3 shows the results from the proximate

and elemental analysis of the experiment.

Table 4. 2 Wet filter cake properties

Coal filter cake Mass fraction of water, % Heat of combustion, MJ/kg

Coking coal 43.5 14.03

Flame coal 56.8 8.31

Gas coal 53.0 10.41

Low-caking coal 37.9 9.46

Non-baking coal 39.1 16.42

Fat coal 37.9 12.91

29
 Table 4. 3 Dry filter cake properties
Proximate analysis Elemental composition, %
(daf)
Coal filter cake Heat of
Ash Volatiles, %
combustion, C H O+ N+ S
content, % (daf)
MJ/kg

Coking coal 26.46 23.08 24.83 87.20 5.090 7.53

Flame coal 36.99 41.47 19.24 73.27 4.904 21.83

Gas coal 33.82 43.11 22.16 75.12 4.638 20.24

Low-caking coal 50.89 30.16 15.23 87.47 5.039 7.36

Non-baking coal 21.20 16.09 26.92 90.13 4.255 5.52

Fat coal 57.67 45.24 20.9 73.16 4.999 21.84

4.3.2 Liquid Fuel

On this study, the second component of Coal Water Slurry containing

Petrochemicals CWSP is the liquid fuel. Waste from oil origin was mostly used

during the testing. Around 5 to 15% of liquid fuel is part of the component in fuel

slurry. Listed on Table 4.4 are the properties of different petrochemical.

To ensure the that the fuel components meet the required mixture

proportions, ViBRA HT 84RCE electronic analytical scales did the preliminary

weighing of the fuel. In preparing the fuel, they used Homogenizer MPW-302 for

the homogenization of the fuel. For 8-10 minutes, the 2 components were mixed

0.25 liters in volume of a working glass in accordance to D.O. Gluskov et al. (2016)

30
 Table 4. 2 Liquid petrochemicals
Density
Ash Flash Ignition Heat of
at 293 Humidity,
Sample content temperature, temperature, combustion
K, %
,% K K , MJ/kg
kg/m3

Used
871 0.28 0.78 405 491 44.1
automobile oil

Used turbine oil 868 ___ 0.03 448 466 45.1

Used
877 ___ ___ 421 442 44.9
transformer oil

Used
887 ___ 0.023 458 502 45.2
compressor oil

Back fuel oil 1000 6.12 4.06 438 513 39.2

31
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 RESULT OF THE IGNITION AND COMBUSTION

There is a common basis in the ignition processes and combustion of the composite

liquid fuel droplets. Nonetheless, there are specific where they can be characterized such

as dispersion of solid particle, effects of boiling and micro-explosions. These features

depend on different concentration and properties of each components. Frames of ignition

and combustion of CWSP droplets are shown in Fig. 5.1. The main stages in the process

ignition of CWSP droplet consist of: heating of the inactive fuel, the subsurface layer

moisture evaporation, liquid product of oil evaporation, organic part of the coal in

subsurface layer of the droplet thermal decomposition, mixture formation of air that has

combustible gases just about the droplet, mixture of air gas-phase ignition, vapors and

volatiles of petrochemicals, carbon residue heating, heterogeneous combustion, and

subsequent ignition. The development of physical and mathematical models of the

processes of interest was based from this analysis. In general, there were similar phases

that have been found in this study. However, for different CWSP compositions consisting

of different concentrations and properties of the components, there were some differences

in the time intervals. Compared to a previous investigation (Glushkov D.O. et al.,

2016), the components used in this study was found more versatile.

In the combustion chamber, the heating started when the composite liquid fuel

droplet was placed. At this stage, from the frame of reference of the oxidation reaction, is

32
considered as the inertial period. There is a rapid evaporation from the surface of the droplet

when it is heated that comes with an energy absorption of the medium gas ambient. The

Fig. 5.1.a. shows the dispersion of particles in which transformation of the surface droplet,

particle size change, and the transition of the droplet from glossy to opaque surface has

been identified through its attributes. Depending on the component of fuels’ composition,

characteristics are roughly expressed. Thermal decomposition processes of coal particles

and turbine oil evaporation starts if the water from the outer layer of the droplet evaporates.

It should be considered that the composite liquid fuel droplet processes does not begin at

the same time but begins layer-by-layer. Also, due to the heat sink within the deep layers

of the fuel droplet, the processes in the upper layers of the droplet reduced a bit keeping

the coal mass, oil product and water non-decomposed. As shown in Fig. 5.1.b, at this

temperature when specific amount is achieved in the vapors of turbine oil and fuel-product

concentrations of thermal decomposition, the ignition of gas phase occurs. Additional

heating of the fuels’ entire mass specifically at the surface is possible due to the

combustible mixture burnout near the fuel. Heterogenous ignition occurs at the solid part

of the fuel when the fuel is heated enough at a certain temperature. Consequent

heterogeneous ignition of the carbon deposit is generally joined by incomplete scattering

of a few particles and pieces and is then finalized through carbon burnout and ash residue

buildup.

33
 Figure 5.1. CWSP droplets Ignition and Combustion: (a) gas phase and the combustion of fuel
and (b)combustion of the fuel (heterogenous).

5.2 RESULTS OF THE TEMPERATURE OF CWSP DROPLETS WITH DIFFERENT

FILTER CAKES

The temperature behavior of the CWSP droplets in terms of their heating course are

illustrated as shown in Fig. 5.2, where the curve segments that has a monotonic temperature

increase on the air that was injected and heated are dependent to the endothermic processes,

namely the liquid evaporation of the components and the coal thermal decomposition, and

the other segment that shows the radical increase in the temperature at the center droplet

of the medium ambient gas which dependent on the volatiles ignition that some coke

residue can be combusted.

34
 Figure 5.2. Period evolution of temperature at the CWSP droplets centers containing different
types of filter cakes (90%) and used turbine oil (10%) (Rd ≈ 1 mm, Tg ≈ 900 K, and vg ≈ 1.5)

5.3 RESULTS OF CALCULATED HEAT COMBUSTION OF CWSP

As found in the previous investigation (Glushkov D.O. et al., 2016), in accordance

with the mass fractions in the fuel composition, the sum of the heat combustion of all the

components is equivalent to the heat of CWSP combustion. From Table 4.2, results of

samples of CWSP combustion calculated heats based on different types of filter cakes and

compressor oils is shown. From Table 4.2, it can be observed that combustion of CWSP

sampled based on filter cakes (Table 4.2) is lesser than that of the heat of combustion of

slurries with the component of liquid fuel. This is because of high calorific capacity of

petrochemicals. Noticeably, the oil product in the CWSP composition having an increase

in the mass fraction also increase the heat in combustion. But when the mass fraction

increases for about 20% or more in oil-based components, it will contradict the aspect of

environmental friendliness. Basically because, having high fraction of petrochemicals in

35
 case of burning CWSP will boost anthropogenic emissions. (Dmitrienko M.A. et al., 2017;

Nyashina G.S. et al., 2017). To intensify the process of ignition and increase calorific

capability of CWSP samples waste, it should be considered to replace petrochemicals. The

said latter can be replaced by vegetable origin additives (i.e. lumbering wastes, charcoal,

vegetable oils, and lignites). Replacing them will increase the calorific capability of CWSP

samples waste and intensify the process of ignition. (Vershinina K.Y. et al., 2017;

Kuznetsov G.V. et al., 2016; Valiullin T.R. et al., 2017; Vershinina K.Y. et al., 2016).

Table 5. 1 Heat combustion of coal water slurry containing petrochemicals CWS (Mixture of
90% :10% wet filter cake to used oil)
Coal filter cakes Heat of combustion,
MJ/kg

Coking coal 17.15

Flame coal 11.99

Gas coal 13.89

Low-caking coal 13.03

Non-baking coal 19.29

Fat coal 16.14

In Tables 5.2 and Figs. 5.2-5.4 shows the characteristics summary of the ignition

of waste-based fuel slurries. In terms of reducing the cost of initiation of CWSP

combustion, using filter cakes containing low levels of ash and volatiles of high

concentration have much to offer. Thus, values for slurries having different compositions

have greater time of ignition delay and minimum temperature of ignition than the fuel

based on such components. (Table 5.2, Fig. 5.3.) An example is that, for CWSP samples

having different fraction of volatiles have at least 23% ignition times delay. However,

36
about 50% filter cakes are reached with the use of components having high levels of ash

making results in a costlier CWSP combustion. Particularly, the ignition characteristics of

the CWSP samples based on low-caking and fat coals having an increase in fraction of

mineral components in the fuel won’t be improved and will lead to ignition suppression.

This is because the initial fraction of moisture have a low amount while the amount of

volatiles found in the ashless parts of filter cakes (low-caking and fat coals) is larger. In

Table 5.2 it is shown that ambient gas medium at lower temperature is assisted in fuel

ignition by using components of coal with low levels of ash and large fraction of volatiles.

If the main component of a filter cake has more than 50% humidity, its ignition delay

increases. This is because during the ignition in CWSP, water evaporation is the most

energy-consuming endothermic process equivalent to 2MJ/kg. In addition, the humidity

increases when combustible mass’ fraction decreases.

It should be moreover noticed that water vapor near the droplet and inside the vapor

of the underground layer anticipates fluid combustible products evaporation and organic

part of the coal mass thermal decomposition which decelerates the warming of the fuel.

For instance, at 870 K the period delay of the ignition of CWSP test is dependent on the

gas coal filter cake with high humidity is more prominent nearly by 16% than the

comparing parameter of the CWSP test dependent on the coking coal filter cake.

For the first estimation, in Fig. 5.3, the curves have almost the same ignition delay

times in the compositions of CWSP from wastes coming from the different types of

washing coals. But, there is greater ignition delay measured for fuels in terms of volatiles

with lower fraction and ash with higher levels. 23 percent is the maximum difference of

37
the fuels’ ignition time delay which are based on filter cakes consisting of maximum and

minimum fractions of ashes.

The intensification of the chemical and phase transformations of CWSP droplets

show to have dependence on the increasing temperature, which were obtained from the

following factors: the contents of oil and moisture evaporation, volatiles yielded, coal and

vapor petrochemical gas phase thermal decomposition oxidations, and carbon burning.

Thus, 35-45% shorter ignition delay time coke residue combustion was produced for an

interval of increase in temperature ranging from 880-1170 K, noting the observability of

the delay periods in the ignition of the sample CWSP that has different composition became

less when the combustion chamber temperature increases with a droplet size to be decrease.

The delay periods of igniting the CWSP droplets that was based on the sludge that

was obtained through coal washing as a function of the CWSP combustion chamber

temperature, varying the its composition and liquid fuel constituents, is shown in Fig. 5.4

where it is observable that the differences compared of the low temperatures are within the

range of 720 - 820 K. The addition of the oils obtained from the turbine and transformer

clearly on the CWSP shows the decrease in the delay period of the ignition compared with

the adding black fuel oils because it is less volatile petrochemical that they tend to

evaporate and ignite at a low temperature of the oxidizer. Thus, it is significant to determine

the differences in the ignition delays of both oils since from the experiment, it shows that

in the range of 2-6 seconds the temperature ranges from 720 - 980 K in the oxidizer, which

guarantees the ignition of the CWSP at a low flash temperature with low evaporation on

the waste having presence of the different oils (Fig. 5.5). These statements is specifically

from the wastes obtained from washing of coals that has an ash content higher compared

38
with coal dust which contains a less amount of volatile affecting the period of combustion

of the coke residue. The importance of addition of liquid fuels on samples of CWSP that

has a colad dust, such as lignite, can increase the delay period and minimum temperature

of ignition. However, in every case, adding petrochemicals or oils with high calorific

capacity will drastically increase the combustion of the prepared waste (slurry) but it can

also change the CWSP characteristics of ignition if the concentration of the additives has

been increased, particularly the change of turbine oil fraction in the CWSP (from coking

coal filter cake) composition from 0% to 15% declares the decrease in the ignition

temperature to be minimum at 25 to 30K and delay period from about 25% to 35% as

shown in Fig. 5.6.

Analysing the efficiency of energy, cost and other rheological aspects of the

examined composition of fuels are estimated to be optimal based on the aspects of

application, since the results shows that ensuring the humidity from within 40 to 50% of

both CWS and CWSP wastes are attained to satisfy the conditions of transportation and

spraying. Therefore, with using filter cakes for the fuel can also be optimal since the

flotation humidity of the sludge, from the factory of coal washing, is in between 40 to 50%,

and also shows the stability with the presence of flocculants. The filter cakes (slurries) at

the span of 5 days is said to be unarranged which implies that inserting additional stabilizers

is unnecessary for the slurry.

39
 Figure 5.3. Graph of ignition delay time CWSP and temperature for filter cakes.

Figure 5.4. Graph of ignition delay time CWSP and temperature for different liquid fuel; 1)
turbine oil, 2)black fuel oil, 3)compressor oil and 4)transformer oil (all these oils are used oils)

40
Figure 5.5. Min. temperature of ignition of a 1mm diameter droplet of CWSP with a ratio of 90%
filter cake and 10% fuel;1) black fuel oil, 2)transformer oil, 3)automobile oil(all these oils are
used oils)

Figure 5.6. CWSP a)ignition and b)ignition time delay of droplets cantaining filter cake and
turbine oil which has been mixed.

41
Table 5.2 Stable ignition of 1 droplet of CWSP with a ratio of 90% filter cake and 10% used
turbined oil under min. temperature.
Coal filter cakes Ignition
temperature, K

Coking coal 840

Flame coal 780

Gas coal 845

Low-caking coal 900

Non-baking coal 860

Fat coal 800

It is viable to vary the fraction of mass of the liquid fuel component with interval

ranging from 5-15%, in which the characteristics of CWSP droplets ignition can be altered

in a large extent if there is an addition of 10% liquid fuel component. The increase of the

concentrations of the oil and petrochemicals products to about 20% and above don’t offer

any analytical reasons to be prospected.

In terms of cost efficiency, using the flotation wastes of coal washing is of particular

interest in this study for preparing CWSP slurries since it is not expensive. For the

technological cycle, the part of drying fragmentation of solid combustible component

which is energy consuming can be removed. Particularly, since the filter cakes’ initial

granulometric composition have an average of 80-150 μm. Take note that since the fuel

used is a water-based suspension instead of fire hazardous dry coal dust, the usage of the

filter cakes (wet wastes) in coal washing reduces the hazards in ignition during

transportation, storage and unloading. An inexpensive transportation is an advantage.

42
 With the combined efficient utilization of waste that came from coal washing to the

production of power through power industry, shows the attractiveness of both CWS and

CWSP slurries in environmental aspects. These aspects includes the reduction of emissions

of pollutant oxides from combustion of fuel suspension with comparison the the due to

temperature reduction in the region combustion of coal dust, and the water vapor ability in

the absorption of sulfur and nitrogen oxides (Osintsev, 2012).

The experimented waste (slurries) was of interest with comes to energy production

in power industry and engineering since it has energy potential and it is an inexpensive

alternatives to traditional based fuels that were combusted on the power plants. The best

composition of CWSP for decreasing the temperature and delay periods of ignition is based

on coking of filter cakes, flame, and the addition of oils that came from the transformer,

turbine and compressor within 10 wt.%.

43
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 CONCLUSION

Results showed the efficiency of the ignition of waste products (sludge) such as

those obtained in coal washing, oil wastes, and the emulsion of water and oil; it can be

concluded that it is viable to use a large amount of the said products in power engineering

and industry, with the importance of balancing the components of the specific liquid fuels

having different compositions and compounds.

Additives are necessary in order to augment the heat and accentuate ignition for

combustion of the slurry for an expansive application of the waste-based CWSP

compositions. Usage of filter cakes and used oils in mixtures with combustible components

that are solid will compliment the additives in such that it will decrease both the ignition

temperature and ignition delay period of the CWSP.

The devices that were using liquid fuels; namely the turbine, transformer,

automobile and compressor oils, have been investigated to have increased both the heat

and temperature of combustion of the fuel waste, hence, it decreases both the ignition

temperature and ignition delay period of the CWSP.

Lastly, the results identify methods on how to specify the ignition qualities

involved in making waste (obtained from washing) a combustible component for different

applications, thus, the experimental processes made was typically similar to the boiler

temperature in the power industry based on the minimum temperatures of ignition.

Furthermore, the delay periods of ignition in furnace will not exceed the values acquired

44
 since there are different factors to be varied when composite liquid fuels are burned in the

furnace such as the flow of the gas in the closed volume in which contributes to the

elevation of the convection heat flux, and the fuel aerosol interaction with each other.

6.2 RECOMMENDATION

In large-scale application of the waste-based CWSP composition, it must contain

additives that will intensify the ignition process of the sludge and should also include base

oils and filter cakes mixed with specified solid combustible components, in order to have

a shorter delay period of ignition, thus, having low contents of ash.

45
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49
 APPENDIX A. STOICHIOMETRY EQUATIONS

Process of water evaporation:

𝐻2 𝑂 = {𝐻2 𝑂}

Volatile substances release:

𝐶𝑂 = {𝐶𝑂}

𝐶𝑂2 = {𝐶𝑂2 }

𝐶𝐻4 = {𝐶𝐻4 }

𝐻2 = {𝐻2 }

𝑁2 𝑂 = {𝑁2 }

Combustible gaseous component escaping which reacts with air oxygen:

1
{𝐶𝑂} + {𝑂2 } = {𝐶𝑂2 }
2

1
𝐻2 + {𝑂2 } = {𝐻2 𝑂}
2

{𝐶𝐻4 } + 2{𝑂2 } = {𝐶𝑂2 } + +2{𝐻2 𝑂}

These reactions describe the combustion:

1
𝐶 + 2 {𝑂2 } = {𝐶𝑂}

𝐶 + {𝐻2 𝑂} = {𝐶𝑂} + {𝐻2 }

𝐶 + {𝑂2 } = {𝐶𝑂2 }

𝐶 + {𝐶02 } = 2{𝐶𝑂}

50
 APPENDIX B. GANTT CHART

Gantt Chart

Start Date

Testing the best compositions

Combsution Testing

Ignition Testing

Start of Experimental Process

Collecting Used Oil

Collection of CWS

Seperation of run-of-mine coal

Coal Washing

Coal Mining

Nov-16 Jan-17 Mar-17 Apr-17 Jun-17 Aug-17 Sep-17

Start Date

51